Mr. Sajid Rahman B.Com, LL.M.

(Corporate & Commercial Law)

Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

*** The notes are a brief overview. Add more case studies, examples, etc. subject to
availability.

A. Use of Law Library in Research

Introduction

Research is perhaps as old as mankind. If necessity was the mother of invention, it was
also the mother of discovery. The primitive man’s needs must have sent him in search not only
of food but also of knowledge. The process was the acquisition of knowledge, the quest for
truth, and the exploration of the unexplored. Since the area unexplored was at that time vast,
every discovery must have been a grand thrill.

Legal Research is indispensable for systematic investigation of problems of law or any

matter connected with law. Research, therefore, is to be pursued to obtain a better knowledge
of law and understanding of any problem that may be integral to better and more effective
legislation connected with the area which may be for example having sociological or economic
import.

Legal research is “the process of identifying and retrieving information necessary to

support legal decision-making. In its broadest sense, legal research includes each step of a
course of action that begins with an analysis of the facts of a problem and concludes with the
application and communication of the results of the investigation.”

A Law Library is a collection of legal materials such as Case Laws, Constitutions,

Legislations, Legal Articles, Reporting Journals, Parliamentary Proceedings, legal
monographs, treatises, Judicial and administrative decisions, and other legal resources related
to national and international means in print as well as digital form of media, for a specific class
of users such as Law Students, Legal Scholars, Researchers, Judges, Advocates,
Parliamentarians, and other legal specialists.

Types of Resources

World Legal Information Institute defines law information in the five categories viz. Case Law,
Legislation, Law Journals and Scholarships, Law Reform Reports and Treaties. Resources of
a law library may be categorized into the following three types on the basis of its generation.

a) Primary Source of Law

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

i. Constitutional Documents ( Constitution of India, US Constitutions) Constitution of India;

World Constitutions

ii. Legislation/ Code/ Acts/ Statute Bare Acts, Central Legislation; State Legislation

iii. Case Laws (Supreme Court of India and High Courts Judgments) SCC; AIR; JT; SCALE;
All England Reports; Weekly Law Reports Dominion Law Reports; Australian Law Reports;
Law Reports

iv. Research Journals ( Journal of National Law University Delhi) Journal of National Law
University Delhi; Journal of Indian Law Institute; Yale Law Journal; Harvard Law Review;
Modern Law Review; Arbitration International

b) Secondary Source of Law

i. Commentaries and Treatises

ii. Legal Encyclopaedias American Jurisprudence; Corpus Juris Scandium; Hulsbury’s Laws
of England; Hulsbury’s Laws of India; Forms and Precedents; The Digest

iii. Law Dictionaries

Black’s Law Dictionary; Aiyar’s Advanced Law Lexicon

iv. Digests

SCC Yearly Digest; AIR Yearly Digest; Criminal Law Digest; Labour Law Digest

c) Tertiary Source of Law

i. Case Index

AIR Case Index for Parallel Citation; SCI Nominal Index & Comparative Tables

ii. Directories

UGC Directory; Judges Directory; Institutional Directories

How to Start Legal Research?

Legal Research is an art and requires proper guidance to explore legal information
resources. At the primary stage researcher has to choose a subject area of research. A Law
library provides a good compilation of legal resources. A researcher may start his/her research

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

by browsing Legal Articles, Books Treatise, and Monographs. At the primary level library
professionals help the researcher to provide articles and books available within the library
related to the subject area.

Significance/Importance of Law Library in Research

Law libraries play a crucial role in legal research and education, serving as valuable
resources for legal professionals, students, and scholars. These libraries offer a wide range of
materials, both in print and digital formats, that support the study and practice of law

1. Access to Comprehensive Legal Resources:

Law libraries provide access to an extensive collection of legal resources, including

treatises, case reporters, statutes, regulations, and legal journals. These resources serve as
authoritative references for legal professionals, enabling them to conduct in-depth research,
analyze precedents, and stay updated on legal developments. Moreover, law libraries offer
access to online databases and digital repositories, ensuring quick and efficient retrieval of legal
information.

