What is research?

Research is a systematic work and investigation undertaken to increase the stock of

knowledge, including knowledge of human aspects, society, science and culture. The goal
is to use and invest this stock of knowledge to understand various phenomena and devise
new applications related to these different fields

Why conduct research?

Research is used to establish or confirm facts, confirm the results of previous work,
solve new or existing problems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an
expansion on past work in the field. It can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic.
In the example of a school research project, it can be used to further prepare students for
future jobs or reports.
Forms and types of research
There are several forms of research depending on the field of inquiry: scientific,
humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing , technological, etc. The
typology of research varies according to the objective of the research and the information
required. Among the main types of research mentioned by such scholars as Collis and
Hussey (2003), Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (1998), Denscombe (2003) and Bell (2005), the
following can be listed:
-The descriptive and the analytical research: The objective of the descriptive research is
to describe and report what exists and happens in society. It is used to identify and classify
the elements of the subject under study. The analytical research, on the other hand, uses
information and available facts and analyses them to make a critical evaluation and
explanation of the phenomena. The focus here is not on what exists or happens, but on why
a phenomenon exists and happens.
- The applied and the fundamental research: The applied research, sometimes referred
to as action research, has a major aim, which is to find a solution or solutions for a problem
facing a society, an institution or a system. An example is action research carried out in
education to find immediate practical solutions to some teaching- learning problems. On
the other hand, the fundamental research, also called basic research, is an investigation
whose focus is to better understand a subject or a phenomenon. It is meant to increase
scientific knowledge and generate new ideas without being concerned with providing
immediate solutions.
-The positivist and the interpretive research: The central aim of the positivist research
(the classical scientific approach or the empirical research) is to give explanation and to
demonstrate causal relationships through experimentation (Robson, 2002). This type of
research is contrasted to the interpretive research. The focus here is not on showing causal
relationships through experimentation, but on giving explanations through careful
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Research approaches
Concerning the approaches to research, basically there are two major approaches to
research. These are the quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. The first one
consists of generating information in quantitative forms that can be analyzed in a rigorous
quantitative way. It uses some research tools such as questionnaires and surveys. The second
type of research approach is the qualitative approach. This type is concerned with the
subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Data are generated in non-
quantitative forms, and they are not subject to quantitative analysis. It uses such techniques as
interviews, observations, focus groups, document analysis and tests to understand individuals’
perception of the world rather than seeking statistical data.
A further research approach can be added. This is the mixed approach which combines
both the quantitative and the qualitative approaches. Such mixed approach design has gained
acceptability and credibility among researchers, with a relatively growing number of studies
claiming that it has benefits in terms of understanding and validation of results. In this
respect, the pragmatists’ view towards these approaches is shared seeing them as
complementing each other and that “in principle all data collection procedures are legitimate
for almost all research design.” (Seliger and Shohamy, 1989: 158). Qualitative measures,
then, can be added to quantitative ones to gain a better understanding of the meaning and
implications of research findings.
Characteristics of research
The following list presents the characteristics of research;
- A research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
- A research requires expertise.
- A research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that
will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
- A research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.
- A research demands accurate observation and description.
- A research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
- A research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous
analysis.
- A research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.
- A research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate
the procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached.

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Research process
A research process consists of series of actions or steps which are necessary to
effectively carry out research. These actions or steps are summed up in the following list:
- Formulating the research problem
- Extensive literature survey
- Developing the research hypothesis
- Preparing the research design
- Determining sample design
- Collecting the research data
- Execution of the project
- Data analysis and discussion
- Hypothesis testing
- Generalization and interpretation
- Preparing the report and presentation of the result

1. Formulation of the research problem

At the very outset, the researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject matter that he/ she would like to inquire into. Then the research problem should be
formulated. Remember research implies a starting point which is the research problem. This
should be clear from the beginning.
2. Extensive literature survey
Once the problem is formulated, the researcher should undertake extensive literature
survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books etc. depending on the nature of the problem should
be consulted.
3. Development of working hypothesis
After extensive literature survey, a researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. A working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It is very important since it provides
the focal point for research.
4. Preparing the research design
After framing the hypotheses, we have to prepare a research design i.e. we have to state
the conceptual structure within which a research would be conducted. The preparation of such
a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. The
function of research design is to provide optimum effort, time and expenditure for the
collection of relevant evidence.

