Slot: 9am – 11am

Group No.: 1
Amey Goyal – 2020TT11087
Leena Kumawat – 2020TT11130
Manan Agarwal – 2020TT11131
Nikesh Kumar – 2020TT11140

Mehak Somani - 2020TT11134 *

Shubha Gaur - 2020TT11167 *

* = Only for Experiment 7

 DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED MECHANICS, IIT DELHI
Experimental Methods (APL103) Laboratory

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Objective:
a) Pictorial representation of experimental data.
b) To obtain various measures of true value and the precision from a given data set.

Apparatus:
Glass marbles -100, Rivets – 100, Micrometer screw gauge and digital weighing scale.

Procedure:
1. Note down the least count and zero error of the Micrometer screw gauge.
2. Note down the least count and zero error of the digital weighing scale.
3. Measure the diameter of any 100 marbles chosen at random from the box of marbles. Correct each reading for zero
error, if any.
4. Measure the mass of any 100 rivets chosen at random from the lot provided.

Analysis:
A) Marble data
Consider the first 50 readings taken (NOT arranged in ascending order) and then all the 100 readings as two separate
sets of data. For each set do the following:
1. Arrange the data in ascending order and note the smallest and the largest readings, i.e. X min and Xmax, the median value
(the one that occurs in the middle), and the mean.
2. Calculate the range of the data,
Range = Xmax -Xmin ,
and divide the range into a suitable no. of class intervals (between 6 and 8). It is desirable that none of reading lies
on the class boundaries. This can be easily done by placing the class boundaries at values specified up to next place
of decimal as compared to the readings. For example, if the data are specified up to the second decimal place then the
class boundaries are specified up to third decimal place.
3. The readings in each class interval are now counted. This number, f i, in the i-th class interval is called the absolute
frequency of the given class, while, f i/N is called its relative frequency, F i. N is the total number of readings in the
set.
4. To calculate various statistical quantities like mean, mode, median, standard deviation and adjusted standard
deviation, it is helpful to use the following table :

Table for the Analysis of Data

Sr. Class Class Freq. Freq. Cum. _
No. interval Mark xi Abs fi Rel Fi Fi xi Freq. Ci i=xi- x
Fii 2

5. Calculate the mean, median, mode and standard deviation for the data set with 100 readings directly and compare
them with the values obtained from the grouped data as in Table 1.
6. Draw histograms for both the sets of readings and compare them. The comparison is more apparent in terms of
frequency polygons. These are obtained by joining the midpoints at the top of each rectangle in the histogram.

B) Rivet Data
Repeat steps 1 through 6 for the rivet data.

Discussion: (Answer questions 2 and 3 for the marble and rivet data separately)
1. What are the various means of the graphical display of data? When is a Histogram used?
2. Describe any peculiarities you notice in the frequency polygons and try and explain the cause for them?
3. How do you obtain the internal estimate of error from the statistical quantities determined above?
---x---
1
2
3
 0 to C is L. is O, ihe centre of gravity
rnomcntut;q the bar makes an anglc O
equaiion about is:

8 - -Mg sink
where ,1 is the moment of i nertia of the bar
about 0, M the mass of the bar, and g
is the
acceleratio» dUe 4p gravity.

Fur Small angles, sin & & and hence z d+ MgLe -- o

(2.2)
The solution to equation (2.2) is simple harmonic motion with ttme period, T, givqp by

By the defm jtion of the radius of gyration, k, is g› yeR by

2 ” (2.5)

Thus the radius of gymtiori may 6e estimated from the time pet oâ of small oscillations.
Apparatus:
Compound pendulum, stop watch, meastiritig scale
Procedure:
I Determine the centre of gravity of the bar,C, by bAanciog it on a sharp edge.
2. Measure the distance, L, between the pivot0 and the centre o§ gtaviq, C, 10 tim».
s. Measure the time required for 10 oscillations, 20 times —keep d' J .

Observations:
I . Least count of the scale = mm
2. Least eottnt of the stop watch =
3. Overall length of the bar, b* =
4. W'id‹k a/t/›r bar = n
5. Thickness of the bar t =
6. Drafter of'the holes d m
7. Spacing of the holes s =
g. Number o£fio/‹ss n-—
 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 iV z'U

Time for 10
Oscillations (1 0T)
()
T (s} I I I
Observations-.

Least count of the scale = 1mm

2. Least count of the stopwatch= 0.01 sec
3. Overall length of the bar, L" = 0.3m
4. Width of the bar = 0.012m
Thickness of the bar t = 0.005m
Diameter of the holes d =
0.008m
7. Spacing of the holes s = 0.05m
8. Number of holes n =6

2 5 7 lQ
12 J 1 Z.5 1 2 .5

2
$.a $.48

S•. Nc. l2 13 14 15 15 17 Id 19 2C
UT(s) 8.S 6 JS 6.45 g. 52 5.54 d.59 $.7 â.55
0 44 047 0.g 7
TO

’
1. To calibmte the plan itueter.
2 To determine the area of uti irregular ftg,urc.

eerctirnl f3ncligrnuittl:
This instrument is used to n casure the nrcz of nn irrcg\jIar fignrc. It consists of two nnns OQ anJ QP ait4 a › heel s s5c›• n.
0 is Use pivot point and is fixed in space, x›hiIe is :t }›in joint connuctiny the two artt s. i’ is the tracing yoint will is used
to traX'crsc \\ e irregular area. The 1?\ice\ Y is of diameter, d fu d is attacliuJ to iirm QA ated is frcc to ruiatc abou i in xis.