2. Facilitating Effective Legal Research:

Law libraries serve as a hub for legal research, offering a conducive environment for
studying and exploring complex legal issues. They provide access to specialized legal
databases, allowing researchers to conduct comprehensive searches and access relevant case
laws, statutes, and legal commentary. Law librarians play a crucial role in assisting researchers
with their inquiries. Also guiding them in locating relevant resources and utilizing research
tools effectively.

3. Supporting Legal Education:

Law libraries are essential for law students, providing them with the necessary materials
to deepen their understanding of legal principles and doctrines. Students can access textbooks,
study guides, and legal journals to supplement their coursework and prepare for exams. Law
libraries often offer quiet study areas, group study rooms, and computer facilities. Also creating
a conducive learning environment for students to enhance their legal knowledge and skills.

4. Promoting Professional Development:

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

Law libraries contribute to the professional development of legal practitioners by

offering access to continuing legal education materials, practice guides, and specialized legal
publications. These resources assist lawyers in staying abreast of changes in legal regulations,
emerging trends, and new case precedents. Law libraries also organize workshops, seminars,
and guest lectures by legal experts, fostering networking opportunities and enhancing
professional growth.

5. Fostering Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing:

Law libraries serve as meeting points for legal professionals, researchers, and students,
promoting collaboration and knowledge sharing. They provide spaces for group discussions,
legal clinics, and research forums, facilitating the exchange of ideas and fostering a vibrant
legal community. Law libraries often organize legal research competitions, moot court
sessions, and scholarly conferences, encouraging intellectual discourse and promoting
innovation in the legal field.

Conclusion

Law libraries are indispensable resources for legal professionals and students, offering
comprehensive collections of legal materials and facilitating effective legal research. Through
their vast resources, knowledgeable staff, and supportive learning environments, law libraries
contribute significantly to legal education, professional development, and the advancement of
legal scholarship. Embracing both traditional print resources and modern digital platforms, law
libraries continue to play a vital role in enabling legal practitioners to navigate the complexities
of the law and contribute to the development of a just and informed society.

B. Observation Method

Introduction

The observation method is a process that involves human or mechanical observation to

observe and describe the behavior of a subject. As the name suggests observational research is
a way of collecting relevant information and data by involves observing people’s behavior. The
observational Research method is also referred to as a participatory study because the
researcher has to establish a link with the respondent and for this has to immerse himself in the
same setting as theirs. Only then can he use the observational research method to record and
take notes.

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 Mr. Sajid Rahman B.Com, LL.M. (Corporate & Commercial Law)
Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

Definition

C.A. Moser opines that “In the strict sense observation implies the use of the eyes
rather than of ear and the voice”.

P.V. Young in her book Scientific Social Survey and Research defines observation as
“Observation, a deliberate study through the eyes may be used as one of the methods for
scrutinizing collective behavior and complex social institutions as well as the separate units
composing a totality.”

Features/Characteristics of Observation Method

1. Observation is a Systematic Method: Observation is not haphazard or unplanned.
The length of the observation periods, the interval between them, the number of observations,
the area or situation of observation, and various techniques used for observation are carefully
planned. Often there is systematic management for controlling the situation if special factors
are to be studied, for example, a study of honest behavior, sportsman spirit, leadership qualities,
etc.
2. Observation is Specific: It is not just looking around for general aspects of human
behavior. Rather it is directed at those specific aspects of the total situation that are assumed to
be significant from the standpoint of the purpose of the study. The layman may frequently
overlook what is crucial while observing an event or phenomenon, but the scientific observer
should look for some definite things that suit the purpose of the study to economize his time,
money, and effort for observation.
3. Observation is Objective: Observation should be objective and free from bias as far
as possible. It should generally be guided by a hypothesis. The observer must maintain ethical
neutrality. He must consider the hypothesis as something to be tested. But at the same time, he
must maintain a flexible attitude, so that he can deviate from his original plan when such
deviation appears inevitable.
4. Observation is Quantitative: Although many important phenomena cannot be
quantified, it becomes almost imperative to use some means for quantifying observations to
increase their precision and facilitate their analysis. Even the quality should be converted into
quantity because qualitative data is subjective and quantitative one is objective and can further
be interpreted objectively.
5. Observation is an Affair of Eyes: P.V. Young remarks that observation is a
systematic and deliberate study through the eye. An observer gathers the data which he has

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

seen with his own eyes. Collecting information through the eyes is probably the most
trustworthy technique of data collection in social research.
6. Definite Aim: Observation must have some definite aims and objectives. It should
be clearly defined before the beginning of the actual observation process. Without the proper
aims and objectives observation will be unsystematic and expensive.

