Lesson 1 CELL THEORY In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist,

In 1665, Robert Hooke, examined a thin slice of stated that all plants are composed of cells. After one year,
cork under the microscope which he owns invented. He in 1839, Theodore Schwann, a German zoologist,
observed that the piece of cork uses composed of many concluded that all animals are comprised of cells. Jointly,
tiny compartments he named these “cell” Schleiden and Schwann came out with the theory that all
living things are composed of cells and cell is the basic unit
of living things, the first two postulates of the cell theory.

In 1674, Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek contemporary Twenty years later, in 1858, another German
of Robert Hooke, became curious and interested to Robert biologist Rudolph Virchow, theorized that all living cell
Hooke’s discovery. come from pre-existing cells. This becomes the third
He made a more powerful compound microscope. He postulates of the cell theory. His conclusion arose from
discovered free cell (moving cell) like red blood cell, sperm observing dividing cells while he was at work, this
cell and protist in pond water. He called it “animalcules” conclusion also sealed or end the theory of spontaneous
and stated that motility (movement) is characteristics of generation. However, there is some evidence that this idea
living things. He is the first person to observe living cell. was stolen from Polish scientist Robert Remak.

After two century, In 1831, Robert Brown

discovered that there are small bodies in the cell. This
structure is fundamental and a constant component of the
cell, he called it nucleus. Expanded or Modern Cell Theory
1. All living things are composed of cell
2. Cell is the basic unit of living things
3. New cell arise from pre-existing cells
4. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs
within cell
5. Cell carry genetic materials (DNA) passed to
In 1835, Felix Dujardin found out that living cell daughter cell through cell division
contained an internal substance. Not knowing exactly what 6. All cell are essentially the same in chemical
this substance was, he named it “sarcode”. It was Johannes composition
Purkinje, who made a thorough investigation of this
internal materials. He called it “protoplasm” which is
currently known as “cytoplasm”
Lesson 2 Cellular Structure Organelles can be group into four categories based on
Cell membrane or plasma membrane their function:
• the boundary of every cell, the selective barrier or 1. Manufacturing
check point, controls the entry and exit of 2. Breakdown
materials or substances 3. Energy processing
4. Support, movement and communication
Manufacturing
1. Nucleus
Nucleus 2. Ribosomes – protein factories or site of protein
• the control center of the cell, contain the genetic synthesis
materials DNA (chromatin, chromosomes, genes) 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum – found near the
Nuclear membrane nucleus, serves as the pathways for the transport
of materials throughout the cell.
• protect the nucleus and act as the barrier between
4. Golgi Apparatus/Golgi Bodies – serve as
the nucleus and other organelles
Nucleolus processing, packaging, storing, distribution and
transport of materials, it also manufacture certain
• synthesize ribosomes and RNA
macromolecules.

Cytoplasm
• main parts or flooring of the cell, made up of jelly
– like substance that holds the cell organelles
called cytosol, site of many chemical reaction

5.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• lacks ribosomes, involve in lipid synthesis,
metabolism of carbohydrates and detoxification of
Organelles drugs and poison. Liver have plenty of smooth ER.
• Organelles or little organ = are tiny subcellular Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
structure that perform specific function within a • contain ribosomes, synthesize secretory protein,
cell formation of transport vesicles and membrane
production. Pancreas have plenty of rough ER
Breakdown
1. Lysosome – are digestive compartment which
contains enzymes that can digest all major classes
of macromolecules. White blood cell have plenty
of lysosomes.
2. Vacuoles – storage of water, organic compound,
and ions, also act as waste disposal.
3. Peroxisomes – form bile that breaks down fats, 4. Centrioles
detoxify alcohol and other harmful compound. • help to organize the assembly of microtubule
during cell division.

4.
Energy processing
Mitochondria
• powerhouse of the cell, site of ATP production or
5. Cell wall
cellular respiration
• provide strength and rigidity

Chloroplast
• site of photosynthesis, unlimited source of ATP.

