Calculus Cheat Sheet

Limits
Definitions
Precise Definition : We say lim f (x) = L if for Limit at Infinity : We say lim f (x) = L if we can
x!a x!1
every " > 0 there is a > 0 such that whenever make f (x) as close to L as we want by taking x
0 < |x a| < then |f (x) L| < ". large enough and positive.

“Working” Definition : We say lim f (x) = L if There is a similar definition for lim f (x) = L
x!a x! 1
we can make f (x) as close to L as we want by except we require x large and negative.
taking x sufficiently close to a (on either side of a)
without letting x = a. Infinite Limit : We say lim f (x) = 1 if we can
x!a
make f (x) arbitrarily large (and positive) by taking x
Right hand limit : lim f (x) = L. This has the sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) without
x!a+
same definition as the limit except it requires x > a. letting x = a.

Left hand limit : lim f (x) = L. This has the same There is a similar definition for lim f (x) = 1
x!a x!a
definition as the limit except it requires x < a. except we make f (x) arbitrarily large and negative.

Relationship between the limit and one-sided limits

lim f (x) = L ) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L ) lim f (x) = L
x!a x!a+ x!a x!a+ x!a x!a

lim f (x) 6= lim f (x) ) lim f (x)Does Not Exist

x!a+ x!a x!a

Properties
Assume lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist and c is any number then,
x!a x!a
 lim f (x)
f (x)
1. lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x) 4. lim = x!a provided lim g(x) 6= 0
x!a x!a x!a g(x) lim g(x) x!a
x!a
h in
2. lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) 5. lim [f (x)]
n
= lim f (x)
x!a x!a x!a x!a x!a
hp i q
3. lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x) 6. lim n f (x) = n lim f (x)
x!a x!a x!a x!a x!a

Basic Limit Evaluations at ±1

1. lim ex = 1 & lim ex = 0 5. n even : lim xn = 1
x!1 x! 1 x!± 1

2. lim ln(x) = 1 & lim ln(x) = 1 6. n odd : lim xn = 1 & lim xn = 1

x!1 x! 1 x! 1
x!0+

b 7. n even : lim a xn + · · · + b x + c = sgn(a)1

x!± 1
3. If r > 0 then lim =0
x!1 xr
8. n odd : lim a xn + · · · + b x + c = sgn(a)1
x!1
4. If r > 0 and x is real for negative x
r
b 9. n odd : lim a xn + · · · + c x + d = sgn(a)1
then lim =0 x! 1
x! 1 xr
Note : sgn(a) = 1 if a > 0 and sgn(a) = 1 if a < 0.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Evaluation Techniques
Continuous Functions L’Hospital’s/L’Hôpital’s Rule
If f (x)is continuous at a then lim f (x) = f (a) f (x) 0 f (x) ±1
x!a If lim = or lim = then,
x!a g(x) 0 x!a g(x) ±1
Continuous Functions and Composition f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 , a is a number, 1 or 1
x!a g(x) x!a g (x)
f (x) is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b then
⇣ ⌘x!a
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) = f (b) Polynomials at Infinity
x!a x!a

p(x) and q(x) are polynomials. To compute

Factor and Cancel p(x)
x2 + 4x 12 (x 2)(x + 6) lim factor largest power of x in q(x) out of
x!± 1 q(x)
lim = lim
x!2 x2 2x x!2 x(x 2) both p(x) and q(x) then compute limit.
x+6 8 3x2 4 x2 3 4
= lim = =4 lim = lim x2
x!2 x 2 1 5x 2x2 x! 1 x2 5
x!
x 2
Rationalize Numerator/Denominator 3 4
x2 3
p p p = lim =
3 x 3 x 3+ x x! 1 5 2 2
lim 2 = lim 2 p x
x!9 x 81 x!9 x 81 3 + x
Piecewise Function
9 x 1 ⇢
= lim p = lim p x2 + 5 if x < 2
x!9 (x2 81)(3 + x) x!9 (x + 9)(3 + x) lim g(x) where g(x) =
x! 2 1 3x if x 2
1 1
= =
(18)(6) 108 Compute two one sided limits,
lim g(x) = lim x2 + 5 = 9
Combine Rational Expressions x! 2 x! 2
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ lim g(x) = lim 1 3x = 7
1 1 1 1 x (x + h) x! 2+ x! 2+
lim = lim
h!0 h x+h x h!0 h x(x + h)
One sided limits are different so lim g(x) doesn’t
✓ ◆ x! 2
1 h 1 1 exist. If the two one sided limits had been equal
= lim = lim =
h!0 h x(x + h) h!0 x(x + h) x2 then lim g(x) would have existed and had the
x! 2
same value.