Let the tmcing point P move along the periphery of urea A, by a sisi all distance to location P. During th is time let nrm OO
rotate by an anb\c 68 zvk arm QP by an angte 6§ with respect to .BY. (Note ñd -- ñfi + ‹j@). L,et the wheel rotate b} \’
Area traced by OQ = fi 6f
Area traced by QP =
(Rotation of QP + Trmislation of QP parallel to itself)
Thus, the total area. d A’ . traced by the two arms is
6 â = L"‘ 8 * n° 6Q + RL58 en z r -- p) . (3. 1 )

Now ndA = de (distance moved by W) = L6B zos( -- p) -- /t 6$

6 A’ -- L° d8 + (-2*+ RI )0J + rR3 .
Integrating over the full periphery we have,
A! --

\\'e now have 2 cases:

Case (I j. O tim fiisidd area N:

Here I di -- I d) -- 2;r , It is also easy to sec that the urea ttaced b$ the 2 arms is in fact the sea enclosed by
the curve traversed by P.
N = A' - v £2 + fr (ft2 + 2 ft /;) + xfttfN
N iS the total number of revolUtions or wheel \V
Thus,
A + a, N (3.5)

t3.6)

Here J d8 -- I d) -- 0, thus

(3.7ii)

Of = 0 attd Oj - id as before. (d.7b)

 the tO the

4, i nx hofanmQP. R

Tebtc 1: Readings for the lmowv area An

Sr Nurriber of resolutions K

Tsb!c 2- Rcedines for the irregular area A, stmita to table \.

1
2
3
 0

O. m o O 3V

4
 Al*l.) fi4 lay ›et'iri›ei tl nl hl‹q )ln‹is:

jrcfi\’ci
j. To Cnli]3rAl0 ii Strftil\ gftUg8 l}’]\c )Ontl fie) l.
2. To siudy 'nriotis methods of fiiiiiip n sirnlglil flue through n set tif tlnln Solute.

i) A beN cnniilevcr bcniii on which rcsistniicc type strnlii gniigo liiivc bceii iiiountcJ iioar the clumped
cnil.
ii) A straight c«oIilcver glatc with sirni» g‹‹igcs n›oixit•d near the s‹iyyort.
iii) Swain meter.
iv) Stoned »c1gliis end o loud hunger ore also provided,

Strzin gauge load cells measure o given loud (of force) with llic help of resistance type strnin gauges. When a
cantilcver beara (shown below) is londcd ct its free end, it deflects nt the fixed end is
end the the cnd.Shin g*ugcs arc
maximum. This strain is can be sensed by strain gouges mounted near
resistance type transducers in Lvl ich the applied straii\ produces a change in resistance (AR) of gauge. R cnn be
«ac«cd by t\›c strai«metct w\rich is general\y yn AC or DC W\icotstone bridge (figure C). YiU proper car in
insta\lation and operation of stmin gauges, these gauges celt› be made very sensitive and accurate md
insensitive to environmental changes like tcmperaturc. A similar method fen be used to measure stmins due fo
to‹sioa ss s\lawn in part B of the figure.

3,4
V
Cantilevcr beam

A) Anangcmcnt fof’ Bending Swain

B) Atrnngeiiient for Torsion
C) DC \Vhcatstone BriJgc

In both arrangements (A and B) gauges I and 3 sra in tension while 2 and 4 are in comprcssion. IN ajl four
gnugcs sro connected as shown in Figure C, we hovc the full-bridge configuration. This is what you witl be
using in this expeAment. Sometimes only gauges I anJ 2 are used, while ftp and ltd arc fixed anJ equal
resistances -— this is the half-bridge canfigur«tion.

i) Measure the Jcngths ofthc two limbs of the bent cantitcvcr mm.
ii) Measure rhc distance from the hanger to lhc middle of the strain gauges for the stmight cartitlievcr.

@) Bending Sirain:
L Switch on the strainmetcrs for a few' minutes before the readings are tnken.
2. With load hanger mounted at the elbow of the bent beam, J1«st the bending sttainmetet to read zero.
3. Place f›0gm on tbe hanger for the fi st reading. GraduBI]y load the b08m in steps of l00gin. \Veights shuuI‹l
be placed without any jerk or vibrations. After every incrcm ni of Ioa4 wgit for the reading on the
strainmeter to stabilize arid then take tlit reading The total load should not exceed 550
gm.
D‹uing unloadicB +^rftOve the 50gm lo8d fi£5l. then takg t|je subsequent readings by reJucii g t00bni «

4• Take the reading for the unknown weight.