Support, movement and communication

1. Cell membrane or plasma membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Cytoskeleton – are network of protein fibers that
help maintain the shape of the cell
3 types of protein fiber
1. Microfilaments – function in cellular movement,
provides rigidity and shape to the cell
2. Intermediate filament – maintain shape and
anchor the nucleus and other organelles in place.
3. Microtubules – provide a track along which
vesicles move through the cell and pull sister
chromatids to opposite ends of a dividing cell.
LESSON 3 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes 3. Have other structure: such as cell wall, plasma
Prokaryotes membrane, DNA, ribosomes, cytoplasm,
• is a simple, single celled (Unicellular) organism, cytoskeleton and centrioles.
relative small that lacks nucleus or any other Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes cell
membrane-bond organelles.
• The earliest or primitive organism, eukaryotes
have just evolve from prokaryotes.
• Is one of the two types of cell, the other one is the
eukaryotes.
• Are autotrophs, they can make their own food.
• Are bacteria, archaebacteria and cyanobacteria
(blue-green algae).
• Can survive even in the most extreme, harsh
environment.
• The success of the prokaryotes is based on diverse Importance of Prokaryotes
adaptation of forms and functions. • Produce oxygen.
Parts of Prokaryotes • Helps in digestion.
Cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosome, DNA, • Act as nitrogen fixer.
Nucleoid
• Act as decomposer.
• the region where the genetic material (DNA) is
• Use in fermentation.
found.
• Use as vector or medium for genetic engineering.
Inclusion/granules
• storage of the carbohydrate and fats.
Glycocalyx
• function as receptor.
Endospore
• helps in surviving during harsh condition due to
resistance to environmental destruction.
Mesosomes
• functions like mitochondria.
Capsule
• additional protection.
Pili
• used to exchanged genetic materials during
conjugation (reproduction)
Fimbriae
• used to attach to a host cell.
Flagellum
• used for movement for locomotion.
Plasmid
• facilitate the process of replication in bacteria.
Characteristics of Eukaryotes
1. Have membrane-bound nucleus.
2. Have membrane-bound organelles such as:
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, chloroplast, vacuoles, lysosomes,
peroxisomes.
LESSON 4 Cell Modifications
Specialized Cell
• Are the cell which are differentiated, modified or
have become specialized to perform a specific
function
• Specialized cells have physical and chemical
differences that allow them to perform one job or
task very well. Cell specialization involves a change
in form and in functions. Specialized cell can look
very different from each other. Specialized cell is
cellular differentiation
Example of Specialized Plant Cell/Tissue and its
modifications
LESSON 5 Cell Types (Plant and Animal Tissue)

Two general types of Plant Tissues

Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with tissue
systems made of various cell types that carry out specific
functions. Plant tissue systems fall into one of two general
types: meristematic tissue and permanent (or non-
meristematic) tissue. Cells of the meristematic tissue are
found in meristems, which are plant regions of continuous
Plant Tissue cell division and growth. Meristematic tissue cells are
either undifferentiated or incompletely differentiated, and
• Tissues is plants that divide throughout their life.
they continue to divide and contribute to the growth of the
• Plant tissues can be classified as
plant. In contrast, permanent tissue consists of plant cells
• Growing or Meristematic Tissue
that are no longer actively dividing.
• Permanent Tissue
Meristematic tissues
Meristematic tissues consist of three types, based
on their location in the plant. Apical meristems contain
meristematic tissue located at the tips of stems and roots,
• which enable a plant to extend in length. Lateral
meristems facilitate growth in thickness or girth in a
maturing plant. Intercalary meristems occur only in
monocots, at the bases of leaf blades and at nodes (the
areas where leaves attach to a stem). This tissue enables
the monocot leaf blade to increase in length from the leaf
base; for example, it allows lawn grass leaves to elongate
even after repeated mowing.
Permanent Tissue
Meristems produce cells that quickly differentiate,
or specialize, and become permanent tissue. Such cells
take on specific roles and lose their ability to divide further.
They differentiate into three main types: dermal, vascular,
and ground tissue. Dermal tissue covers and protects the
plant, and vascular tissue transports water, minerals, and
sugars to different parts of the plant. Ground tissue serves
as a site for photosynthesis, provides a supporting matrix
for the vascular tissue, and helps to store water and sugars.
Dermal Tissue
The dermal tissue of the stem consists primarily of Parenchyma
epidermis, a single layer of cells covering and protecting often the most common ground tissue, takes its
the underlying tissue. Woody plants have a tough, name from the Greek para, meaning beside, and egchnma,
waterproof outer layer of cork cells commonly known as meaning the contents of a pitcher (literally, something
bark, which further protects the plant from damage. poured beside), indicating its ubiquitous nature
Epidermal cells are the most numerous and least throughout the plant body. It forms, for example, the