7. The Record of Observation is Made Immediately: During the observation period,

it is very difficult on the part of the observer to remember every element of observation. He
may forget a lot of important information. If we rely on memory the factor of forgetting will
enter and affect the data of observation. Therefore the observer should record all important
information as soon as the observation is completed.

8. Observation is Verifiable: Observation results can be checked and verified.

Observation must be verified with the usual criteria of reliability, validity, and usability. It may
be possible to check the findings of the observation by comparing the results of different
observers by repeating the study.

Types of Observation Method

▪ Structured Observation

In structured observation, researchers define specific behaviors or events to be observed

and develop a predetermined checklist or rating scale. It allows for systematic data collection
and comparison across different subjects or situations.

▪ Unstructured Observation

Unstructured observation involves a more flexible and open-ended approach.

Researchers observe and record behaviors or events as they naturally occur without
predetermined categories or checklists. It allows for capturing unexpected or unforeseen
behaviors.

▪ Participant Observation

In participant observation, researchers immerse themselves in their study setting or

group. They become active participants and observers, gaining firsthand experiences and
insights into the behavior and social dynamics of the group.

▪ Non-participant Observation

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Non-participant observation involves observing and recording behaviors or events

without directly participating in the studied group or setting. Researchers maintain distance and
objectivity while carefully observing and documenting the observed behaviors.

▪ Disguised Observation

Disguised observation is conducted without the knowledge or awareness of the

participants being observed. Researchers blend into the environment or adopt undercover
techniques to observe natural behavior without interference or bias.

▪ Undisguised Observation

Undisguised observation is also known as overt observation. It is conducted openly

with the knowledge and consent of the participants. Researchers openly observe and record
behaviors and participants are aware of being observed.

Steps of Observation Method of Research

The steps of the Observation Method are listed below.

▪ Defining the Research Objective: Clearly define the purpose and goals of the
observation. Determine what you want to observe and the specific research questions
you aim to answer through the observation.
▪ Determining the Variables: Identify the key variables or behaviors you will observe and
record. These variables should be relevant to your research objective and provide
meaningful data for analysis.
▪ Choosing the Observation Setting: Select the appropriate setting or environment for the
observation. Consider factors such as accessibility, relevance to the research objective,
and ethical considerations.
▪ Developing Observation Protocols: Establish a structured plan for conducting the
observation. Define the procedures, guidelines, and criteria for observing and recording
data. This includes specifying the observation techniques, data collection methods, and
specific instructions for the observers.
▪ Conducting the Observation: Implement the observation according to the defined
protocols. Carefully observe the selected subjects, behaviors, or events while recording
the data accurately. Maintain objectivity and avoid any interference or bias during the
observation process.

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

▪ Recording and Analyzing Data: Record the collected data promptly and systematically.
Ensure that the data is organized, labeled, and stored securely. After the observation,
analyze the data using appropriate statistical or qualitative techniques to draw
meaningful conclusions and insights.

Advantages of the Observation Method

The advantages of Observation in Research are listed below.

▪ Enhanced Data Validity: Observation allows researchers to gather data in real-time,

capturing authentic behaviors and events as they naturally occur. This enhances the
validity of the data, providing a more accurate representation of the subject under study.
▪ Naturalistic Observation: By observing behaviors in their natural settings, researchers
can gain insights into how individuals or groups behave in real-life situations. This
naturalistic approach offers a deeper understanding of behavior, context, and
environmental factors.
▪ Opportunities for Discovery: Observation provides opportunities for unexpected
discoveries and insights. Researchers can observe nuances, patterns, or phenomena that
may not have been anticipated or captured through other research methods.
▪ Minimizing Bias: Observation reduces the potential for bias that may occur through
self-reporting or relying on participants' memory. Researchers can minimize reliance
on subjective interpretations or recall biases by directly observing behaviors.
▪ Rich Qualitative Data: Observation allows for collecting rich qualitative data, providing
detailed descriptions of behaviors, interactions, and contexts. This qualitative data can
offer in-depth understanding, nuanced interpretations, and rich narrative accounts.