J. l'fovr place the hangtr at the free end o(th belt cgqti|g9qt.
..”-. ” ” ... . ..../• With TO l08d on the.hanger adjust the torsion 8trainmct#y lo qg
aaiJa load the btam In steps ef 0.5 Kg wclghts, Wclgllls should bo plucutl without nny j*rk ur
increment of load
salt should
using tlio sunie ptccnutions us ^”’ itbove.
Take Utc rca‹iings for the unknown weight.
 lonJ)

y difFcrci I

[ /rDf11 l /1C grn|›li.

g)
1. Cons'ert thC load into a Io rqUCusing gn approFfjlf 6 jTlOillCflt -
separate
on a gmpli PUMP er, firs] for the increasing torque case. On ñ*<P
iorque) lN tOrL|UB h
paper, simi Jar!/^ foot the data for the decrcas
for each set of d0t0 by ths following me thods and for each method draw the
?. Calculate the slope and intercept
nt colours or legend):-
best fit straight line (using differe
a. Visual judgement (graphiCal method).
b. Method of least squares
in
4. Plot the data again with the scale the ‘x* axis changed by a factor of 2. Determine the best ñ I I ine only us s
on
the visual method for ihis gr8 -
5. Determine the value of the unknow weight from the graph.

Comments/”Points for Discussion:

I. What is the difference between straight lines fitted by different methods in part A) of the analysis.
2. Compare the two fits obtained by the visual method in part B) of the analysis. Give reasons for any
difference found.
3. After the loading and unloading cycle, did you observe any difference in the initial and final reading? If yes,
wiiai is it attributed to?

BEST FIT STRAIGHT I.INE USMG LEAST SOUARF.S:

i " •
0 — Z . .Z •
n ,‹ ,,

8ENGING STRAIN A T Ti4E BASE OF THE KANTII FVER:

p = load '.
L is the diStñlJc mo rn the load to llic gauges;

b is the width, and

i is the t)›icknsss.
ANALYSIS:
1. Torque = F.R.sin(θ)
Here, θ = 90 degrees, R = 0.2m, F = Load(in kg).(9.8)

2. Loading:
Load(in kg) Torque (in Nm) Voltage (in V )
0 0 -0.05819
0.5 0.98 -0.05681
1.5 2.94 -0.05544
2.5 4.9 -0.05422
3.5 6.86 -0.05300
4.5 8.82 -0.05162

-0.051
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-0.052

-0.053

-0.054
Voltage

-0.055

-0.056

-0.057

-0.058

-0.059

Torque

3. Loading:
a) By visual method, y = 0.0006x – 0.0578
Slope = 0.0006
Intercept = -0.0578
b) By method of least squares, y = 0.00066x – 0.058
Slope = 0.00066
Intercept = -0.058
 2. Unloading:
Load(in kg) Torque (in Nm) Voltage (in V )
4.5 8.82 -0.05162
3.5 6.86 -0.05284
2.5 4.9 -0.05407
1.5 2.94 -0.05529
0.5 0.98 -0.05651
0 0 -0.05712

-0.051
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-0.052

-0.053

-0.054

-0.055

-0.056

-0.057

-0.058

3. Unloading:
a) By visual method, y = 0.0006x – 0.05712
Slope = 0.0006
Intercept = -0.05712
b) By method of least squares, y = 0.00062x – 0.057
Slope = 0.00062
Intercept = -0.057

For unknown weight, V = -

0.0563V So, mass = 0.82kg
 DISCUSSION:

2. Though the slopes in both the cases are similar by visual

method, there is a significant difference in the intercept.
This is because of change in zero error of gauge after loading and
unloading the weights due to load.

3. Yes, there was a change in the initial and final readings for
no mass, this is because the weights may have put
strain on the gauge, thus changing it’s zero error.
 TO test expcrinieiilal data are » elf described b\' a NOPtllil) (G i1t1SSl‹1l1) Dl N fl1 brit ioii using rite y' 1cs1.

Apparatus/I nstrn ments:

1. \\'ind Tunnel 3. lhstnimcnicd chimney iiiodcl 3. Slraiii Data z\cquisitioti Systems 4. Computer.

I.
Ensure that the strai-n s •• • [fridges on the chinmey inodcl are yropcrly aligned »iil respect la ihc flo› .
2. Start the dzta acquisition programmc and sct all the b idges to zero (6 in all).
3. Turn on the m5nd tunnel and set the desired wind speed.
4. Acquire 1000 data points (bendi •s strain) front each bridge over a period of approximatcl}’ tivO minut05.
5. Store the data in a file for analysis.