differentiated of the cells in the epidermis. The epidermis cortex and pith of stems, the photosynthetic tissue layer
of a leaf also contains openings known as stomata, through within the epidermis of the leaves (mesophyll), the cortex
which the exchange of gases takes place (Figure 2). Two of roots, the pulp of fruits, and the endosperm of seeds.
cells, known as guard cells, surround each leaf stoma, Parenchyma is composed of relatively simple,
controlling its opening and closing and thus regulating the undifferentiated parenchyma cells. In most plants,
uptake of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen and metabolic activity (such as respiration, digestion, and
water vapor. Trichomes are hair-like structures on the photosynthesis) occurs in these cells because they, unlike
epidermal surface. They help to reduce transpiration (the many of the other types of cells in the plant body, retain
loss of water by aboveground plant parts), increase solar their protoplasts (the cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell
reflectance, and store compounds that defend the leaves organelles) that carry out these functions.
against predation by herbivores. Collenchyma
is found chiefly in the cortex of stems and in leaves.
For many herbaceous plants it is the chief supporting
tissue, especially during early stages of development. In
plants in which secondary growth occurs, the collenchyma
tissue is only temporarily functional and becomes crushed
as woody tissue develops. Collenchyma is located along
the periphery of stems beneath the epidermal tissue. It
may form a complete cylinder or occur as discrete strands
that constitute the ridges and angles of stems and other
supporting structures of the plant.
Ground Tissue
Sclerenchyma tissue
Ground tissue is mostly made up of parenchyma
is composed of sclerenchyma cells, which are
cells, but may also contain collenchyma and sclerenchyma
usually dead at maturity (i.e., have lost their protoplasts).
cells that help support the stem. The ground tissue towards
They characteristically contain very thick, hard secondary
the interior of the vascular tissue in a stem or root is known
walls lined with lignin; consequently, sclerenchyma
as pith, while the layer of tissue between the vascular
provides additional support and strength to the plant body.
tissue and the epidermis is known as the cortex.’
The two principal types of sclerenchyma cells are
sclereids and fibres. Sclereids vary in shape and size and
may be branched. They are common in seed coats and
nutshells. Apart from providing some internal support for
various plant organs, sclereids deter desiccation of hard
seeds, such as beans, and discourage herbivory of certain
leaves.
Fibres are slender cells, many times longer than
they are wide. They are highly lignified cells with tapering
(oblique) end walls. The side walls of fibres are often so
thick that the centre of the cell (the lumen) is often
occluded. Fibres have great tensile strength and yet are
also elastic. These qualities are significant in the flexible
support of the stems of large herbs and leaves of many
monocotyledons, such as palms. Leaf fibres are the source
of abaca, or Manila hemp (Musa textilis; Musaceae), sisal
(Agave sisalana; Asparagaceae), and many other fibre
products. Fibres are found in various parts of the plant
Vascular Tissue
• Xylem and phloem form the vascular system of
plants to transport water and other substances
throughout the plant.
• Xylem transports and stores water and water-
soluble nutrients in vascular plants. Phloem is Connective Tissue
responsible for transporting sugars, proteins, and Connective tissues develop from the mesodermal
other organic molecules in plants. cells of the embryo. they support and bind other tissues in
the body. These are made up of three components:
Intercellular Matrix
• it is made up of mucopolysaccharide, specifically
hyaluronic acid.
Cells
• The major cells include fibroblasts, adipocytes,
plasma cells and mast cells.
Fibres
• Connective tissues are made up of three types of
fibres, namely, collagen fibre, elastic fibre, reticular
fibre.
The connective tissues perform the following functions:
1. They attach organs and tissues together.
2. They store fat in the form of adipose tissues.
3. They help in repairing tissues.
4. They prevent the organs from mechanical shocks.
5. The organs also help in defense.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues form the protective covering and
inner lining of the body and organs. These tissues were the
first to evolve during evolution and were first formed
during embryonic development. They develop from the
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm of the embryo.
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
Following are the important characteristics of epithelial
tissues: Muscular Tissue
1. These can be single-layered or multi-layered. The muscular tissue develops from the mesoderm of the
2. The tissues have the power to regenerate. embryo. It is classified into three types:
3. These are held together by gap junctions, tight • Cardiac
junctions, zonula adheren, desmosomes, or • Smooth
interdigitation. • Skeletal
4. The plasma membrane of these cells is specialized Muscular tissue performs the following functions:
into flagella, cilia, and microvilli. 1. It helps in movement and locomotion.
2. It supports the bones and other structures.
 3. It is responsible for peristalsis and parturition.

