Arab Open University

Faculty of Computer Studies

MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

9. Relations
 Binary Relations
Definition: A binary relation R from a set A to a set B is a
subset R ⊆ A×B.
Example:
– Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {a, b}.
– R = {(0, a), (0, b), (1,a), (2, b)} is a relation from A to B.
– We can represent relations from a set A to a set B
graphically or using a table:

Relations are more general than

functions. A function is a relation
where exactly one element of B is
related to each element of A.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Binary Relations on a Set

Definition: A binary relation R on a set A is a subset of A×A

or a relation from A to A.

Example:
– Suppose that A = {a, b, c}. Then R = {(a, a),(a, b), (a,
c)} is a relation on A.
– Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The ordered pairs in the relation
R = {(a, b) | a divides b} are (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),
(2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), and (4, 4).

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Relations can be Represented by:
Let A be the set {1, 2, 3, 4} for which ordered pairs are in the
relation R = {(a, b) | a divides b}.

A- Roaster Notation: List of ordered pairs:

R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 4)}

B- Set builder notation: 1 1

R = {(a, b) : a divides b}
2 2
C- Directed Graph: 3 3
1 2 3 4 4 4
Domain of R

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Relations can be Represented by:

D- Table (Matrix):
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 4)}

R 1 2 3 4
1 × × × × 1 1 1 1
2 × ×
0 1 0 1
 
3 × 0 0 1 0
4 ×  
0 0 0 1

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Examples

Consider the relations on A = {-1, 0, 1, 2},

R1 = {(a, b) | a < b}
R2 = {(a, b) | a = b or a = -b}
R3 = {(a, b) | 0 ≤ a + b ≤ 1}

R1 = {(-1, 0), (-1, 1), (-1, 2), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 2)}
R2 = {(-1, -1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (-1, 1), (1, -1)}
R3 = {(-1, 1), (1, -1), (-1, 2), (2, -1), (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0)}

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Question

How many relations are there on a set with n elements?

Answer:
1. A relation on set A is a subset from A × A.
2. A has n elements so A × A has n2 elements.
3. Number of subsets for n2 elements is 2^(n2), thus there
n2
are 2 relations on a set with n elements.

32
e.g. If S = {a, b, c}, there are 2  2 9  512 relations.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Relations on a Set

• The identity relation IA on a set A is the set

{(a, a) | a  A}.

e.g. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4},

then IA = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Properties of Relations
1. Reflexivity and Irreflexivity
• A relation R on A is reflexive if (a, a)  R for every
element a  A.
e.g. Consider the following relations on {1, 2, 3, 4}
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 4)},
is Not Reflexive.
R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}, is Reflexive.
• A relation R on A is irreflexive if for every element a 
A, (a, a)  R.
R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 4), (4, 1)},
is Not Irreflexive because (1, 1)  R and Not Reflexive
Note: “irreflexive” ≠ “not reflexive”.
Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics
 Reflexivity and Irreflexivity
Example:
The following relations on the integers are reflexive:
R1 = {(a, b) | a ≤ b}, If A = ∅ then the empty relation
R3 = {(a, b) | a = b or a = −b}, is reflexive vacuously. That is
the empty relation on an empty
R3 = {(a, b) | a = b}. set is reflexive!

The following relations are not reflexive:

R4 = {(a, b) | a > b} (note that 3 ≯ 3),
R5 = {(a, b) | a = b + 1} (note that 3 ≠ 3 + 1),
R6 = {(a, b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that 4 + 4 ≰ 3).

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 2. Symmetry and Antisymmetry
• A binary relation R on A is symmetric if
(a, b)  R ↔ (b, a)  R, where a, b  A.
e.g. Consider the following relations on {1, 2, 3, 4}
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)},
is Symmetric.

