PART II.

LANGUAGE USAGE

VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT
Using context clues to understand the meaning of unfamiliar words will help you in several ways:
 It will save you time when reading.
 After you figure out the meaning of the same word more than once through its context, it may become
part of your working vocabulary.
 You will get a good sense of how a word is actually used, including any shades of meaning it might
have.
TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES
These are the four common types of context clues:
1. Examples
2. Synonyms
3. Antonyms
4. General sense of the sentence or passage

1. EXAMPLES
- Examples may suggest the meaning of an unknown word.
For example: “The adverse effects of this drug, including dizziness, nausea, and headache, have caused it to be
withdrawn from the market.”
Activity:
1. The nocturnal creatures, such as bats and owl, have highly developed senses that enable them to
function in the dark.
a. Feathery b. Living c. Active at night
2. Mundane activities such as doing the laundry or dishes or going food shopping or reading the
newspaper all help me relax.
a. Exciting b. Painful c. Ordinary
3. Instance of common euphemism include “final resting place”, “intoxicated”, or “restroom”.
a. Unpleasant reactions b. Answers c. Substitute for offensive terms

2. SYNONYMS
- a word that means the same or almost the same as the unknown word. A synonym may appear
anywhere in a passage to provide the same meaning as the unknown word.
For example: “My doctor said smoking could terminate my life. But I told him, “Everybody’s life has to end
some time.”
Activity:
1. Fresh garlic may not enhance the breath, but it certainly does improve spaghetti sauce.
a. Improve b. Soothe c. disrespectful
2. As soon as I made a flippant remark to my boss, I regret sounding so disrespectful.
a. Improve b. Soothe c. disrespectful
3. Although the salesperson tried to assuage the angry costumer, there was no way to soothe her.
a. Improve b. Soothe c. disrespectful

3. ANTONYMS
- a word that means the opposite of another word. It has also signal words and phrases such as
however, but, yet, on the other hand, and in contrast.
For example: “It is a special hearing aid. It lowers criticism and amplifies compliments.”
Activity:
1. Many people have pointed out the harmful effects that a working mother may have on the family, yet
there are many salutary effects as well.
a. Well-known b. Beneficial c. Harmful
2. Trying to control everything your teens do can impede their growth. To advance their development,
allow them to make some decisions on their own.
a. block b. predict c. improve
3. During their training, police officers must respond to simulated emergencies in preparation for dealing
with real ones.
a. made-up b. mild c. actual

5. GENERAL SENSE OF THE SENTENCE OR PASSAGE

- Draw conclusion based on the information given with the word.
For example: “I’d like a prescription that will alleviate my aches and pains and also make me younger and
thinner.”
Activity:
1. A former employee irate over having been fired, broke into a plant and deliberately wrecked several
machines.
a. relieved b. very angry c. undecided
2. Despite of the proximity of Ron’s house to his sister, he rarely sees her.
a. similarly b. nearness c. superiority
3. The car was we organized to raise funds was a fiasco- it rained all day.
a. great financial success b. welcome surprise c. complete disaster

ERROR IDENTIFICATION
Here are a couple of suggestions that will help you identify the error:
 Listen to the sound of the sentence as you read.
 Repeat the underlined section, still listening to something wrong.
 If the answer is not obvious to you, use the process of elimination to choose your response. Remember
choice E is just as valid as any of the other responses.

Common Grammar and Usage Errors

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
-Agreement is just that- two or more items or people in accord. The number of the subject and the
number of the verb must agree.
For example: “Tess ate my slipper.”

 A singular subject takes a singular verb.