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue makes up the peripheral and the
central nervous system. It develops from the ectoderm of
the embryo. It possesses the ability to initiate and transmit
the nerve impulse. Its main components include:
Neurons
• These are the structural and functional unit of
nervous system. It comprises an axon, cell body
and dendrites.
Neuroglia
• These are special cells found in the brain and spinal
cord. They provide support to the neurons and
fibres.
Neurosecretory Cells
• These function as endocrine organs. They release
chemical from the axons direcly into blood.
Lesson 6 cell cycle and their control S – phase
Cell Cycle • To produce two similar daughter cells, the
• is an orderly sequence of events that describes the complete DNA instructions in the cell must be
stages of a cell’s life from the division of a single duplicated (DNA replication)
parent cell to production of daughter cell. • During this phase, the cell synthesizes a complete
copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also duplicates a
microtubules – organizing structure called the
centrosome. The centrosome helps separate
chromosomes during M – phase.

G2 Phase (Growth Phase 2)

Two major phases of cell cycle
• In the G2 phase, the cell grows more, replenishes
1. Interphase the cell grows and DNA is replicated
its energy stores and synthesizes proteins
2. M- phase or division phase – the replicated DNA
necessary for chromosomes manipulation. Some
and cytoplasmic contents are distributed, and the
cell organelles are duplicated, and the
cell divides.
cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for
Interphase
M – phase. The final preparation for the M – phase
• During interphase, the cell undergo normal growth
must be completed before the cell is able to enter
processes while also preparing for cell division. In
the first stage of M – phase
order for a cell to move from interphase into M
phase, many internal and external conditions must
be met. The three stages of interphase are G1, S-
phase, and G2
G1 – phase (Growth Phase 1)
• During this stage, the cell grows and more
organelles are produced, increasing a volume of
the cytoplasm. The cell is quite active at the
biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the
M – phase (Mitosis or Meiosis)
building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the
• The M – phase is multistep process during which
associated proteins as well as accumulating
the duplicated chromosome are condensed,
sufficient energy reserves to complete the task of
aligned, separated and moved to opposite poles of
replicating each chromosomes in the nucleus.
the cell, and then divided into new daughter cell.
G0 Phase (Inactive Phase)
• Not all cells adhere to the classic cell cycle pattern Regulation at Internal Checkpoints
in which a newly form daughter cell immediately • It is essential that the daughter cells produced be
enters the preparatory phases of interphase, exact duplicates of the parent cell. Mistakes in the
closely followed by the M – phase. Cells in G0 duplication or distribution of the chromosomes
phase are not actively preparing to divide. lead to mutations that may be passed forward to
every new cell produced from an abnormal cell. To
prevent a compromised cell from continuing to
divide, there are internal control mechanisms that
operate at three main cell cycle checkpoints. A
checkpoint is one of several points in the
eukaryotic cell cycle at which the progression of a
cell to the next stage in the cycle can be halted
until conditions are favorable. These checkpoints
occur near the end of G1, at the G2/M transition,
and during metaphase.
The G1 Checkpoint
•
• The cell is in quiescent (inactive) state that occur • The G1 checkpoint determines whether all
when cell exit the cell cycle. Some cell enter G0 conditions are favorable for cell division to
temporarily until an external signal triggers the proceed. The G1 checkpoint, also called the
onset of G1. Other cells that never or rarely divide restriction point (in yeast), is a point at which the
such as mature muscles and nerves cells, cell irreversibly commits to the cell division
permanently remain in G0 process. External influences, such as growth
Control of the cell cycle factors, play a large role in carrying the cell past the
Regulation of the Cell Cycle by External Events G1 checkpoint. In addition to adequate reserves
• Both the initiation and inhibition of cell division are and cell size, there is a check for genomic DNA
triggered by events external to the cell when it is damage at the G1 checkpoint. A cell that does not
about to begin the replication process. An event meet all the requirements will not be allowed to
may be as simple as the death of a nearby cell or progress into the S phase. The cell can halt the
as sweeping as the release of growth-promoting cycle and attempt to remedy the problematic
hormones, such as human growth hormone condition, or the cell can advance into G0 and
(HGH). A lack of HGH can inhibit cell division, await further signals when conditions improve.
resulting in dwarfism, whereas too much HGH can
result in gigantism. Crowding of cells can also
inhibit cell division. Another factor that can initiate
cell division is the size of the cell; as a cell grows, it
becomes inefficient due to its decreasing surface-
to-volume ratio. The solution to this problem is to
divide.
• Whatever the source of the message, the cell The G2 Checkpoint
receives the signal, and a series of events within • The G2 checkpoint bars entry into the mitotic
the cell allows it to proceed into interphase. phase if certain conditions are not met. As at the
Moving forward from this initiation point, every G1 checkpoint, cell size and protein reserves are
parameter required during each cell cycle phase assessed. However, the most important role of the
must be met or the cycle cannot progress. G2 checkpoint is to ensure that all of the
chromosomes have been replicated and that the
replicated DNA is not damaged. If the checkpoint
 mechanisms detect problems with the DNA, the wide-ranging and possibly fatal to the cell if
cell cycle is halted, and the cell attempts to either multiple processes are affected.
complete DNA replication or repair the damaged
DNA. Positive Regulation of the Cell Cycle
• Two groups of proteins, called cyclins and cyclin-
dependent kinases (Cdks), are responsible for the
progress of the cell through the various
checkpoints. The levels of the four cyclin proteins
fluctuate throughout the cell cycle in a predictable
pattern (Figure 2). Increases in the concentration
of cyclin proteins are triggered by both external
and internal signals. After the cell moves to the
The M Checkpoint next stage of the cell cycle, the cyclins that were
• The M checkpoint occurs near the end of the active in the previous stage are degraded.
metaphase stage of karyokinesis. The M
checkpoint is also known as the spindle
checkpoint, because it determines whether all the
sister chromatids are correctly attached to the
spindle microtubules. Because the separation of
the sister chromatids during anaphase is an
irreversible step, the cycle will not proceed until
the kinetochores of each pair of sister chromatids Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) are protein kinases that,
when fully activated, can phosphorylate and thus activate
are firmly anchored to at least two spindle fibers
other proteins that advance the cell cycle past a
arising from opposite poles of the cell.
checkpoint. To become fully activated, a Cdk must bind to
a cyclin protein and then be phosphorylated by another
kinase.

Regulator Molecules of the Cell Cycle

• In addition to the internally controlled
checkpoints, there are two groups of intracellular
molecules that regulate the cell cycle. These
regulatory molecules either promote progress of
the cell to the next phase (positive regulation) or
halt the cycle (negative regulation). Regulator
molecules may act individually, or they can
influence the activity or production of other
regulatory proteins. Therefore, the failure of a
single regulator may have almost no effect on the
cell cycle, especially if more than one mechanism
controls the same event. Conversely, the effect of
a deficient or non-functioning regulator can be
Negative Regulation of the Cell Cycle
• The second group of cell cycle regulatory
molecules are negative regulators. Negative
regulators halt the cell cycle. Remember that in
positive regulation, active molecules cause the
cycle to progress.
• The best understood negative regulatory
molecules are retinoblastoma protein (Rb), p53,
and p21. Retinoblastoma proteins are a group of
tumor-suppressor proteins common in many cells.
The 53 and 21 designations refer to the functional
molecular masses of the proteins (p) in kilodaltons.
Much of what is known about cell cycle regulation
comes from research conducted with cells that
have lost regulatory control. All three of these
regulatory proteins were discovered to be
damaged or non-functional in cells that had begun
to replicate uncontrollably (became cancerous). In
each case, the main cause of the unchecked
progress through the cell cycle was a faulty copy of
the regulatory protein.
LESSON 7 MITSOSIS
Mitosis
• is a type of cell division in which a single mother
cell formed two genetically identical daughter cell
with diploid chromosome number.
Mitosis Anaphase
• divides the nucleus (Karyokinesis) and its 1. The cohesion protein degrade, and the sister
chromosomes. Cytokinesis division of cytoplasm. chromatids separate at the centromere
Mitosis is divided into four stages, namely, prophase, 2. Each chromatid, now called a chromosome
metaphase, anaphase and telophase (became each posses its own centromere) is pulled
rapidly towards the centrosome to which its
microtubule is attached
3. The cell become visibly elongated (oval shaped)