1. Calculate the mean and the standard deviation for bcndi• s strain.

2.
Calculate the standard error and express the best estimnte of ttie bending stmin as yz —{- standard error,
3.
Divide the whole data into ‘n’ groups, n is generiilly between 8 and 10. Ensure that ench group li:is u freq iiency of
4.
Draw the normalised histogram and compare with a nomial curve and noie doism ynur observation on iheir
closeness. Can you say thas the data follows normal distribution? If yes what is J'our con fidcricc Ice ct? (G ness)
5.
Use test to test the data for format distribution

2
=Z fl where , fl ——
i=l
Determine f , by calculating the standardized Gaussian variable fi, as shown in the table shoss'n belosv.
If, Mfg does not equal 1000, then scale it up so that it does.

Sr.

6. 2
For 10% probability find the value fnm — F table. Does the experimental tlat8 FO$$O\\’ tl10 flt3Flii t$
distribution ai this probability?

- How many constrains arc there for comparison a inst pqmttt distribution ? Give rc»sons.
2. At w£ jt’g@babiliU csn you ac0cpt the hypothesis thai the given Java follows Normul Jistrib li‹›n?
- Jnstead of correcting the cxpwted
a proper comparison between the observed and expected frcquencics7
4. Why should the value off not fall bclow ION
 0, 6k

1
DISCUSSION:

1) There are 3 constraints for comparison, which are as follows:

a. Total number of readings should remain the same.
b. The sum of all readings, (or the mean) should remain same.
c The variance of data should remain same.

2) We accept the hypothesis that the given data foIk›ws normal distribution If the probablllty Is greater than
0.1
(1096).
However, if probability Is greater than 0.9, it Is likely that data has been manipulated.

3) We have found expected frequency by multiplying P(Z1,ZZ) with the number of total readings, thus
assuring
that the expected frequencies add up to 501, which is the total number of readlngs.

4) If the expected frequency Is below 10, the chl square test MII produce inaccurate results. This Ts
because at such low frequencies, the RI value (summation of which gives chi square) becomn
significantly higher than the data groups with higher frequencles, hence giving Inaccurate results.
 TO StU$} \' 3I\OUS lti1\$C£1\1tFC t11C8S\\7\ IU tll5l NI lI1Ci\I S iIt1€( IO COt\ IU'IIC l)TL,1r 7CS)JO lISu II II\C,
1./trcury-in-glass tlzcmzon ctcr, *. Them ocoiq›lc, 3. lcctric‹il rcsist:mcc thcrn\oirjctcr 1. ii-nictallic sprig, S. ?1crcury-in-
ltte] d.fj€| 6. /g§O\J7-§FCSSUF0 llJCFf\1O!HñlCr.

t0ñlpgfaiure etc.
3. Tl1‹n iyocoiiplc This rclies on the Sccbc‹:k cfTcct — »hcn Evo junctions arc formed with two dissimilar mctuls and the
)u hc1ions are kept at different temperatures, lftcn an c.m.f. is devclopcd between them which iS groynrtinnti| tO the cli
ffcrcnce in tempgTaturC. TI hne wires are uscd to form the junctiD0S, then tlic time constant can be quite smal I (ms). here v e
will asi»me that the time constant for the tlierniocouple is effectively zero and estimate ilie time constants for the other
devices. 3• Electrical resistance thermometer: Also called a resistance teiiiperaliire device (RTD). It has a resistance wire (
usual ly a platinum COil) as the sensing elciiient. After calibration, the temperature may be determined b} simpiJ' measur In‹ the
resistance.
d• Bi-metallic Strip: Here Evo metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion are bonded together. \\' i o the
temperature changes, the composite strip will bend due to ilie different rates of expansion. Usually the strip is arran g ed in the
s htpe of helix, within the sensing element, so that it twists with changes in tcmpcrature. This twist is shown on thc readout.
5i. Mercxr) -in-Steel lhCrmonicier: Here a steel bulb and the connecting tube is fi fled with hJercury. If the total volum c is kept
nearly constant then the pressure of the MerCury will vary with temperature due lo its tendency to expand and con rr;ict. ’the
changes in pressure can be measured (c.g. using a Bourdon gauge) and the temperature may be determined.
6. t’opour-pressure thermometer: ttcie we have a be\b hlled with liquid rhas has a significant variation in vapour pressure In
the temperature range to be measured. At each temperature there ;S an unique pressure at which the liq aid and gas arc in
eq»il1brium and hence this pressure can be used to measure the temperature.