Ex. A penny saved will hardly buy you very much.
 A plural subject takes a plural verb.
Ex. Cobras are not the best choice of pet for small children.
 Collective nouns such as jury and team may be singular or plural, whether they are intended to be taken
as a whole group (singular) or as separate individuals (plural).
Ex. The jury has made its decision.
  Indefinite pronouns (someone, everyone, nobody) are singular, and despite the many times you will
hear them wrongly used, each takes a singular verb.
Ex. Everyone must put on his own shoulder pads before going to football practice.
*A very few indefinite pronouns can be either singular or plural. If you think about these, this exception
will make sense: all, any, more, most, none, some. Don’t let these bother you. If you are presented with
any of them, the sense of the sentence will most likely indicate how they are to be used.
 The subject and verb are separated by an interruptive phrase or clause. This is a favorite on tests like
this. Just remember to find the verb, ask who or what, and that will be your subject. Then, if there is a
prepositional phrase, or any other phrase, between the two trying to confuse you, you won’t fall for the
trick.
Ex. The box of apples is on the table.
Activity:
1. The strangely distorted, colorful pictures by Picasso has received much attention not only from the
A B C
critics, but also from the general public. No error.
D E
2. Everyone who plans to attend the senior retreat need to pack appropriate camping supplies. No error.
A B C D E
3. The Student Council came to verbal blows in disagreement over the choice of theme for the winter
A B C
dance that would be held the next month. No error.
D E
VERBS
- Every verb has four principal forms: the present, present participle, past, and past participle.
 Use the present when you are talking about something in the present or future:
Ex. I walk. OR I will walk.
 Use the present participle to form progressive tenses:
Ex. I am walking. OR I was walking.
 Use the past when you are talking about what has happened in the simple past:
Ex. I walked.
 Use the past participle to form the perfect tenses:
Ex. I have walked. (present) OR I had walked. (past) OR I will have walked. (future)
Activity:
1. Before I went to the Mall of America, I had laid down to take a nap, knowing that I would need a lot of
A B C
energy to cover all the stores I wanted to, shopping for a prom dress. No error.
D E
2. It is questionable whether or not Shakespeare had wrote his own plays or not; many think that Francis
A B C
Bacon may have been the writer. No error.
D E
MISUSED AND CONFUSED
Here are some commonly confused or misused words:
 Accept/Except: Accept is a verb meaning to agree to. Except is a preposition indicating exclusion.
 Affect/Effect: Affect is the verb; effect is the noun.
 Among/Between: Among has to do with three or more, and between has to do with only two.
  Amount of/Number of: Amount has to do with a bulk quantity and cannot be counted. Number refers
to things that can be counted.
 Because/That: To say “the reason is because. . .” is considered redundant in standard English; use the
word that instead.
 Disinterested/Uninterested: The two words mean different things, and the distinction is valuable to
know. To be disinterested is to be impartial. If you are disinterested, you are interested, but your
emotions are not involved. If you take no interest, you are uninterested.
 Fewer/Less: Use fewer with things that can be counted; use less with things that cannot be counted.
 Irregardless: Bottom line—there is NO such word in our language.
 It’s/Its: This is a troubling twosome. It’s is a contraction meaning it is. Its denotes the possessive
pronoun.
 Passed/Past: Passed is a verb. Past can be a noun meaning long ago, a preposition meaning by or
beyond; or an adjective meaning former.
 Principal/Principle: Principal can be a noun as in a person who is in charge of a school or an adjective
that means the main one. A principle is an ideal or standard.
 Regardless/Irregardless: Just remember one thing—there is NO such word as irregardless.
 Their/There/They’re: Their is a possessive pronoun showing ownership. There is an adverb that
indicates place or location. They’re is a contraction for two words, they are.
 Who’s/Whose: Who’s is a contraction for who is. Whose is a possessive pronoun showing ownership.
 Your/You’re: Your is a possessive pronoun indicating ownership. You’re is a contraction for you are.
PRONOUN NUMBER
- Number refers to a pronoun as being singular or plural. Remember a pronoun is used in place of or
to make reference to a noun. Therefore, if the noun is singular, the pronoun used to reference it
must be singular. If the noun is plural, then the pronoun must be plural in number.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
- Adjectives are modifiers or describers. They give us details about the noun or pronoun to which
they are attached.
- Adverbs modify verbs most of the time. They can also modify adjectives and other adverbs.
ESSENTIAL AND NONESSENTIAL INFORMATION
- Although this may seem like a minor aspect of punctuation, proper comma placement of essential
and unessential information can be tricky. The mantra to remember is no commas (essential) or two
commas (nonessential). If information is essential to the meaning of the sentence, it means that it
lends clarity and understanding to the sentence. If information is nonessential, it can be removed,
and you have not lost any crucial information in making the sentence clear.
Activity:
1. Carlos did not want to go to the Frost Daze Dance, nevertheless, his friends convinced him to attend the
A B C
once-in a-lifetime event, and he also knew his grandmamma wanted him to socialize more. No error.
D E
2. Whenever we went to the mall, my friends and I always visit The Gap, our favorite store. No error.
A B C D E
3. Ashar is a student who recognizes that theres a time to buckle down and study, and there’s time to have
A B C D
fun with her friends. No error
E
IDIOMATIC EXPRESSION
Definition of an idiom: a word or words that is or are peculiar to a particular language.
Definition of an idiomatic expression: an expression whose meanings cannot be inferred from the meanings
of the words that comprises it.