• A binary relation R on A is antisymmetric if

(a, b)  R → (b, a)  R.
That is, if (a, b)  R  (b, a)  R → a = b.
R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4)},
is Antisymmetric
Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics
 Symmetric
Example:
The following relations on the integers are symmetric:
R1 = {(a, b) | a = b or a = −b},
R2 = {(a, b) | a = b},
R3 = {(a, b) | a + b ≤ 3}

The following are not symmetric:

R4 = {(a, b) | a ≤ b} (note that 3 ≤ 4, but 4 ≰ 3),
R5 = {(a, b) | a > b} (note that 4 > 3, but 3 ≯ 4),
R6 = {(a, b) | a = b + 1} (note that 4 = 3 + 1, but 3 ≠ 4 + 1).

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Antisymmetric
Example:
The following relations on the integers are antisymmetric:
R1 = {(a, b) | a ≤ b},
R2 = {(a, b) | a > b},
R3 = {(a, b) | a = b},
R4 = {(a, b) | a = b + 1}.
The following relations are not antisymmetric:
R5 = {(a, b) | a = b or a = −b} (note that both (1, −1) and
(−1, 1) belong to R5),
R6 = {(a, b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (1, 2) and (2, 1)
belong to R6).
Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics
 Examples

Let A = {1, 2, 3}.

Not reflexive, not irreflexive, not

R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 1), (1, 3)}
symmetric, not antisymmetric
Not reflexive, not irreflexive, not
R2 = {(2, 2), (1, 3), (3, 2)}
symmetric, antisymmetric
Reflexive, not irreflexive,
R3 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
symmetric, antisymmetric
Not reflexive, irreflexive, not
R4 = {(2, 3)}
symmetric, antisymmetric

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 3. Transitivity
A relation R is said to be transitive if and only if (for all a,
b, c),
(a, b)  R  (b, c)  R → (a, c)  R.

e.g. Let A = {1, 2}.

R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)} is transitive.
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)} is not transitive, (2, 2) R2.
R3 = {(3, 4)} is transitive.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Transitive
Example:
The following relations on the integers are transitive:
R1 = {(a, b) | a ≤ b},
R2 = {(a, b) | a > b},
R3 = {(a, b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a, b) | a = b}.
The following are not transitive:
R5 = {(a, b) | a = b + 1} (note that both (4, 3) and (3, 2)
belong to R5, but not (4, 2)),
R6 = {(a, b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (2, 1) and (1, 2)
belong to R6, but not (2, 2)).

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Special Cases

Empty set { }
Irreflexive, transitive, symmetric, antisymmetric.

Universal set U
Reflexive, transitive, symmetric.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Combining Relations

Let A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {1, 2, 3, 4},

R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)},
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)}, then
R1  R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)}
R1  R2 = {(1, 1)}
R1 − R2 = {(2, 2), (3, 3)}

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Composite Relations

If (a, c) is in R1 and (c, b) is in R2 then (a, b) is in R2◦R1 .

e.g. R is the relation from {1, 2, 3} to {1, 2, 3, 4}

R = {(1, 1), (1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 4)}.
S is the relation from {1, 2, 3, 4} to {0, 1, 2}
S = {(1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1)}.
S◦R = {(1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 1)}.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Powers

Let R be a relation on the set A. the power Rn, n = 1, 2, 3,

… are defined by
R1 = R and Rn = Rn -1◦R

e.g. Let R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3)}. Find
R2 = R◦R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 2)}
R3 = R2◦R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1)}

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Representing Relations

• Some special ways to represent binary relations:

– With a zero-one matrix.
– With a directed graph.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Using Zero-One Matrices

• To represent a relation R by a matrix MR = [mij ], let mij =

1 if (ai , bj)  R, otherwise 0.
e.g., Joe likes Susan and Mary, Fred likes Mary, and
Mark likes Sally.
• The 0-1 matrix representation of that relation:

Susan Mary Sally

Joe  1 1 0 
Fred  0 1 0 
Mark  0 0 1 

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example

Let A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {1, 2} , R : A → B such that:

R = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2)} then the matrix for R is:
1 2
1 0 0  0 0 
   
2 1 0
  MR  1 0
 
3 1 1  1 1

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Zero-One Reflexive, Symmetric
The terms: Reflexive, non-reflexive, irreflexive,
symmetric and antisymmetric.
– These relation characteristics are very easy to
recognize by inspection of the zero-one matrix.

