CHAPTER

Semiconductor Diodes

Learning Objectives
completing this chapter, you will learn the following:
After
Basics of diode construction and
operation.
DiodeV- characteristics.
Diode parameters and their
significance.
Different diode packages and lead identification.
How to test a diode.
Different types of diodes.
Connecting diodes in series and parallel.

D iodes
are the
simplest of all the
semiconductor devices. They used in of
variety applications
are a

including communication systems, radio, TV, computers, power supplies and so on. The focus in this
chapter is on semiconductor diodes. The topics covered include fundamental topics such as diode construction
and operation, characteristic curves, diode parameters and diode equivalent circuits. A brief description of dif-
ferent types of diodes - including varactor diodes, tunnel diodes, Schottky diodes, power diodes, light-emiting
diodes (LEDs) and photodiodes- and their working principle is given. Also, topics of practical interest such as
diode packages and lead identification, connection of diodes in series and parallel and diode testing are covered.
The concepts are explained with the help of a large number of solved examples.

2.1 P-N Junction

semiconductor diode is a polarity-sensitive two-terminal device comprising a P-N junction formed
A Lbetween a P-type semiconductor material and an N-type semiconductor material [Figure 2.1(a)]. As
discussed in Chapter1, the N-type semiconductor is formed by introducing pentavalent dopant impurity
atoms while the P-type semiconductor is formed by introducing trivalent dopant impurity atoms into the
intrinsic semiconductor material. Also, in an N-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers and
holes are the minority carriers, whereas in a P-type semiconductor, holes are the majority carriers and elec-
trons are the minority carriers. The P-N junction is formed by introducing the donor impurities on one side
and acceptor impurities on the other side of a single crystal of a semiconductor. Figure 2.1(b) shows the
circuit symbol of a P-N junction diode. The arrow is associated with the P-region and the vertical line with
the N-region. The P- and N-regions are reterred to as the anode and the cathode, respectively. Silicon and

germanium are the most commonly used materials for fabricating semiconductor diodes.
26 Electronic Devices and Circuits

P-type N-type
semiconductor semiconductor

(a) (b)
Figure 2.1 (a) P-N junction: (b) symbol of a P-N junction diode.

Acceptor ions
Depletion Donor ions
region
Majority Majority
carriers
carriers
Minority Minority
carriers O, , , O, carriers

P-region N-region
_b=0 (V = 0) b= 0
No bias

Figure 2.2 P-N junction with no applied bias

The electrons in the N-region and the holes in the P-region combine near the junction, resulting in a
region necar the junction that is devoid of free electrons and holes. This region of uncovered positive and
negative ions is called the depletion region because of the depletion of free carriers in this region. The thick
ness of this region is of the order of 0.5
um.
Electrons in the N-region (majority carriers) and
negatively charged ions in the P-region repel each
near the junction.
Similarly. holes in the P-region (majority carriers) and positively charged ions inotner the
N-region also repel cach other near the junction. An effective potential of the order of few tenths of a volt.
referred to as the contact potential or the barier potential, is
some of the holes and electrons have sufficient kinetic
developed across the depletion region. Howevet
energy to overcome the contact
to pass through the depletion region. This results in a fHow of electrons from the N-regionpotential
and be
to the P-region abi
and
Aow of holes from the P-region to the N-region. This constitutes the majority carrior flow vector.
Alo, holes that are present in the depietion region of the
N-region (minority carriers) will pass to ti
P-region Similarly, electrons that are present in the depletion region of the P-region (minority carriers) w
pass to the N-region. Ihis constitutes the minority carrier flow vector. The relative magnitudes of the mino
ity and the majority How vectors are such that the net low in either direction is zero. This is referred to as
the open-circuit condition of the semiconductor diode where no bias
voltage is applied to the dioue
In other words, in the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net low of current in a semiconductordioue
iszero. Figure 2.2 shows the P-N junction with no applied bias.
 Semiconductor Diodes 27
Depletion
Hole flow region Electron flow

.0.0.0,O. 00O0O
.,0,0,0.890OOOO
9,00,0,0.800 0_

-P-region N-region-
Forward bias
Vo (Vp= +ve)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.3 Forward-biased P-Njunction.
In the subsequent paragraphs, we will discuss the response of the semiconductor diode under forward-
bias and reverse-bias conditions.