IDIOMS REFERRING TO THE NATURAL WORLD

Here are just a few of the most common:
 Raining cats and dogs When you hear someone say “it’s raining cats and dogs’’ you can bet that there
is a downpour of heavy, torrential rain. Don’t forget your umbrella!
 Hold your horses Calm down when you hear this expression. It doesn’t mean you literally have horses,
instead it means that someone is asking you to take it slow, and reconsider before acting.
 Make hay while the sun shines The expression above is an order: don’t waste time; work hard
whenever you have the opportunity. Here, “hay’’ means ‘’money’’, so, this expression probably arose
from the fact that farmers have to take advantage of the good weather if they want to grow profitable
crops.
 Under the weather If one day you don’t feel very well, you can show off your English and say ‘’I am
feeling under the weather,’’ which means that you are feeling ill.
 When pigs fly If someone says ‘’I’ll do it when pigs fly’’, it really means that they will never do it.
 Over the moon Have you ever felt like jumping for joy? You feel that way when you’re “over the
moon.” This means you’re extremely happy.
 Till the cows come home Cows are known for wandering very slowly. If someone wants to say in
English that someone is slow or takes too long, they could use this expression. For example: “He loves
reading. He could stay at the library till the cows come home.” (He loves to read, so he could be in the
library until wee hours of the night.)
 It is like herding frogs Imagine how difficult it would be to gather hundreds of frogs in the same space.
Can you picture the chaos? This expression means that an action is complicated, chaotic or nearly
impossible.
 A sitting duck If you hear someone say, “Her silly comments made her a sitting duck for jokes,’’ it
means that the silly comments she made left her as an easy target for jokes. So, a sitting duck means
an easy target to attack.
 Every rose has its thorn Roses are beautiful and elegant, but they all have thorns. Like roses, all good
things have a negative side, and that is exactly what this phrase means.

IDIOMS REFERRING TO PARTS OF THE BODY

 To have butterflies in one’s stomach- You can use this phrase when you are excited or even in love. It
may also represent a sense of fear or anguish. To get “butterflies in the stomach” is a very common
expression to describe for nervous excitement.
 Feel it in your bones - Do you trust your intuition? Then you are “feeling it in your bones.” You can
use this expression for a good or a bad feeling.
 Hands down- When someone or something is an undisputed winner, we say that it is the winner
“hands down.”
 This cost an arm and a leg You will use this expression when a product or service is pretty expensive:
‘’Do you want a Montblanc pen? They cost an arm and a leg!’’ (Do you want a Montblanc pen? They
are very expensive!)
  Slap on the wrist A “slap on the wrist” is a small, but non-physical punishment. For example: ‘’He
stole from the Company and just got a warning. It was a slap on the wrist!’’ (He stole from the
Company and just got a warning. It was a minimal punishment!)
 Get cold feet The expression “cold feet’’ means that a person has become nervous or afraid of doing
something that was already planned. Fox example: “He was planning to ask her out on a date, but got
cold feet at the very last minute.”
 Have your mind set on something Is George Harrison your favorite Beatle? Then you will probably
have already heard the expression “I’ve got my mind set on you.’’ If you say that you’ve “got your
mind set” on something, it means that you have already decided on accomplishing something.
 Born with a silver spoon in your mouth Is synonymous with wealth, It means born into an aristocratic
or very rich family: “James doesn’t know a nything about working for a living; he was born with a
silver spoon in his mouth”.
 Skin-deep Something with a depth measured as only ‘’skin-deep’’ is easy to imagine: it’s superficial,
without much importance or significance. You can use this expression as in the following example:
‘’Her interest for politics is only skin-deep.’’ This means her interest in politics is only superficial.