1 any-  0 any-   1   0 
 1 thing   0 thing  1 0  1 0 1 
      
 1   0     1 
 any-   thing
any-     
 thing 1  0  0   0 
Reflexive: Irreflexive: Symmetric: Antisymmetric:
all 1’s on diagonal all 0’s on diagonal all identical all 1’s are across
across diagonal from 0’s

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example

Is R reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric?

1 1 0

M R  1 1 1  
0 1 1 
Reflexive, symmetric, not antisymmetric

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Operations

1- Union and the Intersection

The Boolean operations join  and meet  can be used
to find the matrices representing the union and the
intersection of two relations as
M R1  R2  M R1  M R2
M R1  R2  M R1  M R2

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example
Suppose R1 and R2 are relations on a set A which are
represented by the matrices:
1 0 1  1 0 1 
M R1  1 0 0 and M R2  0 1 1 
0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1
M R1  R2  M R1  M R2  1 1 1,
1 1 0 
1 0 1 
M R1  R2  M R1  M R2  0 0 0.
0 0 0

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Operations

2- Composite
Suppose that R : A → B, S : B → C (Boolean Product)
MS○R = MR ⊙ MS

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example

Let
1 0 1 0 1 0 
M R  1 1 0 and M S  0 0 1
   
0 0 0 1 0 1
Find the matrix of S◦R?
1 1 1
M S  R  M R M S  0 1 1 
0 0 0

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Operations

3- Power
M Rn  M [n ]
R

 R 2  R  R,
MR  M 2
[ 2]
R .
 R  R  R,
3 2

M R  M R[ 3] .
3

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example

Find the matrix that represents R2 where the matrix

representing R is:

0 1 0  0 1 1
If M R  0 1 1  then MR  M R[ 2 ]  1 1 1.
  2
 
1 0 0 0 1 0 

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Using Directed Graphs
A directed graph or digraph G = (VG , EG) is a set VG of
vertices (nodes) with a set EG  VG ×VG of edges (arcs
or links). Visually represented using dots for nodes, and
arrows for edges. Notice that a relation R : A ↔ B can be
represented as a graph GR = (VG = A  B, EG = R).

MR Edge set EG
(blue arrows)
Susan Mary Sally GR
Joe  1 1 0  Joe Susan
Fred  0 1 0  Fred Mary
Mark  0 0 1  Mark Sally

Node set VG (black dots)

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Digraph Reflexive, Symmetric
It is extremely easy to recognize the reflexive, irreflexive,
symmetric, antisymmetric properties by graph inspection.

 

 
     
Reflexive: Irreflexive: Symmetric: Antisymmetric:
Every node No node Every link is No link is
has a self-loop links to itself bidirectional bidirectional
Not symmetric, non-antisymmetric Non-reflexive, non-irreflexive

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Closures of Relations

• For any property X, the “X closure” of a set A is defined

as the “smallest” superset of A that has the given
property.
• The reflexive closure of a relation R on A is obtained
by adding (a, a) to R for each a  A not already in R .
i.e. It is R  IA .

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example 1

The relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 2)} on the set A =
{1, 2, 3} is not reflexive. How can you produce a reflexive
relation containing R that is as small as possible?

Answer:
By adding (2, 2) and (3, 3) so the reflexive closure of R
is:
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example 2

What is the reflexive closure of the relation:

R = {(a ,b) | a < b} on the set of integers?
Answer:

The reflexive closure of R is:

{(a, b) | a < b}  {(a, a) | a  Z} = {(a, b) | a ≤ b}.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Symmetric Closure

The symmetric closure of R is obtained by adding (b, a)

to R for each (a, b) in R.

i.e. It is R  R −1 .