Some Continuous Functions

Partial list of continuous functions and the values of x for which they are continuous.
1. Polynomials for all x. 6. ln(x) for x > 0.
2. Rational function, except for x’s that give 7. cos(x) and sin(x) for all x.
division by zero.
p 8. tan(x) and sec(x) provided
3. n x (n odd) for all x. 3⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡
p x 6= · · · , , , , ,···
4. n x (n even) for all x 0. 2 2 2 2
9. cot(x) and csc(x) provided
5. ex for all x.
x 6= · · · , 2⇡, ⇡, 0, ⇡, 2⇡, · · ·

Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose that f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and let M be any number between f (a) and f (b). Then there exists
a number c such that a < c < b and f (c) = M .

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Derivatives
Definition and Notation
f (x + h) f (x)
If y = f (x) then the derivative is defined to be f 0 (x) = lim .
h!0 h
If y = f (x) then all of the following are equivalent If y = f (x) all of the following are equivalent
notations for the derivative. notations for derivative evaluated at x = a.
df dy d df dy
f 0 (x) = y 0 = = = (f (x)) = Df (x) f 0 (a) = y 0 |x=a = = = Df (a)
dx dx dx dx x=a dx x=a

Interpretation of the Derivative

If y = f (x) then,
1. m = f 0 (a) is the slope of the tangent line 2. f 0 (a) is the instantaneous rate of change of
to y = f (x) at x = a and the equation of f (x) at x = a.
the tangent line at x = a is given by 3. If f (t) is the position of an object at time t then
y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x a). f 0 (a) is the velocity of the object at t = a.

Basic Properties and Formulas

If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions (the derivative exists), c and n are any real numbers,
d ⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘0
1. c =0 4. f (x) ± g(x) = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)
dx
⇣ ⌘0 ⇣ ⌘0
2. c f (x) = c f 0 (x) 5. f (x) g(x) = f 0 (x) g(x) + f (x) g 0 (x) – Product Rule
✓ ◆0
d ⇣ n⌘ f (x) f 0 (x) g(x) f (x) g 0 (x)
3. x = n xn 1 – Power Rule 6. = ⇣ ⌘2 – Quotient Rule
dx g(x)
g(x)
✓ ⇣ ⌘◆ ⇣ ⌘
d
7. f g(x) = f 0 g(x) g 0 (x) – Chain Rule
dx

Common Derivatives
d ⇣ ⌘ d ⇣ ⌘ d ⇣ x⌘
x =1 csc(x) = csc(x) cot(x) a = ax ln(a)
dx dx dx
d ⇣ ⌘ d ⇣ ⌘ d ⇣ x⌘
sin(x) = cos(x) cot(x) = csc2 (x) e = ex
dx dx dx
d ⇣ ⌘ d ⇣ ⌘ 1 d ⇣ ⌘ 1
cos(x) = sin(x) sin 1 (x) = p ln(x) = , x > 0
dx dx 1 x2 dx x
d ⇣ ⌘
d ⇣ ⌘ 1 d ⇣ ⌘ 1
tan(x) = sec2 (x) cos 1 (x) = p ln |x| = , x 6= 0
dx dx 1 x2 dx x
d ⇣ ⌘
d ⇣ ⌘ 1 d ⇣ ⌘ 1
sec(x) = sec(x) tan(x) tan 1 (x) = loga (x) = , x>0
dx dx 1 + x2 dx x ln(a)