Telophase
1. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and
begin to decondense (unreal), relating into a
Prophase chromatin configuration
1. Nuclear envelop starts to disassociate into smack 2. The mitotic spindles are depolymerized into
vesicle tubulin monomers that will be used to assemble
2. Nucleolus – disappear cytoskeletal components for each daughter cell
3. The centrosome (centrioles) begins to move to 3. Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosome
opposite poles of the cell
4. Chromosomes condensed (begin to shorten and
thicken) and become visible under a light
microscope
5. Kinetochores appear at the centromeres and
Cytokinesis
attached to the mitotic spindle
• Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) – is the second
main stage of the mitotic phase during which cell
division is completed via the physical separation of
the cytoplasmic components into two daughter
cell.
Cytokinesis in Animal Cell
Metaphase • Cytokinesis follows the onset of anaphase. A
1. All the chromosomes are aligned in a plane called contractile ring composed of actin filaments form
the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane just inside the plasma membrane at the former
2. The sister chromatids (two duplicate halves of metaphase plate. The actin filaments pull the
chromosome) are still tightly attached to each equator of the cell inward, forming a tissue. This
other by cohesion protein tissue, or “crack”, is called the cleavage furrows.
3. The chromosomes are maximally condensed The furrows deepens as the actin ring contract,
and eventually the membrane is cleaved into two.
Cytokinesis in Plant Cell
• In plant cell, a new cell wall must form between
the daughter cell. During interphase the Golgi
apparatus accumulates enzymes, structural
protein, and glucose molecules (which will be used
to make the cellulose compose of the cell wall)
prior to breaking into vesicles and dispersing
throughout the center toward the cell walls, this
structure is called a cell plate.
LESSON 8 MEIOSIS Metaphase I
Meiosis 1. Chromosomes are now arranged in the center of
• is a type of cell division exhibited by the the cell, still in homologous pairs
reproductive cell whereby the chromosome 2. The homologous pairs orient themselves randomly
number of the four daughter cell is reduced to half. at the equator. This event – the random or
• occurs only in certain kinds of cell. In animals it independent assortment of homologous
takes place in the gonads, or reproductive organ chromosomes at the metaphase plate – is the
(testis and ovaries). In flowering plants, the second mechanism that introduces variation into
process takes place in the stamen and pistil. the gametes or spores.
• employs many of the same mechanism as mitosis.
It is also preceded by G1 , S – phase, and G2
phases. Because the events that occur during each
of the division stages are analogous to the events
of mitosis, the same stage names are assigned.
Meiosis is divided into two rounds of nuclear division,
Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
• Meiosis I is reductional division
• Meiosis II is equational division Anaphase I
Meiosis I 1. Homologous pairs of chromosomes are pulled
Prophase I apart by microtubules attached to the kinetochore
1. The chromosome begins to condense and move towards the opposite poles
2. Homologous chromosomes come together to form 2. Sister chromatid remain attached at their
3. bivalent or tetrad. The pairing is called “synapsis” centromere and move as a single unit toward the
4. Synaptonemal complex (a lattice of protein) opposite poles
formed to hold the homologous chromosomes
together
5. Synaptonemal complex support the exchange of
chromosomal segments (genes) between non –
sister homologous chromatids (a process called
crossing over). The cross over events are the first
source of genetic variation in the nuclei produced
by meiosis. Telophase I
1. The separated chromosomes arrive at opposite
poles
2. Each pole now has a haploid chromosomes set, but
each chromosome still has two chromatids
3. Daughter cell of telophase I immediately begin
preparation for the second meiotic division
Meiosis II
• In some species, cell enter a brief interphase, or
interkinesis, before entering meiosis II. Interkinesis
lacks an S – phase, so no further replication of the
genetic materials prior to the second division of
meiosis. The mechanics of meiosis II is similar to
mitosis, except that each dividing cell has only one
set of the homologous chromosomes which where
originally present in the parental cell.
LESSON 9 APPLICATION OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
APPLICATION OF MITOSIS
I. Asexual Reproduction
• Produce offspring that are genetically identical to •
the parent because the offspring are all clones of III Cloning
the original parent • Is a technique employed in biotechnology to
Examples produce identical copies of cells or DNA fragments.
• Fission also called binary fission – after a period of In cloning, the number of organism is increase by
growth, an organism splits into two separate the process of mitosis.
organisms. Some unicellular eukaryotic organism
undergo binary fission by mitosis.