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example 1

The relation {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (3, 1), (2, 3), (3,2)} on
the set {1, 2, 3} is not symmetric. How can we produce a
symmetric relation that is as small as possible and
contains R ?

Answer:
By adding (2, 1) and (1, 3) so the symmetric closure of
R is:
{(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (3, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3)}.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example 2

What is the symmetric closure of the relation:

R = {(a, b) | a > b} on the set of positive integers?

Answer:
The Symmetric Closure of R is:

{(a, b) | a > b}  {(b, a) | a > b} = {(a, b) | a ≠ b}.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Transitive Closure

The transitive closure or connectivity relation of R is

obtained by repeatedly adding (a, c) to R for each (a, b), (b,
c) in R.
– i.e. It is *
R 
n
R
n Z 
– Or in term of zero-one matrices:

M R*  M R  M R[ 2]    M R[ n] .

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example 1

e.g. R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (2,1), (3, 2)} on the set

A = {1, 2, 3}
• R* = R  R2  R3

• R2 = R o R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (3,1)}

• R3 = R2 o R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (2,1), (2, 2), (3, 2)}

• R* = {(1,1), (1, 2), (2,1), (3, 2), (2, 2), (3,1)}

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example 2

Find MR* for

1 0 1 

M R  0 1 0  
1 1 0 
1 1 1
M R*  M R  M R[ 2]  M R[3] 
 0 1 0  
1 1 1 

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Equivalence Relations

An equivalence relation on a set A is simply any binary

relation on A that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Equivalence Relations

Example 1: Show that a relation on the set of all strings

R = {(a, b) | len(a) = len(b)},
len(a) means the length of string a, is an equivalence
relation.

R is reflexive: Since len(a) = len(a)  a R a for all a.

R is symmetric: If a R b then len(a) = len(b)  len(b) = len(a)
 b R a.
R is transitive: If a R b and b R c, then len(a) = len(b) and
len(b) = len(c), therefore, len(a) = len(c), means a R c.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Equivalence Relations

Example 2: Show that a relation on the set of real numbers

R = {(a, b) | a – b is an integer}.
is an equivalence relation.

R is reflexive: Since a – a = 0 is an integer  a R a for all a.

R is symmetric: If a R b then whenever a – b is an integer 
b – a is also an integer  b R a.
R is transitive: If a R b and b R c then a – b and b – c are
integers, therefore, a – b + b – c = a – c is also an integer,
which means a R c.

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 Equivalence Relations
Example 3: Let R : Z  Z. Show that
R = {(a, b) | a ≡ b (mod m)}, m > 1
is an equivalence relation.

a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if m divides a – b

R is reflexive: m divides a – a = 0, then a ≡ a (mod m)  a R
a for all a.
R is symmetric: If a R b, then m divides a – b, therefore m
divides –(a – b) = b – a  b R a.
R is transitive: If a R b and b R c, then m divides both a – b
and b – c, therefore m divides their sum (a – b) + (b – c) =
a – c  a R c.

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 Equivalence Relations
Example 4: Let R be a relation on Z defined as follows:
a R b if and only if 5 | (a2 – b2).
Show that R is an equivalence relation.

R is reflexive: a2 – a2 = 0 = 0×5  5 | (a2 – a2)  a R a.

R is symmetric: If a R b  5 | (a2 – b2)  a2 – b2 = m×5, m 
Z  b2 – a2 = (-m)×5  5 | (b2 – a2)  b R a.
R is transitive: Suppose that a R b  5 | (a2 – b2)  a2 – b2 =
m×5, m  Z and b R c  5 | (b2 – c2)  b2 – c2 = k×5, k 
Z . Now (a2 – b2) + (b2 – c2) = (a2 – c2) =(m + k)×5  5 |
(a2 – c2)  a R c.