Disadvantages of the Observation Method

The disadvantages of Observation in Research are listed below.

▪ Observer Bias: Observers may introduce bias into the data collection process. It is due
to their interpretations, preconceptions, or subjective judgments. It is potentially
compromising the objectivity of the observations.
▪ Limited Generalizability: Observations' findings may have limited generalizability to
broader populations or contexts since observations are often conducted in specific

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

settings or with specific individuals. It makes it challenging to apply the findings

universally.
▪ Intrusiveness and Reactivity: The presence of an observer may alter the natural
behavior of the individuals being observed. It leads to the Hawthorne effect or
reactivity. This can affect the authenticity and validity of the observed behaviors.
▪ Time and Resource Intensive: Conducting observations can be time-consuming and
resource-intensive. It may require significant planning, coordination, and allocation of
resources. It includes trained observers, equipment, and data recording systems.
▪ Ethical Considerations: Observational research must adhere to ethical guidelines to
ensure the participants' well-being, privacy, and informed consent. Ethical dilemmas
may arise. This is particularly true when observing sensitive or private behaviors.

C. Questionnaire Method

Introduction

A questionnaire is an instrument of data collection. The researchers most commonly

use this method for collecting data. To gather data on a particular research topic, the researcher
lists the questions to which s/he requires answers. The list of questions arranged in some order
is either given personally or sent/mailed to the target population. A questionnaire is a set of
written questions for respondents to answer. These answers become primary data for
investigation.

This method was developed by Sir Francis Galton. Under this method, the researcher
sets a series of questions and other prompts to gather the information from the respondent. It
consists of several questions that may be open-ended or closed-ended. In open-ended questions,
the respondent needs to answer the question in his/her way, whereas in closed-ended questions
respondent has to choose an answer from a given set of options. In the questionnaire, the
questions should flow logically from one to the next. If any sensitive information like income,
sexual activities, use of drugs, etc., are targeted to be gathered from the respondent, then it must
be put at the end of the questionnaire to establish trust.

Types

Structured Questionnaires: Structured questionnaires collect quantitative data. The

questionnaire is planned and designed to gather precise information. It also initiates a formal

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

inquiry, supplements data, checks previously accumulated data, and helps validate any prior
hypothesis.

Unstructured Questionnaires: Unstructured questionnaires collect qualitative data.

They use a basic structure and some branching questions but nothing that limits the responses
of a respondent. The questions are more open-ended to collect specific data from participants.

Types of questions in a questionnaire

▪ Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions help collect qualitative data in a

questionnaire where the respondent can answer in a free form with little to no
restrictions.
▪ Dichotomous Questions: The dichotomous question is generally a “yes/no” close-
ended question. This question is usually used in case of the need for necessary
validation. It is the most natural form of a questionnaire.
▪ Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-choice questions are a close-ended question
type in which a respondent has to select one (single-select multiple-choice question) or
many (multi-select multiple-choice question) responses from a given list of options.
The multiple-choice question consists of an incomplete stem (question), right answer
or answers, incorrect answers, close alternatives, and distractors. Of course, not all
multiple-choice questions have all of the answer types. For example, you probably
won’t have the wrong or right answers if you’re looking for customer opinion.
▪ Scaling Questions: These questions are based on the principles of the four
measurement scales – nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. A few of the question types
that utilize these scales’ fundamental properties are rank order questions, Likert scale
questions, semantic differential scale questions, and Stapel scale questions.
▪ Pictorial Questions: This question type is easy to use and encourages respondents to
answer. It works similarly to a multiple-choice question. Respondents are asked a
question, and the answer choices are images. This helps respondents choose an answer
quickly without over-thinking their answers, giving you more accurate data.

Steps Involved in Questionnaire Design

▪ Identify the scope of your research.

▪ Keep it simple.
▪ Ask only one question at a time.

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

▪ Be flexible with your options.

▪ It is essential to know your audience.
▪ Choosing the right tool is essential.