Steel bath with stirrer, heater, stopwatch, and the temperature measuring devices.
9 rocedure:
}. P\are &\ the devices in the cold bath. A tcr the rcaJings have stabiT ized (5 to 7 min), tcke th c rcadfngs corresponding fa
t\›e ambient temperature.
1. turn on the heater and Thu Stirred. immediately start the stoywatcl . AI so start recording the Inta an ii\c com putcr /or fhc
R’TD and themsocouple.
3. When the mercury-in-grass thermometer records a S°C chan g e, nnte the time and the readings indicated by all the
devices.
4. Repeat siep (3) till the water starts boiling {i.e. bath temperature reaChes 10O°D), stop the watch.
5. Let the water boil for a few minutes and note down all the readings after they have sub:lived.
6. Switch off the heater and again start the siopwatch and simultaneously start recording the dxta on ttic cotnpuler
7. Now record all the manual readings after every 2 minutes.
8. Repeat step (7) till the temperature falls to 60°C.
Observstions•
1. Least count of the stop watch = s.
2. Least counts of all the devices (in degrees Centigrade)
2. Readings for increasing temperature
Sr Np, Time (s) I device I device 2 device 3 device 4 dex’ice S d< ice 6

4. Readings for dccreas ng temperature, sunilar \o the table

above. all

a)
First calibraR the mercury-in-glass thermomete r. On the support plate the rcadiiig tor iiiettini; ice is
(i.c. tb.c reading for 9°C). From stcp S above you hsve the reading for baitin g wat er (i,c. l00°C). Use tT csc t»'o readings
and obtain constants 'a’ and ‘b' for the »irrcuy -i»- loaf thermometer
corrected temperature - a + b (indicated temperature)
b)
Use the calibration constants determined in step n) to get thc correctctl yqtqp lit the ;iiiibient tcisipvr.attire term
the wading obtained for the mercury•ln-glib thCfWlometer in step I ubovc.
Now for eanh of the other devices you hiive tw0 proper rcadings --- one
«t the boiling point. Using this information determine ‘a•’ md 'b*’ fur each
corrected tcmpcratum = s” + b’ (indicated tcmpcraturc).

2. Generate tables (3 & 4) of corrected temperatures from iabl«i 1 and 2, »ing 'a, •- and ‘b, b*’ «s 3eterniiitcd above.
 z Ploi the icingcnimre ›'/s tin1e cue e for all the devices. Plot aTI the curves for rising temperature on the
the c«m s for fnlIin¿ tcmpemture on another graph.

4. Asso niinc that the lime constant for the ihermocouple is zero, determine the time constants for the other devices
Myth GI risin* icmper«t ires. If you study’ tlle yraph you will find a region where the corrected tempemtures vary
x ith tinge. In ii is linear region the time lay from the thcrmocouple gives the time constant of each instrument.

1. Compaq all ihe dev ices based on the fol ioi vins r s edness, ease of use, lincarity, accuracy, and time of
response,
2.
Suggest ways to improve the e.xperimeni.
OBSERVATIONS:

1. Least count of the stopwatch = 1s

2. Least count of devices:

Sr. No. Device Least Count (in degree

Centigrade)
1 Mercury-in-glass thermometer 0.1
2 Thermocouple 0.001
3 Electrical resistance Thermometer 0.001
4 Bi-metallic strip 1
5 Mercury-in-steel Thermometer 1
6 Vapour-pressure Thermometer 1

3. Readings for Increasing Temperature:

Sr. No. Time (s) Mercury- thermocouple Electric Bi- Mercury- Vapour-
in-glass resistance metallic in-steel pressure
1 0 17 -0.01222 1.07123 17 7 29
2 203 22 0.0076 1.088 19 10 31
3 290 27 0.02623 1.10625 22 14 34
4 371 32 0.04505 1.12640 25 18 38
5 438 37 0.06048 1.14456 29 22 42
6 504 42 0.0759 1.1648 32 26.5 45
7 570 47 0.09259 1.18375 36 31 48
8 634 52 0.10812 1.20220 40 34.5 52
9 698 57 0.12492 1.22036 45 38.5 56
10 765 62 0.14218 1.23956 50 43 60
11 833 67 0.16035 1.25808 54 47 65
12 901 72 0.17700 1.27639 58 51.5 70
13 970 77 0.19305 1.29424 62 56 75
14 1039 82 0.21197 1.31088 67 60 79
15 1114 87 0.22602 1.32751 72 64.5 84
16 1203 92 0.24969 1.34629 76 69 89
17 1291 97 0.2633 1.36400 80 74 94
18 1354 99(boiling) 0.27122 1.37025 82 76 96
4. Readings for decreasing temperature:

Sr. No. Time(min.) Mercury- Thermocouple Electric Bi- Mercury- Vapour-

in-glass resistance metallic in-steel pressure
1 2 101 0.26837 1.37697 85 78 98
2 4 99 0.26206 1.36934 85 76 97
3 6 96 0.25122 1.35835 82 74 94
4 8 92 0.23915 1.34675 78 71.5 91
5 10 89 0.22816 1.33591 75 69 88
6 12 86 0.21656 1.32568 73 66.5 85
7 14 83 0.20632 1.31576 70 65 83
8 16 80 0.19563 1.30660 69 62.5 80
9 18 78 0.18540 1.29790 66 60.5 78
10 20 76 0.17669 1.28981 65 59 76
11 22 74 0.16844 1.28249 64 57 74
12 24 72 0.16066 1.27516 61 55.5 72
13 26 70 0.15409 1.26890 59 54 71
14 28 68 0.14706 1.26264 58 53 69
15 30 66 0.14050 1.25684 57 51.5 68
16 32 65 0.13454 1.25119 55 50 66
17 34 63 0.12628 1.24509 54 49 65
18 36 62 0.12388 1.24127 53 48 64
19 38 61 0.11921 1.23625 51 47 63
20 40 60 0.11454 1.23181 51 46 62
21 40:16 59.4 0.11377 1.23105 50 46 62
9 éngforincesfln@Iemperaxre