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Chain Rule Variants

The chain rule applied to some specific functions.
✓ in ◆ ✓ i◆
d h h in 1 d h h i
1. f (x) = n f (x) f 0 (x) 5. cos f (x) = f 0 (x) sin f (x)
dx dx
✓ ◆ ✓ h i◆ h i
d d
2. e f (x)
= f 0 (x) ef (x) 6. tan f (x) = f 0 (x) sec2 f (x)
dx dx
✓ h i◆ f 0 (x) ✓ h i◆ h i h i
d d
3. ln f (x) = 7. sec f (x) = f 0 (x) sec f (x) tan f (x)
dx f (x) dx
✓ h i ◆ h i ✓ h i◆
d d 1 f 0 (x)
4. sin f (x) = f 0 (x) cos f (x) 8. tan f (x) = h i2
dx dx
1 + f (x)

Higher Order Derivatives

The 2nd Derivative is denoted as The nth Derivative is denoted as
d2 f dn f
f 00 (x) = f (2) (x) = and is defined as f (n) (x) = and is defined as
dx2 dxn
⇣ ⌘0 ⇣ ⌘0
f 00 (x) = f 0 (x) , i.e. the derivative of the first f (n) (x) = f (n 1) (x) , i.e. the derivative of the
derivative, f 0 (x). (n 1)st derivative, f (n 1)
(x).

Implicit Differentiation
0
Find y if e + x y = sin(y) + 11x. Remember y = y(x) here, so products/quotients of x and y will use
2x 9y 3 2

the product/quotient rule and derivatives of y will use the chain rule. The “trick” is to differentiate as normal
and every time you differentiate a y you tack on a y 0 (from the chain rule). Then solve for y 0 .

e2x 9y
(2 9y 0 ) + 3x2 y 2 + 2x3 y y 0 = cos(y)y 0 + 11
11 2e2x 9y 3x2 y 2
2e2x 9y
9y 0 e2x 9y
+ 3x2 y 2 + 2x3 y y 0 = cos(y)y 0 + 11 ) y0 =
2x3 y 9e2x 9y cos(y)
2x3 y 9e2x 9y
cos(y) y 0 = 11 2e2x 9y
3x2 y 2

Increasing/Decreasing – Concave Up/Concave Down

Critical Points Concave Up/Concave Down
x = c is a critical point of f (x) provided either 1. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
1. f 0 (c) = 0 or, f (x) is concave up on the interval I.
2. f 0 (c) doesn’t exist. 2. If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x in an interval I then

Increasing/Decreasing f (x) is concave down on the interval I.

1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I then Inflection Points

f (x) is increasing on the interval I. x = c is a inflection point of f (x) if the
0
2. If f (x) < 0 for all x in an interval I then concavity changes at x = c.
f (x) is decreasing on the interval I.
3. If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in an interval I then
f (x) is constant on the interval I.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Extrema
Absolute Extrema Relative (local) Extrema
1. x = c is an absolute maximum of f (x) if 1. x = c is a relative (or local) maximum of f (x)
f (c) f (x) for all x in the domain. if f (c) f (x) for all x near c.
2. x = c is an absolute minimum of f (x) if 2. x = c is a relative (or local) minimum of f (x)
f (c)  f (x) for all x in the domain. if f (c)  f (x) for all x near c.

Fermat’s Theorem 1st Derivative Test

If f (x) has a relative (or local) extrema at x = c, If x = c is a critical point of f (x) then x = c is
then x = c is a critical point of f (x). 1. a relative maximum of f (x) if f 0 (x) > 0 to the
left of x = c and f 0 (x) < 0 to the right of x = c.
Extreme Value Theorem
If f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] then 2. a relative minimum of f (x) if f 0 (x) < 0 to the
there exist numbers c and d so that, left of x = c and f 0 (x) > 0 to the right of x = c.
1. a  c, d  b, 3. not a relative extrema of f (x) if f 0 (x is the
2. f (c) is the absolute maximum in [a, b], same sign on both sides of x = c.
3. f (d) is the absolute minimum in [a, b].
2nd Derivative Test
Finding Absolute Extrema If x = c is a critical point of f (x) such that f 0 (c) = 0
then x = c
To find the absolute extrema of the continuous
function f (x) on the interval [a, b] use the following 1. is a relative maximum of f (x) if f 00 (c) < 0.
process. 2. is a relative minimum of f (x) if f 00 (c) > 0.
1. Find all critical points of f (x) in [a, b].
3. may be a relative maximum, relative
2. Evaluate f (x) at all points found in Step 1. minimum, or neither if f 00 (c) = 0.
3. Evaluate f (a) and f (b).
Finding Relative Extrema and/or
4. Identify the absolute maximum (largest
Classify Critical Points
function value) and the absolute minimum
1. Find all critical points of f (x).
(smallest function value) from the
2. Use the 1st derivative test or the
evaluations in Steps 2 & 3.
2nd derivative test on each critical point.