IV Tissue Culture
• Tissue culture is based on the process of mitosis,
where a cell undergoes division to form multiple
tissues.

2. Budding
• form of asexual reproduction that results from the
outgrowth of apart of a cell leading to a separation
from the original animal into two individual. V Stem Cell Regeneration
• Stem cell are a group of cell that can be directed to
form specialized cells in the body
• Stem cell can undergo mitosis to regenerate and
repair diseased or damaged tissue in human.

3. Fragmentation
• cutting or fragmenting of the original animal into
parts and growth of a separate animal from each
other

APPLICATION OF MEIOSIS
Biotechnology/ Genetic Engineering
• Meiosis is use in biotechnology to acquire a
gametic conditions in cells and to generate
variation which aids in studies regarding
evolutionary process.
In–vitro gamete formation
• In various gamete failure – derived in fertility
issues, the embryonic stem cell are differentiated
in two germ – like cells through miotic division.
I Vegetative Propagation
• These gametes are formed in – vitro via meiosis
• Any form of asexual reproduction occurring in
and are inserted into the individuals with such
plants in which a new plant grows from a fragment
disorder.
of the parent plant or grows from a specialized
reproductive structure.
LESSON 10 CHROMOSOMAL DISORDER
Normally, humans have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23
pairs, the pairs vary in size and shape and are numbered by
conventions. Twenty – two of the pairs are autosomes, and
one pair, number 23, is the sex chromosome. Any variation
from this pattern causes abnormalities.