Advantages of Questionnaires

Some of the many benefits of using questionnaires as a research tool include:

▪ Practicality: Questionnaires enable researchers to strategically manage their target

audience, questions, and format while gathering large data quantities on any subject.
▪ Cost-efficiency: You don’t need to hire surveyors to deliver your survey questions,
instead, you can place them on your website or email them to respondents at little to no
cost.
▪ Speed: You can gather survey results quickly and effortlessly using mobile tools,
obtaining responses and insights in 24 hours or less.
▪ Comparability: Researchers can use the same questionnaire yearly and compare and
contrast research results to gain valuable insights and minimize translation errors.
▪ Scalability: Questionnaires are highly scalable, allowing researchers to distribute them
to demographics anywhere across the globe.
▪ Standardization: You can standardize your questionnaire with as many questions as
you want about any topic.
▪ Respondent comfort: When taking a questionnaire, respondents are completely
anonymous and not subject to stressful time constraints, helping them feel relaxed and
encouraging them to provide truthful responses.
▪ Easy analysis: Questionnaires often have built-in tools that automate analyses, making
it fast and easy to interpret your results.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Questionnaires also have their disadvantages, such as:

▪ Answer dishonesty: Respondents may not always be completely truthful with their
answers — some may have hidden agendas, while others may answer how they think
society would deem most acceptable.

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

▪ Question skipping: Make sure to require answers for all your survey questions.
Otherwise, you may run the risk of respondents leaving questions unanswered.
▪ Interpretation difficulties: If a question isn’t straightforward enough, respondents
may struggle to interpret it accurately. That’s why it’s important to state questions
clearly and concisely, with explanations when necessary.
▪ Survey fatigue: Respondents may experience survey fatigue if they receive too many
surveys or if a questionnaire is too long.
▪ Analysis challenges: Though closed questions are easy to analyze, open questions
require a human to review and interpret them. Try limiting open-ended questions in
your survey to gain more quantifiable data you can evaluate and utilize more quickly.
▪ Unconscientious responses: If respondents don’t read your questions thoroughly or
completely, they may offer inaccurate answers that can impact data validity. You can
minimize this risk by making questions as short and simple as possible.

D. Interview Method

Introduction

An interview is a qualitative research method used to collect primary data. It involves

asking one or more people about their opinions on a company, a product, or a topic. This
method allows researchers to obtain detailed information that might not be available through
other research methods.

An interview is a question-and-answer session where one person asks questions, and

the other person answers those questions. It can be a one-on-one, two-way conversation, or
there can be more than one interviewer and more than one participant.

Definition

An interview is a research method that involves asking questions to collect data from
individuals who have knowledge, experience, or opinions on a particular topic or subject
matter.

Example

A researcher is conducting a study on the effects of social media on mental health. They
want to interview people who use social media frequently to understand their experiences. The
researcher sets up a meeting with an interviewee and asks them a series of questions about their

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

social media usage, how it affects their mood, and whether they have noticed any changes in
their mental health since using social media. The researcher records the interview and uses the
responses to gain insight into the relationship between social media and mental health.

Characteristics of Good Interviews in Research

Some of the key characteristics of interviews in research include:

▪ Personal: Interviews are usually conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or through
video conferencing, allowing for personal interaction between the researcher and the
participant.
▪ Interactive: Interviews are a two-way conversation between the researcher and the
participant, allowing for follow-up questions and clarifications.
▪ Qualitative: Interviews are a qualitative research method, focusing on subjective
experiences, opinions, and attitudes of participants.
▪ In-depth: Interviews can provide in-depth information on a research topic, allowing
for a thorough exploration of complex issues and phenomena.
▪ Contextual: Interviews can provide contextual information on a research topic, giving
insight into the cultural, social, and historical factors that may influence the topic.
▪ Time-consuming: Conducting interviews can be time-consuming, requiring
significant planning, preparation, and follow-up.

Types of Interviews in Research

There are several types of research interviews that researchers can use based on their
research goals, the nature of their study, and the data they aim to collect. Here are some
common types of research interviews:

1. Structured Interviews

▪ Structured interviews are standardized and follow a fixed format.