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 Equivalence Classes

• Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set of

all elements that are related to an element a of A is
called the equivalence class of a.
• The equivalence class of a with respect to R is denoted
by [a]R . When only one relation is under consideration,
we can delete the subscript R and write [a] for this
equivalence class.
[a]R = {s | (a, s)  R }.

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 Equivalence Classes
Example: What are the equivalence classes of 0 and 1 for
congruence modulo 4?
Solution:
The equivalence class of 0 contains all integers a such
that a ≡ 0 (mod 4). The integers in this class are those
divisible by 4. Hence, the equivalence class of 0 for this
relation is
[0]4 = { . . . , -8, -4, 0, 4, 8 , . . . } .
The equivalence class of 1 contains all the integers a
such that a ≡ 1 (mod 4). The integers in this class are
those that have a remainder of 1 when divided by 4.
Hence, the equivalence class of 1 for this relation is
[1]4 = { . . . , -7, -3, 1, 5, 9, . . . } .

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 Equivalence Classes and Partitions
• A partition of a set S is a collection of disjoint nonempty
subsets of S that have S as their union. In other words,
the collection of subsets Ai , i  I (where I is an index
set) forms a partition of S if and only if

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 Equivalence Classes and Partitions
Example: What are the sets in the partition of the integers
arising from congruence modulo 4?

Solution: There are four congruence classes, corresponding

to [0]4, [1]4, [2]4, and [3]4 . They are the sets
[0]4 = { . . . , -8, -4, 0, 4, 8, . . . } ,
[1]4 = { . . . , -7, -3, 1, 5, 9, . . . } ,
[2]4 = { . . . , -6, -2, 2, 6, 10, . . . } ,
[3]4 = { . . . , -5, -1, 3, 7, 11, . . . } .
These congruence classes are disjoint, and every integer
is in exactly one of them. In other words, these
congruence classes form a partition.
Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics
 Partial Orderings

• A relation R on a set S is called a partial ordering or

partial order if it is reflexive, antisymmetric, and
transitive.
• A set S together with a partial ordering R is called a
partially ordered set, or poset, and is denoted by (S,
R). Members of S are called elements of the poset.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Partial Orderings
Example 1:
Show that the "greater than or equal" relation ( ≥ ) is a
partial ordering on the set of integers.
Solution:
• a ≥ a for every integer a, ≥ is reflexive.
• If a ≥ b and b ≥ a, then a = b. Hence, ≥ is
antisymmetric.
• Finally, ≥ is transitive because a ≥ b and b ≥ c imply
that a ≥ c.
It follows that ≥ is a partial ordering on the set of integers
and (Z, ≥) is a poset.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Partial Orderings

Example 2:
Show that the divisibility relation “|“ is a partial ordering
on the set of positive integers Z+.
Solution:
• a | a for every positive integer a, | is reflexive.
• If a | b and b | a, then a = b, | is antisymmetric.
• Finally, | is transitive because a | b and b | c imply that a
| c.
We see that (Z+ , |) is a poset.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Partial Orderings

Example 3:
Show that the inclusion relation (⊆) is a partial ordering on
the power set of a set S.
Solution:
• Reflexivity: A ⊆ A whenever A is a subset of S.
• Antisymmetry: If A and B are subsets of S with A ⊆ B
and B ⊆ A, then A = B.
• Transitivity: If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Definition

The elements a and b of a poset (S, ≼) are called

comparable if either a ≼ b or b ≼ a . When a and b are
elements of S such that neither a ≼ b nor b ≼ a, a and b
are called incomparable.

Example:
In the poset (Z+, |), The integers 3 and 9 are comparable
because 3 | 9.
The integers 5 and 7 are incomparable, because 5 ∤ 7 and
7 ∤ 5.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Definition

If (S, ≼) is a poset and every two elements of S are

comparable, S is called a totally ordered or linearly
ordered set, and ≼ is called a total order or a linear order. A
totally ordered set is also called a chain.