Chromosomal disorder
• any syndrome characterized by malformation or
malfunctions in any of the body’s systems and
caused by abnormal chromosome number or
constitution.
LESSON 11 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PLASMA PLASMA MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
MEMBRANE 1. It is the boundary, which separates the living cell
PLASMA MEMBRANE from their non – living surroundings
• Plasma membrane can define as biological 2. It is phospholipid bilayer
membrane or an outer membrane of a cell, which 3. Plasma membrane is an amphipathic, which
is composed of two layers of phospholipids and contains both hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic
embedded with proteins. It is a thin semi tails
permeable membrane layer, which surrounds the 4. It is a fluid mosaic of lipids, protein and
cytoplasm and other constituents of the cell. carbohydrates
FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE 5. It is lipid bilayer, which contain two layers of
1. It separates the contents of the cell from its phospholipid, phosphate head is polar (water
outside environment and it regulates what enters loving), fatty acid tails non – polar (water fearing)
and exits the cells and the proteins embedded in membrane.
2. Plasma membrane plays a vital role in protecting FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing • The fluid mosaic model describes the plasma
only selected substances into cell and keeping membrane as a fluid structure with a mosaic of
other substances out components – including phospholipids,
3. It also serves as a base of attachment for the cholesterol, proteins and carbohydrates - that
cytoskeleton in some organisms and the cell wall gives the membrane a fluid character.
in others. Thus the cell membrane supports the COMPONENTS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
cell and helps in maintaining the shape of the cell • The principal components of a plasma membrane
4. The cell membrane is primarily composed of are lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol),
proteins and lipids. While lipids helps to give proteins and carbohydrates that are attached to
membrane their flexibility and proteins monitor some of the lipids (glycolipids) and some of the
and maintain the cell’s chemical climate and assists proteins (glycoprotein)
in the transfer of molecules across the membrane PHOSPHOLIPID
5. The lipid bilayer is semi – permeable, which allows • The phospholipid molecule is composed of a
only selected molecules to diffuse across the hydrophilic head and to hydrophobic tails. The
membrane. hydrophilic head group consist of a phosphate –
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE containing group attached to a glycerol molecule,
1. The plasma membrane is made of two layers of which has a polar character or negative charge.
phospholipids The hydrophobic tails, each containing either a
2. The plasma membrane has many proteins saturated or unsaturated fatty acids, are long
embedded with it hydrocarbon chain, which has no charge or non –
3. The plasma membrane regulates the entry and exit polar.
of the cells material. Many molecules cross the • A molecule with this arrangement of a positively
plasma membrane by diffusion and osmosis or negatively charge area an uncharged or non -
4. The fundamental structure of the membrane is polar area is referred to as amphipathic or “dual –
phospholipid bilayer and it forms a stable barrier loving”
between two aqueous compartment PROTEIN
5. The protein present in the plasma membrane, act • Protein make up the second major component of
as pumps, channels, receptors, enzymes or plasma membrane. Integral protein are integrated
structural component completely into the membrane structure.
Peripheral protein are found in the exterior and
interior surface of membrane, attached either to
integral protein or to phospholipid.
 • Peripheral protein are sometimes referred to as
“cell – specific” protein. The body recognizes its
own protein and attacks foreign protein associated
with invasive pathogens like viruses and bacteria.
CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates are the third major components of
plasma membrane. They are always found on the
exterior surface of cells and are bound either to
protein (forming glycoprotein) or to lipids
(forming glycolipids). Along with peripheral
protein, carbohydrates form specialized sites on
the cell surface that allow cell to recognize each
other.
LESSON 12 TRANSPORT MECHANISM 2. They pump out the water
PASSIVE TRANSPORT • Many single – celled organisms pump out water
• In passive transport substances cross the plasma as quickly as it enters. This organism rely on
membrane without the cell expending energy. specialized structure such as the contractile
The substances literally transport themselves. vacuoles.
Substances moves down the concentration 3. They bathe cells in blood
gradient (concentration difference). • Animals bathe their cells in blood or blood like
DIFFUSION liquids which have nearly the same
• Diffusion – the tendency for molecules of any concentrations of dissolved substances (isotonic)
substance to spread out into the available space. TONICITY/OSMOLARITY
• Molecules have intrinsic kinetic energy called Tonicity/ Osmolarity refers to solution with varying solute
thermal motion or heat. One result of thermal concentration
motion is diffusion. Diffusion is a spontaneous 1. Hypotonic/ Low osmolarity – the solution with a
process because it decreases free energy. Any lower concentration of solute, water will move
substance will diffuse down its concentration into the cell
gradient (move from higher concentration to 2. Hypertonic/ High osmolarity – the solution with
lower concentration). Water, alcohol, oxygen and a higher concentration of solutes, water will move
carbon dioxide diffuse directly across the plasma toward the solute.
membrane. 3. Isotonic – solution of equal concentration (no net
FACILITATED DIFFUSION movement of water)
• Many membrane contain protein channels that ACTIVE TRANSPORT
allows some substances to pass through. For • Movement of a substance against a concentration
example, the cell membrane of red blood cell, gradient is called active transport, and is always
contain a protein channels that allows free requires energy.
passage to glucose. As a result, glucose can • Active transport is a major factor in the ability of
diffuse into or out of the cell through this a cell to maintain internal concentration of small
channel. Because the diffusion of glucose is molecules that differs from concentration in the
facilitated, or help, by the protein this process surrounding environment.
facilitated diffusion. PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT: SODIUM POTASSIUM
OSMOSIS PUMP
• The diffusion of water through a selectively
permeable membrane is called osmosis.
Like any other substance water diffuses from
region of high concentration to low
concentration. When water moves by osmosis, it
can produce powerful pressure – osmotic
pressure, powerful enough to destroy a cell. If
uncontrolled, the cell would swell like a balloon
and burst.
THREE WAYS TO DEAL WITH OSMOTIC PRESSURE
1. They use cell wall SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Bacteria and plants are surrounded by strong, • Secondary active transport bring sodium ions,
tough cell walls. This prevent the cell from and possibly other compounds, into the cell. As
expanding, thus counteracting the osmotic sodium ion concentration build outside of the
pressure. plasma membrane because of the action of the
primary active transport process, an
electrochemical gradient is created. If a channel
 protein exist and is open, the sodium ions will be
pulled through the membrane. This movement is
used to transport other substances that can
attach themselves to the transport protein in the
membrane. Many amino acids, as well as glucose
enter a cell this way.
BULK TRANSPORT ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS
TRANSPORT LARGE MOLECULE
• One way in which cells import large materials is
literally to turn part of the plasma membrane
inside out. This process called endocytosis. In
endocytosis, the cell takes in macromolecule and
particulate matter by forming vesicles derived
from the plasma membrane.
THREE TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
• Phagocytosis – a cell engulf a particle (cell eating)