Mean Value Theorem

If f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b) then there is a
f (b) f (a)
number a < c < b such that f 0 (c) = .
b a

Newton’s Method
f (xn )
If xn is the nth guess for the root/solution of f (x) = 0 then (n + 1)st guess is xn+1 = xn provided
f 0 (xn )
f 0 (xn ) exists.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Related Rates
Sketch picture and identify known/unknown quantities. Write down equation relating quantities and differ-
entiate with respect to t using implicit differentiation (i.e. add on a derivative every time you differentiate a
function of t). Plug in known quantities and solve for the unknown quantity.
Example A 15 foot ladder is resting against a Example Two people are 50 ft apart when one
wall. The bottom is initially 10 ft away and is being starts walking north. The angle ✓ changes at
pushed towards the wall at 14 ft/sec. How fast is the 0.01 rad/min. At what rate is the distance between
top moving after 12 sec? them changing when ✓ = 0.5 rad?

We have ✓0 = 0.01 rad/min. and want to find x0 . We

x0 is negative because x is decreasing. Using
can use various trig functions but easiest is,
Pythagorean Theorem and differentiating,
x x0
x2 + y 2 = 152 ) 2x x0 + 2y y 0 = 0 sec(✓) = ) sec(✓) tan(✓) ✓0 =
50 50
After 12 sec we have x = 10 12 14 = 7 and so We know ✓ = 0.5 so plug in ✓0 and solve.
p p
y = 152 72 = 176. Plug in and solve for y 0 . x0
✓ ◆ sec(0.5) tan(0.5) (0.01) =
1 p 7 50
7 + 176 y 0 = 0 ) y 0 = p ft/sec x0 = 0.3112 ft/min
4 4 176
Remember to have calculator in radians!

Optimization
Sketch picture if needed, write down equation to be optimized and constraint. Solve constraint for one of
the two variables and plug into first equation. Find critical points of equation in range of variables and verify
that they are min/max as needed.
Example We’re enclosing a rectangular field with Example Determine point(s) on y = x2 + 1 that are
500 ft of fence material and one side of the field is a closest to (0, 2).
building. Determine dimensions that will maximize
the enclosed area.

Minimize f = d2 = (x 0)2 + (y 2)2 and the

constraint is y = x2 + 1. Solve constraint for x2 and
Maximize A = xy subject to constraint x+2y = 500. plug into the function.
Solve constraint for x and plug into area. x2 = y 1 ) f = x2 + (y 2)2
A = y(500 2y) =y 1 + (y 2)2 = y 2 3y + 3
x = 500 2y ) 2
= 500y 2y Differentiate and find critical point(s).
Differentiate and find critical point(s). f 0 = 2y 3 ) y= 3
2
A0 = 500 4y ) y = 125 By the 2nd derivative test this is a relative minimum
By 2nd derivative test this is a relative maximum and and so all we need to do is find x value(s).
so is the answer we’re after. Finally, find x. x2 = 3
1= 1
) x = ± p12
2 2
x = 500 2(125) = 250 ⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘
The 2 points are then p12 , 32 and p1 , 3
2 2
.
The dimensions are then 250 x 125.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Integrals
Definitions
Definite Integral : Suppose f (x) is continuous on Anti-Derivative : An anti-derivative of f (x) is a
[a, b]. Divide [a, b] into n subintervals of width x function, F (x), such that F 0 (x) = f (x).
and choose x⇤i from each interval. Then Z
Z b X n Indefinite Integral : f (x) dx = F (x) + c where
f (x) dx = lim f (x⇤i ) x.
a n!1 F (x) is an anti-derivative of f (x).
i=1