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 5. Determining sample design
A sample design is a definite plan determined, before any data is actually collected, for
obtaining a sample from a given population. Sample designs can be either probability or non-
probability. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included
in the sample, but the non-probability samples do not allow the researchers to determine this
probability.
6. Collecting the data
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in
terms of cost, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be
collected either through experiment or through survey. In case of survey, data can be collected
by any one or more of the following ways: observation, personal interview, telephonic
interviews, distributing/ mailing of questionnaires etc…
7. Execution of the project
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution
of the project proceeds on correct ways, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the
survey realistic as much as possible.
8. Data analysis and discussion
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inference. Analysis work, after tabulation, is generally
based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients etc., by applying various well
defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships of differences supporting
or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.
After you have collected an adequate number of responses to your survey, take a look at
the data to see what they say. Gaining an accurate understanding of your survey results is the
final step in the survey process. You may be interested in Quantitative (Numeric) Data. That
is using statistics and considering how many respondents have this or that answer. You may
also be interested in Qualitative Data analysis. In this respect, start by reading all the
comments to have an idea about the answers of the respondents. Then categorize the
comments into different areas. Look for links between the numeric results and the comments.
When presenting results bear in mind that “The key skill is first to decide what results are
representative, and then organize them in a sequence that highlights the answers to the aims,
hypotheses or questions that you set yourself at the beginning of the paper. In many
disciplines this involves the use of figures and tables, which are commented on in the text. In
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other disciplines, findings are only reported in text form.” Wallwork (2016: 296).
9. Hypothesis testing
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he
had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary?
This is the usual question which should be answered by applying various tests. Hypothesis
testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated.

10. Generalizations and interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested, it may be possible for the researcher to make generalization.
As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to get certain generalizations. If
the researcher has no hypothesis to start with and test, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. This process is known as interpretation.
11. Preparation of the report
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what he has done. The layout of the
report should be as follows: the preliminary pages, the main text and end matter. The
preliminary pages carry the title, acknowledgements and forward and then (index). The main
text of the report should have introduction, review of literature, research methodology and
data analysis and discussion.
Criteria of good research
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
- The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
- The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the researcher for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.

- The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.
- The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
- Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
should be limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
- The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. A word need to be
said about these two substantial elements of research together with some ethical
consideration related to research in the following section.

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Validity, reliability and ethical consideration in research
1. Validity
Validity is a basic criterion of research tools. It is described as the degree to which a
research study measures what it intends to measure. There are two main types of validity,
internal and external. Internal validity refers to the validity of the measurement and the test
itself, whereas external validity refers to the ability to generalize the findings to the target
population. Both are very important in analysing the appropriateness, meaningfulness and
usefulness of a research study.

A distinction is also made between face validity and content validity. Face validity
refers to whether a technique looks as if it should measure the variable it intends to measure.
To guarantee face validity, all the questions included in a research tool should be formulated
in a simple language to ensure clarity and ease of understanding for the respondents. The
piloting stage as a trial administration of the research tools is of great importance to gauge the
clarity of the questions and the appropriateness of the difficulty level for the respondents.
Content validity is defined by Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2007) as a form of validity
that ensures that the specified elements of an issue to be examined in a research project are
enough in terms of representing the wider issue under investigation. Some main components
of the study should be specified and should be under control. These areas constitute the main
axes of the study. In other words, the research tools should be oriented to measure what we
intend to measure.
Briefly, validity is important because if the results of a study are not deemed to be valid,
then they are meaningless to the study. If the research tool does not measure what we want it
to measure, then the results cannot be used to answer the research question which is the main
aim of the study. These results cannot, then, be used to generalize any findings and become a
waste of time and effort.

2. Reliability
This is another criterion which is mainly used to describe the overall consistency (or
repeatability) of a measure. Polit and Hungler (1993) refer to reliability as the degree of
consistency with which an instrument measures the attribute it is designed to measure. This is
guaranteed by administering the same form of each tool to all the concerned target population.
3. Ethical considerations
To abide by the ethics of research, researchers should do their best to secure honesty,
anonymity, confidentiality and informed consent. The latter is very crucial in research. It is
defined by Burns and Grove (1993) as the agreement of the prospective subjects to participate
in a study. Consent should be received from the respondents to participate voluntarily in
research. The objectives and scientific purpose of the study should also be explained.
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