S.No Time(sec Hg in pass Corrected Hg in jaws Hg in steel corrected Hg in steel Vagour Pfessute Corrected vapour pres 8imetatli* strip Corrected Birt\ezaTIic s Thermocoupte corrected thermocouple Resistance rhermometet Couccted resistance therm
1 0 17 TB.BT 188139 7 I B.81 29 18.8T 17 I B.BT TB.809381 1.071Z3 TB.8T03G96
2 203 22 23.762y7624 10 21.g2 3I 21.Z3 19 21.3I 0.0076 24. 48702 1.0BB 23.36376
3 290 27 2g.7 y2g7129 T4 24.g 24 2s. de 22 25.06 0.02 b2y 29.8225825 T. yfl625 2& 3z9
0 3 71 32 33.66336634 18 2B.38 38 29.7 25 ZB.8t 0.08505 35.2t45725 1.T Z 64 33.790128
5 43B 37 38.61386139 22 31.86 42 34.54 29 33.M 0.06048 39.634496 1.£4456 38.7209312
6 504 S2 48.5d43564# 26.5 35. ' 75 45 3.B. ¥ 7 32 3’7.*s6 D.0759 44.D*s ¥5 3'S T. ¥64B 4-4.2 Tb496
7 570 47 48.51485149 31 39.69 48 41.8 36 42.56 4& 8324055 1.18375 49.3618
8 634 52 5 3.465 34652 34.5 42.725 52 46.64 40 47.56 0.20B12 53.280974 1.2022 54.071344
9 698 57 5g. 40 ?@1 58 BB.5 s0.7$5 56 BJ.4B 45 53.BE B.y 7#92 OR. D933 34 T.72036 59.302 z472
10 765 62 63.36633663 43 50.13 60 56.32 50 60.06 0.14218 63.037461 1.23956 64.5153312
11 832 67 66.31683 L68 47 58.61 65 62.2 7 S4 65.06 0. y60y5 6& 2422575 1.25808 69.54B8816
17 901 72 73.2675Z073 3t.5 57.323 70 GB.g} 3B 7Li, OF 0. 77 1.27039 74.3 T WI 2B
13 970 77 78.21782178 61.44 75 74.47 62 75.06 0.19305 77.609 1725 1.29424 79.3620448
8 S