IDIOMS TO TALK ABOUT FEELINGS OR EMOTIONS

 There are so many expressions referring to emotions using the heart that it’s difficult to learn all of
them “by heart.’’
 To wear your heart on your sleeve- If you “wear your heart on your sleeve,” you are showing your
emotions and making your feelings clear.
 Get at the heart of the matter- This is an expression that means to reach the main point or get to the
point. In a meeting, if you want to go straight to the main problem, you can say: “I´d like to get right to
the heart of the matter.’’
 Cross your heart and hope to die -This is a strong expression to use when you want to swear that
you’re telling the truth. For example: “I cross my heart and hope to die, if I’m lying!’’.
 Close to your heart -By saying that something is “close to your heart,” you’re saying that it is an
important issue for you and that you are very interested in it. It can be used, for example, about a cause
that you stand for: “Animal rights are very close to my heart.”
 Have a change of heart -Don’t worry, no one is going to give you a heart transplant. Having a “change
of heart” simply means that you’ve changed your mind about something.
 Eat your heart out -Don’t take it literally! This expression is usually an exclamation that tells people
they should be envious. For example: ‘’I’m going to New York this weekend! Eat your heart out!’’ (I’m
going to New York this weekend! Be jealous!)
 Have your heart in the right place Has anyone ever told you that your “heart is in the right place?” -
This phrase recognizes that your intentions are good, even if you’ve made a mistake. For example:
‘’The dinner she cooked was terrible, but she had her heart in the right place.’’ (The dinner she cooked
was terrible, but she did it with the best intention.)
 Cry your heart out- This means to mourn inconsolably and cry till you drop, or until you no longer
have any tears left. You can see this common expression in the title of a song by Oasis: ‘’Stop crying
your heart out.’’
 Heart skips/misses a beat -When you face something unexpected, meet someone you like, or when
your heart seems to have stopped when you are taken by surprise, these are all feelings that make your
“heart skip a beat.”
 Pour your heart out -This expression means to open your heart by sharing a deep secret or emotionally
describing everything you feel.
IDIOMS TO DESCRIBE A BAD MOOD
 Blow a fuse -A “fuse” or a wick is used to light an explosive. This expression means losing control or
being too angry. For example: ‘’He spilled coffee on me and I blew a fuse,’’ meaning: “He spilled
coffee on me and I got very angry.’’
 Get on your nerves- This happens when someone or something really irritates you. For instance, “All
this noise gets on my nerves!’’ (All this noise irritates me!)
 Get Lost! You might say this when a person has upset you want him or her to go away and leave you
alone.
 Cut it out!- Alternatively, you might say to a person who is irritating you: “Cut it out!” That is, to stop.
 Come down like a ton of bricks Now, if you want a person to stop (cut it out), then ask him or her to
leave (get lost). If that doesn’t work, a possible approach is to tell that person what you really think and
“come down on them like a ton of bricks.” You might say: “He got on my nerves, so I came down on
him like a ton of bricks.” (He got on my nerves, so I criticized him.)
 Give someone a piece of your mind -There are times when you just have to say what you think. In those
situations, you must “give someone a piece of your mind”. For example: “She parked on my spot for
the sixth time this week, so I had to give her a piece of my mind.” (She parked in my spot for the sixth
consecutive time, and I had to tell her the truth of how I really felt about it.)
 Rub someone up the wrong way- Imagine petting a cat against their fur: that’s “rubbing it the wrong
way.” Occasionally you might meet someone who makes you feel like that cat. Some people just “rub
you the wrong way.” and annoy or irritate without a reason.
 Get off my back! If someone is annoying you so much that you want him or her to leave you alone,
you can tell them to: “Get off my back!” This is a strong request not to be disturbed.
 For crying out loud!-This is a common English phrase used to express exasperation. It´s like saying
“Oh for goodness sake!” It can be followed by an order: “For crying out loud, turn that videogame off!”
(Oh for goodness sake, turn that video game off!)
 At your wits’ end - This when your patience is running out and you don’t know what to do with the
situation. “I’m almost at my wit’s end trying to deal with this chaos!” (I’m tired of trying to deal with
this chaos!)