▪ Therefore, these interviews have a pre-determined set of questions.
▪ All the participants are asked the same set of questions in the same order.
▪ Therefore, this type of interview facilitates standardization and allows easy comparison
and quantitative analysis of responses.

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

▪ As a result, structured interviews are used in surveys or studies which aims for a high
level of standardization and comparability.

2. Semi-structured Interviews

▪ Semi-structured interviews offer a flexible framework by combining pre-determined

questions.
▪ So, this allows follow-up questions and open-ended discussions.
▪ Researchers have a list of core questions but can adapt the interview depending on the
participant’s responses.
▪ Consequently, this allows for in-depth exploration while maintaining some level of
consistency across interviews.
▪ As a result, semi-structured interviews are widely used in qualitative research, where
content-rich data is desired.

3. Unstructured Interviews

Unstructured interviews provide the greatest flexibility and freedom in the interview process.

▪ This type does not have a pre-determined set of questions.

▪ Thus, the conversation flows naturally based on the participant’s responses and the
researcher’s interests.
▪ Moreover, this type of interview allows for open-ended exploration and encourages
participants to share their experiences, thoughts, and perspectives freely.
▪ Unstructured interviews are useful to explore new or complex research topics, with
limited preconceived questions.

4. Group Interviews (Focus Groups)

▪ Group interviews involve multiple participants who engage in a facilitated discussion

on a specific topic.
▪ This format allows the interaction and exchange of ideas among participants, generating
a group dynamic.
▪ Therefore, group interviews are beneficial for capturing diverse perspectives, and
generating collective insights.
▪ They are often used in market research, social sciences, or studies demanding shared
experiences.

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

Types of interviews – Examples of interview questions

Type of interview Example Questions

Structured interviews • Do you own a car? Yes/No

• Which is your favorite beverage? Coffee, tea, or chocolate
• How do you feel about pets?
Unstructured interviews
• Why do you think you have those feelings regarding pets?
• Do you like sports cars? Yes/No
Semi-structured
• If yes, what do you like about these vehicles?
interviews
• If no, what do you have about these vehicles?
• If you could change one thing about our products, what would
Focus group interviews
it be?

Besides the 4 basic interview types, other types of interview are commonly used :

1. Narrative Interviews

▪ Narrative interviews focus on eliciting participants’ personal stories, views,

experiences, and narratives. Researchers aim to look into the individual’s life journey.
▪ As a result, this type of interview allows participants to construct and share their
narratives, providing rich qualitative data.
▪ Qualitative research, oral history, or studies focusing on individual experiences and
identities use narrative interviews.

2. Ethnographic Interviews

▪ Ethnographic interviews are conducted within the context of ethnographic research,

where researchers immerse themselves in a specific social or cultural setting.
▪ These interviews aim to understand participants’ experiences, beliefs, and practices
within their cultural context, thereby understanding diversity in different ethnic groups.

Furthermore, ethnographic interviews involve building rapport, observing the participants’

daily lives, and engaging in conversations that capture the nuances of the culture under study.

4. Behavioural Interview

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

During this type of interview, candidates are asked to give specific examples of how
they have acted in the past. The idea behind this kind of interview is that what someone did in
the past can be a sign of how they will act in the future. Through this interview, the company
can also understand the interviewee’s behavior through body language.

5. Panel Interview

During a panel interview, three or more interviewers usually ask questions and evaluate
the candidate’s answers as a group. This is a good way to get a full picture of a candidate’s
skills and suitability for the job.

6. Case Interview

During a case interview, candidates are given a business problem or scenario and asked
to think about how to solve it. In the consulting and finance fields, this kind of interview is
common.

7. Technical Interview

A candidate’s technical skills and knowledge are tested during a technical interview,
usually in fields like engineering or software development. Most of the time, candidates are
asked to solve problems or complete technical tasks.

8. Stress Interview

During a stress interview, candidates are put under pressure or asked difficult or
confrontational questions on purpose to see how they react in stressful situations. This kind of
interview is used to see how well a candidate can deal with stress and hard situations.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews

Interviews are a great research tool. They allow you to gather rich information and draw
more detailed conclusions than other research methods, taking into consideration nonverbal
cues, off-the-cuff reactions, and emotional responses.