by wrapping pseudopodia around it and
packaging it within a membrane – enclose sac
large enough to be classified as a vacuoles. The
particle is digested after the vacuole fuses with a
lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes.
• Pinocytosis - the cell “gulps” droplets of
extracellular fluid in tiny vesicles (cell drinking).
Pinocytosis results in a much smaller vesicles than
does phagocytosis, and the vesicle does not need
to merge with a lysosome.
• Receptor – mediated endocytosis – is very
specific. Embedded in the membrane are protein
with specific receptor sites exposed to the
extracellular fluid.
EXOCYTOSIS
• During exocytosis, a vesicle budded from the Golgi
apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton to the
plasma membrane. When the vesicle membrane
and plasma membrane come into contact, the lipid
molecule of the two bilayers rearrange
themselves. The two membranes then fuse to
become continuous, and the content of the vesicle
spill to the outside of the cell. Examples release of
insulin from pancreas, secretion of
neurotransmitter (dopamine) from neuron.
LESSON 13 ENZYMES of the enzyme structure, it is a true
Enzyme prosthetic group.
• is an organic molecule that catalyze (speeds up) o – If the nonprotein component is weakly
chemical reaction without itself being used up in bound, and easily separated from
the reaction. the rest of the protein, it is called a
TWO TYPES OF ENZYME cofactor.
1. Anabolic Enzyme – enzymes that help build new o • When the cofactor is an organic
cells or a assemble important compound. substance, it is a coenzyme. The cofactor
2. Catabolic Enzyme – enzymes that break down may also be an inorganic ion (usually a
their substrate like digestion and oxidation of metal cation, such as Mg2+, Zn2+, or
glucose. Fe2+).
ENZYME STRUCTURE o • The protein portion is called an
• Enzymes are proteins, and their function is apoenzyme: apoenzyme + cofactor
determined by their complex structure. The (coenzyme or inorganic ion) 🡪 active
reaction takes place in a small part of the enzyme enzyme
called the active site, while the rest of the protein THE EFFECT OF ENZYME ON RATE OF REACTION
acts as "scaffolding". This is shown in this diagram • The way enzymes work can also be shown by
of a molecule of the enzyme trypsin, with a short looking at the energy changes during a chemical
length of protein being digested in its active site. reaction. In a reaction where the product has a
The amino acids around the active site attach to lower energy than the substrate, the substrate
the substrate molecule and hold it in position naturally turns into product (i.e. the equilibrium
while the reaction takes place. This makes the lies in the direction of the product). Before it can
enzyme specific for one reaction only, as other change into product, the substrate must overcome
molecules won't fit into the active site – their an "energy barrier" called the activation energy.
shape is wrong. • The larger the activation energy is, the slower the
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES reaction will be. This is because only a few
• The catalytic behavior of proteins acting as substrate molecules will have sufficient energy to
enzymes is one of the most important functions overcome the activation energy barrier. Imagine
that they perform in living cells. pushing boulders over a hump before they can roll
• Without catalysts, most cellular reactions would down hill, and you have the idea. Most biological
take place too slowly to support life. reactions have large activation energies, so they
• With the exception of some RNA molecules, all without enzymes they happen far too slowly to be
enzymes are globular proteins. useful. Enzymes reduce the activation energy of a
• Enzymes are extremely efficient catalysts, and reaction so that the kinetic energy of most
some can increase reaction rates by molecules exceeds the activation energy required
1020 times that of the uncatalyzed reactions. and so they can react.
• Enzymes are well suited to their roles in three THE MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
major ways: they have enormous catalytic • Enzymes differ widely in structure and specificity,
power, they are highly specific in the reactions but a general theory that accounts for their
they catalyze, and their activity as catalysts can be catalytic behavior is widely accepted.
regulated. • The enzyme and its substrates interact only over a
ENZYME COFACTORS small region of the surface of the enzyme, called
• Conjugated proteins function only in the presence the active site.
of specific nonprotein molecules or metal ions • When the substrate binds to the active site via
called prosthetic groups. some combination of intermolecular forces, an
o – If the nonprotein component is tightly enzyme-substrate (ES) complex is formed.
bound, and forms an integral part
 • Once the complex forms, the conversion of the FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY
substrate (S) to product (P) takes Temperature
place: • Like all reactions, the rate of enzyme-catalyzed
LOCK-AND-KEY THEORY reactions increases with temperature.
• The lock-and-key theory explains the high • Because enzymes are proteins, beyond a certain
specificity of enzyme activity. Enzyme surfaces temperature, the enzyme denatures.
accommodate substrates having specific shapes • Every enzyme-catalyzed reaction has an optimum
and sizes, so only specific substances “fit” in an temperature at which the enzyme activity is
active site to form an ES complex. highest, usually from 25º-40ºC; above or below
• A limitation of this theory is that it requires that value, the rate is lower.
enzymes conformations to be rigid. Research The Effect of pH
suggests that instead enzymes are at least • Raising or lowering the pH influences the acidic
somewhat flexible. and basic side chains in enzymes. Many enzymes
INDUCED-FIT THEORY are also denatured by pH extremes. (E.g., pickling
• A modification of the lock-and-key theory called in acetic acid [vinegar] preserves food by
the induced-fit theory proposes that enzymes deactivating bacterial enzymes.)
have flexible conformations that may adapt to • Many enzymes have an optimum pH, where
incoming substrates. activity is highest, near a pH of 7, but some operate
• The active site adopts a shape that is better at low pH (e.g., pepsin in the stomach).
complementary to the substrate only after the FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY
substrate is bound. Inhibitors
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY • Inhibitors inhibit the activity of enzymes, reducing
Enzyme Concentration the rate of their reactions. They are found
• The concentration of an enzyme, [E], is typically naturally, but are also used artificially as drugs,
low compared to that of the substrate. Increasing pesticides and research tools. There are two kinds
[E] also increases the rate of the reaction: • of inhibitors.
• The rate of the reaction is directly proportional to • A competitive inhibitor molecule has a similar
the concentration of the enzyme (doubling [E] structure to the substrate molecule, and so it can
doubles the rate of the reaction), thus, a graph of fit into the active site of the enzyme. It therefore
reaction rate vs. enzyme concentration is a straight competes with the substrate for the active site, so
line: the reaction is slower. Increasing the concentration
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY of substrate restores the reaction rate and the
Substrate Concentration inhibition is usually temporary and reversible.
• The concentration of substrate, [S], also affects the • b) A non-competitive inhibitor molecule is quite
rate of the reaction. different in structure from the substrate and does
• Increasing [S] increases the rate of the reaction, not fit into the active site. It binds to another part
but eventually, the rate reaches a maximum of the enzyme molecule, changing the shape of the
(vmax), and remains constant after that. whole enzyme, including the active site, so that it
• The maximum rate is reach when the enzyme is can no longer bind substrate molecules. Non-
saturated with substrate, and cannot react any competitive inhibitors therefore simply reduce the
faster under those conditions. amount of active enzyme.

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