IDIOMS TO EXPRESS UNDERSTANDING

 Shed light -When you “shed light” on a topic, it is clearer to understand. For example: “The teacher
explained again and shed light on the process.” (The teacher explained again and made the process
clearer.)
 Get someone’s drift -Did you understand what a friend said? Then you could say that you “got his
drift.”
 Get it -This expression is very similar to “get someone’s drift,” while being even more direct. It can
be used as a complete sentence, with an object, or as a phrase: “I get it, you need to rest.” (I
understand that you need to rest.) “Get it?” (Did you understand?)
 Get the message / picture -This is another way of saying that you understand. For example: “Did you
get the message?” (Did you understand?)
 Hammer home -If you want to be really sure someone understands what you’re saying, then you need to
“hammer your point home.” For instance, “She repeated her point three times to really hammer it
home.”
 Wrap your brain around -To understand something that is going to require more concentration and
effort, you’ll need to “wrap your brain around it.”
  Get wise to- When you discover that someone is trying to trick or deceive you, you could say that you
“got wise to” their intentions. For example: “I thought she was paying me a compliment, but I soon
got wise to the fact she was really teasing me.”
 Take a hint -This means to understand an indirect suggestion. “Take a hint!” can also be used as a
command or an exclamation.
 Figure someone/something out- This expression means to make sense of something. When you
“figure something out,” you finally understand it. This expression can also be used for people: “I can’t
figure him out, he is confusing!” (I can’t understand him, he confuses me!)

IDIOMS ABOUT HAVING FUN

 Let your hair down -This expression is more often used as advice to tell someone to rest or relax. For
instance: “It’s Saturday night, you can let your hair down!” (It’s Saturday night, you can relax!)
 Have the time of your life -Literally, this phrase means “the moment of your life”. The idiomatic
meaning is similar: to have a lot of fun, or to have the best day of your life. For example: “My son had
the time of his life at Disney World.” (My son had the best day at Disney World.)
 With bells on -Are you going to a party? Go “with bells on.” In other words, go with enthusiasm,
ready to have fun. “Is it your birthday party? I’ll be there with bells on!” (Is it your birthday party?
You can count on me to be there and have fun!)
 Take it easy -This expression is commonly used as a suggestion or request, to ask someone to relax or
calm down. For example: “Hey, take it easy, you can’t work 12 hours a day, every day.” (Hey, relax,
you can´t work 12 hours a day every day.)
 The world is your oyster -This is another funny phrase if taken literally. After all, if the world were an
oyster, you would be stuck in a shell. As an idiomatic expression however, this phrase means that you
are free to enjoy the pleasures of life and the opportunities it offers; the sky is the limit.
 To get along like a house on fire -This expression can be misleading, as a “house on fire” certainly
doesn’t sound positive. However, if two people “get along like a house on fire,” they actually like each
other and get along really well.
 More fun than a barrel of monkeys -If you imagine a big group of monkeys, you’d probably think of
them as energetic, excitable and probably quite entertaining. Something that is “more fun than a barrel
of monkeys” is very entertaining.
 Chill out -If someone says “I’m going to chill out,” it means they’re going to relax and enjoy life. For
example: “After working late, at the end of the day, I go home where I can chill out.” (After working
late, at the end of the day, I go home where I can relax.)
 Have a ball / have a blast -These two expressions have the same meaning: to really enjoy something
and have fun. “The party was great, I had a blast!” (The party was great, I really enjoyed it!)
 Paint the town (red) would you like to go out and have fun, or do something exciting? You can invite
someone to join you by saying: “Let’s go out and paint the town red!” (Let´s go out and have fun!) The
“red” in the phrase is optional. Today, the term is more common without it.