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Part I : If f (x) is continuous on [a, b] then Variants of Part I :
Z x Z u(x)
d ⇥ ⇤
g(x) = f (t) dt is also continuous on [a, b] and f (t) dt = u0 (x)f u(x)
a dx a
Z x Z b
d ⇥ ⇤
g 0 (x) = f (t) dt = f (x). d
f (t) dt = v 0 (x)f v(x)
dx a dx v(x)
Part II : f (x) is continuous on [a, b], F (x) is an Z u(x)
Z d ⇥ ⇤ ⇥ ⇤
f (t) dt = u0 (x)f u(x) v 0 (x)f v(x)
anti-derivative of f (x), i.e. F (x) = f (x) dx, then dx v(x)
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) F (a).
a

Properties
Z Z Z Z Z
f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx, c is a constant

Z b Z b Z b Z b Z b
f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx, c is a constant
a a a a a
Z a Z b
f (x) dx = 0 c dx = c(b a), c is a constant
a a
Z b Z a Z b Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx f (x) dx  f (x) dx
a b a a

Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx for any value c.
a a c
Z b Z b
If f (x) g(x) on a  x  b then f (x) dx g(x) dx
a a
Z b
If f (x) 0 on a  x  b then f (x) dx 0
a
Z b
If m  f (x)  M on a  x  b then m(b a)  f (x) dx  M (b a)
a

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Common Integrals
Z Z Z Z
n 1 1
k dx = k x + c x dx = xn+1 + c, n 6= 1 x 1
dx = dx = ln |x| + c
n+1 x
Z Z Z
1 1
eu du = eu + c dx = ln |ax + b| + c ln(u) du = u ln (u) u+c
ax + b a
Z Z Z
cos(u) du = sin(u) + c sec(u) tan(u) du = sec(u) + c tan(u) du = ln |sec(u)| + c
Z Z Z
sin(u) du = cos(u) + c csc(u) cot(u)du = csc(u) + c tan(u) du = ln |cos(u)| + c
Z R Z ⇣u⌘
2 sec(u)du = 1 1 1
sec (u) du = tan(u) + c du = tan +c
ln sec(u) + tan(u) + c a 2 + u2 a a
Z R Z ⇣u⌘
csc(u)du = 1 1
csc2 (u) du = cot(u) + c p du = sin +c
ln csc(u) + cot(u) + c a2 u2 a

Standard Integration Techniques

Z b Z b Z g(b)
0 0
u Substitution : f (g(x)) g (x) dx will convert the integral into f (g(x)) g (x) dx = f (u) du using
a a g(a)
the substitution u = g(x) where du = g 0 (x)dx. For indefinite integrals drop the limits of integration.
Z 2 Z 2 Z 8
5
Example 5x2 cos x3 dx 5x2 cos x3 dx = cos(u) du
1 1 1 3
5⇣ ⌘
8
3 1 2 2 5
u=x ) du = 3x dx ) x dx = du = sin(u) = sin(8) sin(1)
3 3 1 3
x=1 ) u = 13 = 1 :: x = 2 ) u = 23 = 8

Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions

R R
For sinn (x) cosm (x) dx we have the following : For tann (x) secm (x) dx we have the following :
1. n odd. Strip 1 sine out and convert rest to 1. n odd. Strip 1 tangent and 1 secant out and
cosines using sin2 (x) = 1 cos2 (x), then use convert the rest to secants using
the substitution u = cos(x). tan2 (x) = sec2 (x) 1, then use the
2. m odd. Strip 1 cosine out and convert rest to substitution u = sec(x).
sines using cos2 (x) = 1 sin2 (x), then use 2. m even. Strip 2 secants out and convert rest
the substitution u = sin(x). to tangents using sec2 (x) = 1 + tan2 (x), then
3. n and m both odd. Use either 1. or 2. use the substitution u = tan(x).
4. n and m both even. Use double angle 3. n odd and m even. Use either 1. or 2.
and/or half angle formulas to reduce the 4. n even and m odd. Each integral will be
integral into a form that can be integrated. dealt with differently.
Trig Formulas : sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x), cos2 (x) = 12 (1 + cos(2x)), sin2 (x) = 12 (1 cos(2x))
Z Z
3 5 sin5 (x)
Example tan (x) sec (x) dx Example cos3 (x) dx
Z Z Z Z Z
sin5 x sin4 x sin x (sin2 x)2 sin x
tan3 x sec5 x dx = tan2 x sec4 x tan x sec x dx cos3 x dx = cos3 x dx = cos3 x dx
Z Z h i
= sec2 (x) 1 sec4 (x) tan(x) sec(x)dx = (1 cos2 (x))2 sin(x)
dx u = cos(x)
cos (x)
3
Z h i Z Z
2 4
= u 1 u du u = sec(x) = (1 u2 )2
du = 1 2u2 +u4
du
u3 u3