Forward-Bias Condition
A
semiconductor diode is forward-biased by applyinga positive potential to the P-region and a negative
porential to the N-region as shown in Figure 2.3(a). This applied potential causes the electrons in the
N-region and the holes in the P-region to combine with positive and negative ions, respectively, in the
depletion region. This resul in a reduction of the width of the depletion region [Figure 2.3(6)] and a
decrease in the porential barrier at the junction. As the applied bias is increased in magnitude, the width
of the depletion region decreases until a point is reached where there is a sharp rise in the number of
majority carriers crossing the junction. In other words, a large number of holes cross the junction from
the P-region to the N-region and a large number of electrons cross the junction in the reverse direction,
that is, from the N-region to the P-region. It may be mentioned here that holes traveling from left to
right constirute a current in the same direcion as the electrons traveling from right to left. This results in
exponential rise in the current due to the majority carriers. The current duc to the majority carriers is
referred to as the forward current and is in the range of few tens of milliamperes (except for power diodes
where the current is of the order of few amperes). Typically, the voltage across the forward-biased diode is
less than 1 V and depends upon the diode material. As an example, the forward voltage for silicon and
germanium diodes is typically 0.7V and 0.3 V, respectively.
The flow of the minority carriers remains the same as in the case of diode with no applied bias. The cur-
rent contributed by the minority carriers is referred to as the reverse saturation current or reverse leakage
Current and is of the order of a few nanoamperes to a few microamperes. The reverse saturation current is in
the opposite direction to the forward current. However, its magnitude is negligible as compared to the
forward current. V-I characteristics of the diode are discussed in detail in Section 2.4.

Reverse-Bias Condition
A diode is said to be reverse-biased when an external potential applied across it is such that the positive ter-
minal is connected to the N-region and the negative terminal is connected to the P-region [Figure 2.4(a)]
 28 Electronic Devices
and Circuits
Depletion Electron flow
Hole flow region -

o.o.0. 2283ee

P-region-
-N-region
Reverse bias

(Vo=-ve)

Vp (b)
(a)
Figure 2.4
Reverse-biased
P-N junction.

v
Reverse
Forward
biased biased

V characteristics of an ideal diode.

Figure 2.5
due
electrons and holes are drawn away from the junction
This results in widening of the depletion region
as
flow of
Widening of the depletion region reduces the
to the polarity
of the applied voltage [Figure 2.4(b)].
zero.
majority carriers to approximately mentioned
carrier How remains the
of diode with n o applied bias. As
same as in case
The minority
as the reverse saturation current and
is of the order of a few nanoamperes
before, this current is referred to with change in the
a few microamperes. The reverse saturation current does not significantly change
to with increase
function of the diode temperature and increases
reverse-bias potential. However, it is a strong of tne
When the applied reverse-bias is increased beyond the breakdown voltage
in diode temperature.
current. This is discussed in detail in Section
2.4.
diode, there is a sharp increase in the reverse

2.2 Ideal Diode

n ideal diode behaves like a switch that conducts current only in one direction, from anode to cathode.

A Lideal diode acts as a short circuit when forward-biased and as an open circuit when
reverse-biased. In
the resistance of the forward-biased diode is zero and the resistance of the reverse-biased diode is inhnic

Figure 2.5 shows the

V-I characteristics of an ideal diode.
2.3 Practical Diode
he actual diode differs from the ideal diode described in Section 2.2. In the forward-bias condition,
the ideal diode acts as a closed switch, with zero ON-resistance that allows the current to How in one
direction, that is, from anode to cathode. However, practical diodes do not conduct until a certain value
of forward voltage is applied to them. This voltage, referred to as the cut-in volrage or the knee voltage or
the threshold voltage, is of the order of less than 1 V for semiconductor diodes. Also, the ON-resistance of
the practical diode is not zero and varies from few ohms to few hundreds of ohms. In the reverse-bias
state, the practical diode differs from the ideal open switch as in this condition a small amount of current,
referred to as the reverse saturation current, fows through the diode. Also, there is sharp increase in the
reverse current when the applied reverse-bias
voltage exceeds the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode
2.4 V-I Characteristics of a Diode
The V-I characteristics of a semiconductor diode both in the forward-bias and reverse-bias conditions are
Iexpressed by the universal diode equation also referred to as the Shockley's diode equation [Eq. (2.1)]:

=1,eo/7VT -1) (2.1)

where V is the voltage across the diode (in V); the diode current (in mA): , the reverse saturation cur-
rent in mA): n=1 for germaniumand silicon (for relatively higher values of diode current) and 7=2 for
silicon at relatively low levels ofdiode current, that is below the cut-in-voltage or the knee-point of the diode
characteristics; V, the volt equivalent of temperature (in V).
It may be mentioned here that, the value of Vy = kT7g, where k is the Boltzmann constant (8.642 x
107
eVK):4the electron charge (1.6 x10 OTthe temperature (in K); V, volt equivalent of
the
perature (in V). Also, diode voltage (Vn) and diode current ( ) are positive when the diode is forward-
tem
biased and negative when the diodeisreverse-biased. The V-I characteristics of a silicon P-N junction diode
are shown in Figure 2.6(a) and that of a germanium P-N junction diode in Figure 2.6(b). As is evident from
the figures, when the diode is forward-biased there is a minimum voltage that must be exceeded before there
is sufficient conduction of current through the diode. In other words, current flows through the diode when
it is forward-biased. with the applied voltage greaterthan the cut-in voltage (V,) of the diode. The cut-in
voltage is 0.7 V in the case of silicon diodes and 0.3V in the case of germanium diodes.
When the applied forward voltage exceeds the cut-in voltage, there is a
sharp rise in the current through
the diode. In other words, a very small increment in the forward voltage (V) results in a very large increase
in the forward current
(). For positive values of Vp we can see from (2.1) that the first rerm of the
Eq.
cquation will grow exponentially and overpower the etfect of the second term. The hrst term corresponds to
the forward current through the diode and the second term corresponds to the reverse saturation current.
Thus, the current through the diode varies
exponentially with the applied voltage, provided that the applied
voltage is greater than thecu-in voltage. The forward current is measured in milliamperes and is generally
in the range of few tens of
milliamperes.
reverse-bias mode, thesmall current that Hows is the reverse saturation current. It is ofthe order of
few nanoamperes for silicon diodes and
typically 1 HA for germanium diodes. This current is independent of
the applied reverse voltage until the semiconductor
junction breaks down at a voltage known as the reverse
breakdown voltage or the peak inverse voltage. The breakdown of the junction results in a sudden rise of cur
rent
that ends up indamaging the diode. Hence, when
are
the diodes operated in the reverse-bias mode, their
operating voltage should be less than the breakdown voltage. Some diodes known as breakdown diodes are
designed to operate in the breakdown region. Breakdown diodes are discussed in detail in Section 2.11.
 30 Electronic Devices and Circuits

b (mA)
Forward bias
30
25
20
15

Reverse breakdown 10

voltage (1000 V) 5

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 VD(V)
101nA
20 nA
Reverse saturation
30nA
current
40 nA
Reverse bias

(a)

b (mA)
Forward bias
30
25

20

15

Reverse breakdown 10

voltage(-300 V) 5

00.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Vo (V)
1 A
Reverse saturation
2 HA
3 uA
Current
4 uA
Reverse bias

(b)
Figure 2.6 V-I characteristics of (a) silicon diode and (b) germanium diode.

2.5 Temperature Dependence of the - I Characteristics

Pemperature has a significant ettect on the V-I characteristics of the diode. Figure 2.7 shows the varia-
tion in the diode characteristic curve with change in temperarure. As is evident from the igure. the
reverse saturation current, teverse breakdown voltage, cut-in voltage and the diode's forward voltage are

strong functions of the diode temperature.

 Semiconductor Diodes 31

b (mA)

VD (V)
T

T> Ta Ta> Ta

T T2 Ts T
b (uA)
characteristics.
Figure 2.7 Temperature dependence of the diode V-I
it be said that reverse saturation current doubles itself for every 10°C rise in
As an approximation can

diode temperature. As an example, the reverse saturation

current of the germanium diode is of the order of
saturation current with
1 HA at 25°C and increases to around 100 uA at 100°C. The variation of the reverse

temperature is given by

(7) =
1,(7) x 2"T-T)/10 (2.2)
the saturation current at
where(7) is the reverse saturation current at temperature T and 1,(7,) reverse

temperature 7,.
The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode increases with increase in temperature. Also, the cut-in-voltage
with increase in temperature. The
(V,) and the forward voltage across the diode for a given current decrease
variation of cut-in voltage and the forward voltage with temperature is given by
dV
=-2.5 m V/°C (2.3)
dT

2.6 Diode Specifications

iodes have a wide range of performance specifications. These specifications are the basis of the selection
D:criteria when it comes to choosing the right diode for agiven application. Some of the major perfor
mance specifications for a diode are as follows:

1. Forward Voltage (V): lt is the voltage applied across a forward-biased diode. It is not a specification
in itself. It is given along with the corresponding forward current value at which it has been
measured. It indicates the diode's static resistance. For example. general purpose diode IN3611 is
specified as 1.1 V@1000 mA, which also indicates that its static resistance is 1.1 Q.
2. Forward Current ) : It is the direct current flowing through the diode when it is forward-biased.
3. Reverse Volzage (V): It is the voltage across a reverse-biased diode. It is specified along with corresponding
reverse current value at which it has been measured. It also indicates the diode's reverse-biased resistance.
 32 Electronic Devices and CirCuITS
a reverse-DlBcuu
fowing through maximum
reverse voltage
the
PIV): It is
current
It is the direct
everse Current():
*5. Reverse Voltage (VR PIV ratings specified in
Breakdown Voltage or
the Peak Inverse There usually
are
rwo
different
the 20-petitive peak
ode can withstand without breaking down. Vpo) and the other is
The one that
voltage (V, or
One is the repetitivepeakinverse than the repetitive rating.
dOdes. obviously greater in a rectifier
The non-repetitive rating is diode. As an example,
RSAM. application of the
be considered depends upon the intended
t the repetitive peak inverse voltage rating
that is to be
considered.
and
Pplication, it value of diode voltage (p)
is
diode for a given
(P,): The dissipated in a
e Dissipation power
current
(pis given by
(2.4)

The maximum power that can

be safely dissipated in
T u m PowerDissipation Rating [P of maximum power
the maximum power dissipation rating [Pm. The value
as
eretred to
sSpation is specified at 25°C. At higher operating temperatures, its value should be derated as per the

power-temperature derating curve of the diode. The maximum power rating decreases linearly with the
increase in temperature. Figure 2.8 shows the typical power derating curve for a dioac.
8.
Maximum Junction Temperature
(T): It is the maximum allowable
diode. lt is significant in the case of power diodes and helps in finding the size of temperature
of the
junction
the heat sink to be
used for a
given diode current.
9.
Maximum Average Rectified Current (.:It is the maximum forward rectihed output
current that be allowed to
can average
10.
pass through the diode.
Peak Repetitive Forward Current This is the maximum instantaneous value of the
current. repetitive forward
11. Peak Forward
Surge Current During turn-on, malfunction,
flow through the diode for brief time intervals. switching, etc., high values of current may
duration of such surges in the Surge current ratings define the maximum value and time
current level. For
diode can handle instance, surge rating of 10 A for 10 ms
a
maximum of 10 A of forward
a
implies that the
10 ms. The current for time
surge current rating is duration not
12.
Ampere Square Seconds ('): Itsignificantly
indicates
higher than the peak forward current
the rating.
exceeding
rectifier. It is usually sub-cycle current capability of diode when
specified for one complete cycle of 50 Hz a used asa
operation.

Po (max)

Maximum
power
dissipated

50 100 150 200

Ambient temperature (°C)
Figure 2.8 Typical power derating curve of a diode.
 Semiconductor Diodes 33

Figure 2.9 Reverse recovery time.

13. Reverse Recovery Time (,,: When the diode is switched from the forward-biased condition to the
reverse-biased condition abruptly, it is the time required by the reverse current or voltage to reach a
specified value. Figure 2.9 shows the current versus time waveform of a diode when the voltage
across the diode is abruptly changed to reverse-bias the diode from its forward-bias condition. On
application of the reverse voltage, the diode current reverses its direction as shown in the figure and
stays at rthis level for time t, (storage time). It is the time required for the carriers in the
egion to move to the P-region and the carriers in the P-region to move to the N-region. After
this, the current reduces and eventually reaches the reverse saturation value after a certain time called
the transition time (¢,). The reverse recovery time is the sum of the storage time and the transition
time. Ihe reverse recovery time is a very significant parameter in fast recovery rectifier diodes used in
switched mode power supplies and in diodes used for high-frequeney switching applications. The
reverse recovery time varies from a few nanoseconds (for ultrafast diodes) to about 500 ns (for a
ypical fast recovery rectifier).
14. Forward Recovery Time (t): It is the time required for the forward current or voltage to reach a
specified value after the diode has been abruptly switched from the reverse-biased state to the
forward-biased state. This parameter too is significant in switching applications.
15. Diode Resistance: The diode offers resistance both in the forward- and the reverse-biased
conditions.
The diod resistance in the forward-biased region varies from few ohms to few hundreds of
ohms
while in the everse-biased region it is in the range of few to few hundreds of M2. Diode resistance is
discussed in detail in Section 2.7.
16. Diode Capacitance the inherent capacitance
It is ofthediode junction. There are two types eof capac-
itances present, namely. the transition capacitance and the difusion capacitance. In the reverse-bias con-
dition, the transition or the depletion capacitance (C) is of importance whereas in the
forward-bias region diffusion or storage capacitance (C) dominates. Diode capacitance plays a very
significant role in the functioning of switching diodes. Smaller value of diode capacitance results in
faster switching times. Diode capacitances are discussed in detail in Section 2.8.

2.7 Diode Resistance

sthe V-I characteristics of a diode are non linear, the diode resistance varies with change in the applied
Lvoltagr. Two terms very commonly used to define the resistanee of a diode are the statih resistaner and
the dynamic resistane.