T4 2039 82 g3.16gJ Jbg? 64.g2 79 Z9.21 67 81.8 ¥ 0.2119 7 88.0288 65 1.31088 82.8801276
15 T114 87 9B.1 T 881I g8 64.5 6B.83S 8d 85.3G 72 87.56 0.2 Z 602 87.053d Z 9 I.3 2 751 BB. 395 5152
16 £203 92 93.06930693 69 72.75 89 91.41 76 92.56 0.24969 93.B337@5 1.34629 93.4946608
7 T291 97’ 96.O y98OT9B 34 77. \ 94 9 7.46 &0 9?.56 O. 263B 9 7. 7Z22g5 3.864 9B.8O328
1B T354 99 100 76 7B.84 96 99.88 B2 100.06 0.27122 TOO.000969 1.37025
 Reading for dect casing Temperature
S.No Time{min Hg in glass Corrected Hg ill glass Hg in steel corrected Hg ill steel Vapour Pressure Corrected Vapour pres BimetaTlic strip Corrected BimetaTlic s TfiermocoupTe
corrected thermocouple Resistance thermometer Corrected resistance tfierm
1 2 10£ 101. 980198 78 80.58 98 102.3 85 £03.BI 0.26837 99. t845865 1.37697 103.8248944
2 4 99 100 Z6 7& &4 97 ROI.09 85 T03.81 0.26206 97.377087 J.369@ B9.753T9€8
3 6 96 97.02970297 74 77.3 94 97.46 82 [email protected] 0.25322 R4.273969 1.3SB35 96.769192
R B 97 9?.06930693 73.T 74.925 98 93.83 78 93.@ B.2 39T5 9D.8T4s$ys I..54ñ'73 93.6g@ '
5 10 89 90.099€O99 69 72.75 BB 90.2 75 91.31 0.22816 87.6664-32 1.33592 RO.6762832
a zz aa az.zzav1zaz aa.s 7o.sts as sa.so 7z aa.as a.z1asa u.ssaalz t.3;zsaa a7.asxo3ais
T 14 83 84.158415B4 65 69.27 B3 B4.15 70 85.06 0.20632 83.410364 1.31576 B5.2051552
8 16 8Q 81. ABB11883 62.5 67.095 BU BO.S2 69 83.8 ¥ O.1956a 78.84B22z5 S.8066 82.71B082
9 18 78 79.20792079 60.5 65.355 78 78.1 66 80.06 0.185g 75.41783 1.2979 B0.35580B
10 20 76 77.227 72277 59 64.05 76 75.6B 65 78.81 0.17669 72.9228505 1.28981 78.1592112
11 22 74 75.247528 75 57 62.31 74 73.26 64 77.56 0.16844 70.559638 1.28Z49 76.17z6848
12 24 72 72.26732678 55.5 6T.005 72 70.84 61 73.81 0.16066 68.33Z0S7 1.27516 74.1814422
13 26 70 7T.2B7TZ873 54 59.7 7T 69.63 59 7I.38 0.15409 66.d49080fi I.20B 72.4BT728
14 28 68 69.30692069 53 58.83 69 67.21 58 70.06 0.14706 64.435337 1.26264 70.7B20£28
T3 TO 6b 67.32673Z67 53.3 37.373 6B 06 37 6g.88 0.I4O5 67.35fi22ñ T.7fi684 69.70719b8
16 32 65 66.33663366 50 56.22 66 63.58 55 66.3£ 0.134S4 60.848982 1.25119 67.6731088
J7 34 63 64.3564356§ 49 55.3s 65 b2.37 54 65.00 D.J262B 'B.8B2906 J.Z45D9 66.OS6BZ68
18 36 62 63.36633663 48 5448 65 62.37 53 63.81 0.12388 57.795426 1.24127 64.9796304
19 28 61 62.876y8762 47 5a.6z 63 59.95 5T 6y.21 0.y192y 56.4S77045 1.23625 63.6166
20 4O 60 61.3861J86i d6 52.74 62 5B.74 S1 61.31 0.11454 55.119983 1.231B1 62.41z0512
21 40min. 1 59. 4 60.79207g21 g6 52.74 62 58.74 TO 60.06 0.1137 7 54.8994265 1.23105 62.204696
Increasing: Decreasing:
Red: Hg-in-steel Red: Hg-in-steel
Grey: Vapour Pressure Thermometer Grey: Vapour Pressure
Thermometer Green: Bi-metallic strip Green: Electric Resistance Thermometer
Dark blue: Hg-in-glass Dark blue: Hg-in-glass
Light Blue: Electric Resistance Thermometer Light Blue:
Thermocouple Yellow: Thermocouple Yellow: Bi-metallic Strip
DISCUSSION:
1) A) Ruggedness: The Hg-in-glass thermometer was the weakest physically
(as it was made of glass). Thermocouple and Electric Resistance
Thermometer were the strongest as they were rigid boxes. Other 3
liead in between these instruments in terms of strength.

B) Ease of Use: Bi-metallic strip, Hg-in-steel and Vapour pressure

were the most feasible to use, with clear divisions and stable
readings. Hg- in-glass was a little less feasible, as the divisions
were very close to each-other. The other 2 instruments were the
least feasible, as their readings kept changing constantly.

C) Linearity: All the instruments gave linear equations for

corrected temperatures.

D) Accuracy: Thermocouple and electric Resistance Thermometer were

most accurate, followed by Hg-in-glass thermometer. The rest
3
instruments had least count of 1 degree, so they weren’t as
accurate
as compared to others.

E) Time of Response: Electric Resistance Thermometer < Hg-in-glass

< Thermocouple < Bi-metallic Strip < VPT < Hg-in-steel

2) We can use distilled water for the experiment, as the boiling point
of distilled water is 100 degrees, while it maybe greater than 100
for normal water. Also, the water was not getting heat uniformly,
which can be improved.
 Group1 u+t-ts-auuuj rxperimax+
ALYSIS:

1 0.OI2593 0.OF 0.119] O.O[192 5TT.US 5T7.]222 0.0059[

2 0.THOSE 0.02 SR2 0. 228S O.O12BH SP. 528. O.O2G9E
z o.ozass n o.um o.oak m. sza. z o.‹xisss
A O.T3OZ5 0.O1RH O.129 0.O129 S2Z. S28.OL32
S O.O2S9A 0.O1TD 0. â292 O.OSHA S27. 2 S 52T.12A2 O.O2GS1

DI5CUS3ION:
2. The strain gauge experiment used in this experiment is sensitive to temperature and bending
force. This is because change in RI and R3 has the same effect on the output and there are no
other factors to nullify the effect of these two resistances.
O’O861
 DSPA RT MENT /\PI°L1ED 8IECI IANICS, IIT DEL I II
Experimental MctlJod5 Laboratory (APL 101)

EiXPE ltl fi I IiN’P NO. 9: J'i’cssiii c Gnugcs

¿, ’”yo study the working of gourdon pressure gatigc and to calibiol0 it fisiny a dcn‹l-weight press rc gnu c c8libr‹jtor.
s. To calibrate a piezo-rcsistivs transducer using a ‘U' tube t nu›oi›iclci

it
i BOu%on Gauge
i. Dead weight calibtator
si. Calibration weights
iv. Pressure transducer with signal conditioner

ii, Collapsible cylinder used to generate the required gauge pressure

The Bourdon gauge contains as its key transduction element a hollow elliptical cross-section tube enclosed iii one end and bent in the
fwm of a question mark’. The other end of the tube is connected to the pressure source, The higti pressure in the tub c rcnds to so-at
ten 8ie hollow bent tube. This motion of the tube, dependent on the magnitude of the prcssure, is f’uriher ampfificd and convmed to
rotary motion by a set of gears. Finally, the rotary moliD£l ts rgAd on a circular readout on the outside face o I the gauge. The
schematic sketch is shown in figure (a).