= 1
7 sec7 (x) 1
5 sec5 (x) + c = 1
sec2 (x) + 2 ln cos(x) 1
cos2 (x) + c
2 2

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Z Z Z b b Z b
Integration by Parts : u dv = uv v du and
u dv = uv v du. Choose u and dv from integral
a Ra a
and compute du by differentiating u and compute v using v = dv.
Z Z 5
Example xe x dx Example ln(x) dx
x x 3
Z = x dv = e
u ) Zdu = dx v = e u = ln(x) dv = dx ) du = x1 dx v = x
Z 5 Z 5
xe dx = xe x + e x dx
x 5 5
ln(x) dx = x ln(x) dx = (x ln(x) x)
x x 3 3
= xe e +c 3 3
= 5 ln(5) 3 ln(3) 2

Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and formula to
convert into an integral involving trig functions.
p p p
a2 b2 x2 ) x = ab sin(✓) b2 x2 a2 ) x = ab sec(✓) a2 + b2 x2 ) x = ab tan ✓
cos2 (✓) = 1 sin2 (✓) tan2 (✓) = sec2 (✓) 1 sec2 (✓) = 1 + tan2 (✓)
Z Z Z
16 16 2 12
Example p dx 2 3 cos ✓ d✓ = d✓
2
x 4 9x 2 4
9 sin (✓)(2 cos ✓) sin2 (✓)
Z
x = 23 sin(✓) ) dx = 23 cos(✓) d✓
q = 12 csc2 (✓)d✓ = 12 cot(✓) + c
p p
4 9x2 = 4 4 sin2 (✓) = 4 cos2 (✓) = 2 |cos(✓)| Use Right Triangle Trig to go back to x’s. From
p
Recall x2 = |x|. Because we have an indefinite substitution we have sin(✓) = 3x 2 so,
integral we’ll assume positive and drop absolute
value bars. If we had a definite integral we’d need to
compute ✓’s and remove absolute value bars based
on that and,
⇢ p
x if x 0 2
From this we see that cot(✓) = 43x9x . So,
|x| =
x if x < 0 Z p
p 16 4 4 9x2
p dx = +c
In this case we have 4 9x2 = 2 cos(✓). x2 4 9x2 x
R P (x)
Partial Fractions : If integrating a rational expression involving polynomials, Q(x) dx, where the degree of
P (x) is smaller than the degree of Q(x). Factor denominator as completely as possible and find the partial
fraction decomposition of the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction decomposition (P.F.D.). For
each factor in the denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.
Factor of Q(x) Term in P.F.D Factor is Q(x) Term in P.F.D
A A1 A2 Ak
ax + b (ax + b)k + + ··· +
ax + b ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b)k
Ax + B A1 x + B 1 Ak x + B k
ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)k + ··· +
ax2 + bx + c 2
ax + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)k
Z
7x2 + 13x 7x2 +13x A Bx+C A(x2 +4)+(Bx+C) (x 1)
Example dx (x 1) (x2 +4) = x 1 + x2 +4 = (x 1) (x2 +4)
Z (x 1) (x2 +Z4)
2
7x + 13x 4 3x + 16 Set numerators equal and collect like terms.
dx = + 2 dx
2
(x 1) (x + 4) x 1 x +4 7x2 + 13x = (A + B) x2 + (C B) x + 4A C
Z
4 3x 16 Set coefficients equal to get a system and solve to
= + + dx
x 1 x2 + 4 x2 + 4 get constants.
= 4 ln |x 1| + 32 ln x2 + 4 + 8tan 1 x2 A + B = 7 C B = 13 4A C = 0
Here is partial fraction form and recombined. A=4 B=3 C = 16

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Applications of Integrals
Z b
Net Area : f (x) dx represents the net area between f (x) and
a
the x-axis with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.

Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
Z b Z d
y = f (x) ) A = [upper function] [lower function] dx & x = f (y) ) A = [right function] [left function] dy
a c
If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are some sketches of
a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.

Z b Z d Z c Z b
A= f (x) g(x) dx A= f (y) g(y) dy A= f (x) g(x) dx + g(x) f (x) dx
a c a c

R R
Volumes of Revolution : The two main formulas are V = A(x) dx and V = A(y) dy. Here is some
general information about each method of computing and some examples.

Rings Cylinders/Shells
⇣ ⌘
A = ⇡ (outer radius) 2
(inner radius) 2 A = 2⇡(radius)(width / height)
Limits: x/y of right/bot ring to x/y of left/top ring Limits : x/y of inner cyl. to x/y of outer cyl.
Horz. Axis use f (x), Vert. Axis use f (y), Horz. Axis use f (y), Vert. Axis use f (x),
g(x), A(x) and dx. g(y), A(y) and dy. g(y), A(y) and dy. g(x), A(x) and dx.

Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a  0 Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a  0

outer radius : a f (x) outer radius: |a| + g(x) radius : a y radius : |a| + y
inner radius : a g(x) inner radius: |a| + f (x) width : f (y) g(y) width : f (y) g(y)

These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If the axis of rotation is the x-axis use the y = a  0
case with a = 0. For vertical axis of rotation (x = a > 0 and x = a  0) interchange x and y to get appropri-
ate formulas.

Work : If a force of F (x) moves an object in Average Function Value : The average value of
Z b Z b
1
a  x  b, the work done is W = F (x) dx f (x) on a  x  b is favg = f (x) dx
a b a a

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Arc Length & Surface Area : The three basic formulas are,
Z b Z b Z b
L= ds SA = 2⇡y ds (rotate about x-axis) SA = 2⇡x ds (rotate about y-axis)
a a a

where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.
s ✓ ◆2 s✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2
2
dy dx dy
ds = 1 + dx if y = f (x), a  x  b ds = + dt if x = f (t), y = g(t), a  t  b
dx dt dt
s ✓ ◆2 s ✓ ◆2
dx dr
ds = 1 + dy if x = f (y), a  y  b ds = r + 2 d✓ if r = f (✓), a  ✓  b
dy d✓
With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to match the
differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.
Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or discontinuous integrands. Integral
is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit doesn’t exist or has
infinite value.
Infinite Limit
Z 1 Z t Z b Z b
1. f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx 2. f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
a t!1 a 1 t! 1 t
Z 1 Z c Z 1
3. f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx provided both integrals are convergent.
1 1 c

Discontinuous Integrand
Z b Z b Z b Z t
1. Discontinuity at a : f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx 2. Discontinuity at b : f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
a t!a+ t a t!b a
Z b Z c Z b
3. Discontinuity at a < c < b : f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx provided both are convergent.
a a c

Comparison Test for Improper Integrals : If f (x) g(x) 0 on [a, 1) then,

Z 1 Z 1
1. If f (x) dx is convergent then g(x) dx is convergent (if larger converges so does the smaller).
Za 1 Z 1a
2. If g(x) dx is divergent then f (x) dx is divergent (if smaller diverges so does the larger).
a a
Z 1
1
Useful fact : If a > 0 then p
dx converges if p > 1 and diverges for p  1.
a x

Approximating Definite Integrals

Z b
b a
For given integral f (x) dx and n (must be even for Simpson’s Rule) define x= and divide [a, b]
a n
into n subintervals [x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], …, [xn 1 , xn ] with x0 = a and xn = b then,
Z b h i
Midpoint Rule : f (x) dx ⇡ x f (x⇤1 ) + f (x⇤2 ) + · · · + f (x⇤n ) , x⇤i is midpoint [xi 1 , xi ]
a
Z b
xh i
Trapezoid Rule : f (x) dx ⇡
f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · · + 2f (xn 1 ) + f (xn )
a 2
Z b
xh i
Simpson’s Rule : f (x) dx ⇡ f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · · + 2f (xn 2 ) + 4f (xn 1 ) + f (xn )
a 3

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