Example 1: The poset (Z, ≤) is totally ordered, because a ≤

b or b ≤ a whenever a and b are integers.
Example 2: The poset (Z+, |) is not totally ordered because it
contains elements that are incomparable, such as 5 and 7.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Hasse Diagrams
We can represent a partial ordering on a finite set using
this procedure:
• Start with the directed graph for this relation. Because a partial
ordering is reflexive, a loop is present at every vertex. Remove these
loops.
• Remove all edges that must be in the partial ordering because of the
presence of other edges and transitivity. For instance, if (a, b) and (b,
c) are in the partial ordering, remove the edge (a, c), because it must
be present also. Furthermore, if (c, d) is also in the partial ordering,
remove the edge (a, d), because it must be present also.
• Finally, arrange each edge so that its initial vertex is below its
terminal vertex (as it is drawn on paper). Remove all the arrows on
the directed edges, because all edges point "upward" toward their
terminal vertex. (The edges left correspond to pairs in the covering
relation of the poset.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example 1

Constructing the Hasse Diagram for ({ 1, 2, 3, 4 }, ≤).

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example 2
Let A = {a, b, c}. Constructing the Hasse Diagram for
(P(A),  ).

P(A) = {, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}
{a, b, c}

{a, b} {b, c}
{a, c}

{b}
{a} {c}

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Maximal and Minimal Elements
• Elements of posets that have certain extremal properties
are important for many applications.
• An element of a poset is called maximal if it is not less
than any element of the poset. That is, a is maximal in
the poset (S, ≼) if there is no b  S such that a ≼ b.
Similarly, an element of a poset is called minimal if it is
not greater than any element of the poset. That is, a is
minimal if there is no element b  S such that b ≼ a.
Maximal and minimal elements are easy to spot using a
Hasse diagram. They are the "top" and "bottom"
elements in the diagram.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example
Which elements of the poset ({2, 4, 5 ,10, 12 , 20, 25 } , |)
are maximal, and which are minimal?

Solution:
Maximal elements are 12, 20
and 25.
Minimal elements are 2 and 5.

The Hasse Diagram of the poset.

This example shows that a poset can have more than
one maximal element and more than one minimal
element.
Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics
 Greatest Element and Least Element

• We say that a is the greatest element of the poset (S, ≼)

if b ≼ a for all b  S.
The greatest element is unique when it exists.

• Also, a is said the least element of the poset (S, ≼) if a ≼

b for all b  S .
The least element is unique when it exists.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example
Determine whether the posets represented by each of the
Hasse diagrams in the Figure have a greatest element
and/or a least element.

Answer:
(a) No greatest element, a is the least element.
(b) No greatest element, no least element.
(c) d is the greatest element, no least element.
(d) d is the greatest element, a is the least element.
Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics
 Example
• If A is a subset of the poset (S, ≼) and u is an element of
S such that a ≼ u for all elements a  A, then u is called
an upper bound of A.
• The element x is called the least upper bound of the
subset A if x is an upper bound that is less than every
other upper bound of A.
• If l is an element of S such that I ≼ a for all elements a 
A, then I is called a lower bound of A.
• The element y is called greatest lower bound of A if y is
a lower bound of A and z ≼ y whenever z is a lower
bound of A.
The greatest lower bound and least upper bound of a
subset A are denoted by glb(A) and lub(A), respectively.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics

 Example
Consider the poset ({2, 4, 5 ,10, 12 , 20, 25 } , |). Find the
lower and upper bounds of A = {2, 4}. Find the glb(A) and
lub(A).

Solution:
The lower bound of A is 2.
The upper bound of A is 4,12 and 20.
The glb(A) is 2.
The lub(A) is 4.

The Hasse Diagram of the Poset.

Arab Open University – Faculty of Computer Studies MT131 - Discrete Mathematics