PARAGRAPH ORGANIZATION
What is a Paragraph?
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines “paragraph” as “a subdivision of a written composition that
consists of one or more sentences, deals with one point or gives the words of one speaker, and begins on a new
usually indented line”.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as “[a] distinct section of a piece of writing, usually dealing
with a single theme and indicated by a new line, indentation, or numbering.”
 The Structure of a Paragraph
• Topic Sentence (T.S.)
• Supporting Sentences (S.S.)
• Closing Sentence (C.S)

1. Topic Sentence (Main Idea)

• Is usually at the beginning of a paragraph.
• Expresses the main idea of the paragraph.
• Provides additional information related to the characteristics of the paragraph (narrative, expository,
descriptive, and persuasive).
2. Supporting Sentences
• Provide information that strengthens the topic sentence. • Typically consist of a minimum of three
sentences.
• Elucidate the main idea by explaining, describing, stating a consequence or providing examples.
3. Closing Sentences
• Tell the reader that your paragraph is ending.
• Summarize the discussion of your paragraph.
• Include the key points of your paragraph.
• Create a transition to the next paragraph.
• Are also called concluding sentences.
Ex.
My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features (T.S.). First, it is noted for the Wheaton
River, which is very wide and beautiful (S.S.#1). On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many
willow trees which have long branches that can move gracefully in the wind (S.S.#2). Also, on the other side of
the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep (S.S.#3). The third amazing feature is the
Big Old Tree (S.S.#4). This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old
(S.S.#5). These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous place (C.S.).

UNITY, COHERENCE, AND ORDER IN A PARAGRAPH

What Does Having Unity in a Paragraph Mean?

• The paragraph focuses on the main idea expressed in your topic sentence.
• The supporting sentences explain and build on the main idea.
• The closing sentence ends the paragraph with the same idea.

What is Coherence in a Paragraph?

• It establishes a relationship among the ideas presented in a paragraph.
• It uses transitions to show the connection among ideas. You may use transitional phrases or words, as well as
sentences that point towards the next idea.
• It uses details to ensure the relationship among ideas is clear.
• It helps the reader to understand the paragraph.

What is Order in a Paragraph?

• Establishes a logical and clear train of thought.
• Indicates how your ideas will be expressed.
• Denotes why these ideas are expressed in a specific manner.
READING COMPREHENSION
- It is the ability to process text, understand its meaning, and to integrate with what the reader already
knows.
Levels of Processing in Reading Comprehension
1. BOTTOM-UP Processing
- Words are formed into phrase, and phrases are formed into more abstract units called propositions
or ideas. These processes require knowledge of syntax (grammar).
- This is often termed as LITERAL COMPREHENSION.
2. TOP-DOWN Processing
- Occurs when higher level information, just as knowledge of the general topic of the text, helps the
reader identify lower-level information.
- This is called as INTERACTIVE PROCESSING

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION
DIALOGUE OR CONVERSATION FRAGMENTS

References

Vocabulary in Context.scribd
Idiomatic Expressions, American University, Academic Support Center, Writing Lab, updated 2009.pdf
Structure of paragraph.pdf
John, R.K, Reading Comprehension: Its nature and development (2017)