The dead weight pressure tester is schematically shown in figure (b). It operates on the principle o£ eqvialinqiioFl Of pres sure in o
Viquiâ at the same horizontal level. The motive fluid is oil, whish supports known weights at
acting over a known sectional area at end ’A’ generates a standard pressure in the system
equal to weighU yiston- aren. 7’his serves as tht input or the reference pressure measurement. The pressure gauge to
manufacture of the apparatus itself) that there is a neg 'b' e elevation difference between point of appbcaiion at A ’ 3niJ point o r
> 8*8 at *B’. The system is pressurized by means of a screw. Tflc pJun¿¿cr is
p
iuds bytttrning the lead screw, till the support rug dead v'eiggt aft Q’ just floats. Thc‹i,
the pressure shown b\’ ihc ‹c t
t Dcad weight

Test pressure gauge

‘B’

Ltad sctesv

turning le•'er
r›gure (b)

Figure (c) shows

transducer membrane is cvacu8ttx}) jt

and negative gauge pressures. bo usod fbr both positive
 1. *ktt«I nr u› Inner mccl nnisfn.
2.

4.
4, ’Fnkc cnrc each time thai lhc chamber is

j Rccor I thc leasl count of it e I11BDOn cler m d the disylny unit.

2. Ensue that the t s'o li nhs OF t)1C I11n\1OInCt8F 87c nt the snnte lcvcl nnd note tloxvn ti c reading or ikc display unit far gauge
pressure equal to zero.
3. Increase the pressure f\-am 0 \o approximntcb' 30cni of›vatcr irt 5 stcys nnd notc down the rco‹Iing nn the display unit.
Bring thc pressure do 'n to zCro 2gSin and repeat step 3 for ncgativc gauge pressures (Incl VñIUc approximately -S0cm or
xvatcr).
5. Bring tT c system back to atmospheric pressure (zero gauge pressure) nt the cn‹l of the experiment.

1. Plot output v/s input using different symbols for increasing and decrcnsing weights.
2. Fit the best straight line using leasi-squares. Use different symbols for the readings for increasing and decreasing pressure.

B)
1. Plot the output of the pressure transducer against ihe set positive gauge pressure (in Pa) rind obtain its calibmtion equation (straight
line fit.)
2. Repeal step 1 for negative gauge pressllfes.
3. Compare the two calibration equations,

Discussion:
I. Discuss the lincarity and the accuracy of the gauges tested.
2. Can the procedure used in part A bG MSCd to dctect liysterctic behavior in the gaugc’/
ANALYSIS:
A) 1.
Weight Pressure(Increasing case) Pressure(Decreasing Case)
1 0.5 0.5
2 1.5 1.5
3 2.5 2.5
5 4.5 4.5
10 9.5 10
19 18.5 18
29 29 28
39 40 39.5
49 50 49
59 58.5 62.5
Increasing:
70
60
50
40
30
Pressure

20
10
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Weight

Straight Line Fit: y = x – 0.5

Decreasing:
70

60

50
Pressure

40

30

20

10

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Weight

Straight Line Fit: y = 1.05x – 0.49

B)

P (gauge) (in Pa) Output Voltage (in V)

0 0.49004
509.912 0.49187
990.406 0.49370
1421.87 0.49538
2029.842 0.49767
2618.202 0.49996
-598.166 0.48775
-1000.212 0.48622
-1598.378 0.48393
-1980.812 0.48241
-2775.098 0.47935
0.502

0.5

0.498

0.496
Voltage

0.494

0.492

0.49

0.488
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
P(gauge)
1.
Straight Line fit : y = 0.00000378x + 0.4901

0.492

0.49

0.488

0.486
Voltage

0.484

0.482

0.48

0.478
-3000 -2500 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0
P(gauge)
2.
Straight Line Fit: y = 0.00000385 + 0.49005
3. As we can see, the two equations obtained from positive
and negative gauge pressures are almost similar.

DISCUSSION:
1) The graph obtained and also the straight line fit, shows
that the voltage output varies almost linearly with the
gauge pressure. Also, sine the points on the graph are
very close to the straight line, the gauge is highly
accurate.

2) In Part A, we first increase the weights and then decrease

them. After this we can compare the initial and final
readings, both displaying that of the same weight.
Comparing these values can detect the hysteretic behaviour
in the gauge.