However, they can also be time-consuming and deceptively challenging to conduct

properly. Smaller sample sizes can cause their validity and reliability to suffer, and there is an
inherent risk of interviewer effect arising from accidentally leading questions.

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

Here are some advantages and disadvantages of each type of interview that can help
you decide if you’d like to utilize this research method.

Type of interview Advantages ✔ Disadvantages ✘

• Less susceptible to interviewer

bias • Can make the interviewees
• Offer very high levels of uncomfortable
Structured
credibility and validity • Are not flexible
interviews
• Simple to use • Have limited scope since they are
Won’t cost a lot of money or closed-ended
time
• Can be hard to generalize the results
of these interviews
• Highly flexible • Can be hard for the interviewer to
• Respondents are more open as keep their opinions or feelings in
Unstructured it is structured like a daily check
interviews conversation • Consumes a lot of time
• Have a lower risk of bias • Pose a risk of low internal validity
• Offer more details and nuance • The interviewer may be tempted to
ask leading questions, and this
increases bias
• Limits distraction during the
• The flexibility of these interviews
interview
can reduce the validity of the study
Semi-structured • Combines the benefits of
• They have a high risk of bias
interview structured and unstructured
• It is hard to come up with good
interviews
questions for these types of interviews
• Offers high levels of detail
• Is highly efficient • The interviewer won’t be able to ask
• Interviewees will be more open too many questions
Focus group • Can be done on a low budget • Requires excellent leadership and
• Makes it easy to discuss a social skills
variety of topics • It has a risk of social desirability bias

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

• Interviewer cannot guarantee

confidentiality

Steps of Conducting a Research Interview

Research interviews offer several benefits, and thus careful planning and execution of
the entire process are important to gather in-depth information from the participants. While
conducting an interview, it is essential to know the necessary steps to follow to ensure success.
The steps to conduct a research interview are as follows:

▪ Identify the objectives and understand the goals

▪ Select an appropriate interview format
▪ Organize the necessary materials for the interview
▪ Understand the questions to be addressed
▪ Analyze the demographics of interviewees
▪ Select the interviewees
▪ Design the interview questions to gather sufficient information
▪ Schedule the interview
▪ Explain the purpose of the interview
▪ Analyze the interviewee based on his/her responses

Conclusion

Interviews are extremely helpful for qualitative research, providing in-depth insights into
people's opinions and experiences. Interviews can be used in a wide range of research fields,
including law, social sciences, psychology, health sciences, business, and education. The data
collected from interviews is often transcribed, coded, and analyzed to identify patterns, themes,
and trends that can inform research findings, theory development, and policy
recommendations.

E. Sampling Method

Introduction

Sampling is the process of choosing the group from which you will collect data for your
research. Those individuals who make up a sample are taken from a larger population. With
the help of sampling, you can test a statistical hypothesis on the traits of a population. In

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 Mr. Sajid Rahman B.Com, LL.M. (Corporate & Commercial Law)
Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

statistical analysis, sampling is the procedure by which researchers select a specific number of
observations from a larger population. The sampling strategy will depend on the sort of study
being done, although it may involve systematic sampling or just plain random sampling. For
instance: You could interview a sample of 100 students if you were examining the opinions of
students at your university.

Types of Sampling Method

There are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results from the
population. The two different types of sampling methods are::

1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-probability Sampling

1. Probability Sampling

The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this
method, all the eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole
sample space. This method is more time-consuming and expensive than the non-probability
sampling method. The benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample
that should be representative of the population.

Types of Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered sampling. Let us
discuss the different types of probability sampling methods along with illustrative
examples here in detail.

▪ Simple Random Sampling: In a simple random sampling technique, every item in the
population has an equal and likely chance of being selected in the sample. Since the
item selection entirely depends on the chance, this method is known as the “Method of
chance Selection”. As the sample size is large, and the item is chosen randomly, it is
known as “Representative Sampling”. Example: Suppose we want to select a simple
random sample of 200 students from a school. Here, we can assign a number to every

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random number generator to
select a sample of 200 numbers.
▪ Systematic Sampling: In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from
the target population by selecting the random selection point and selecting the other
methods after a fixed sample interval. It is calculated by dividing the total population
size by the desired population size. Example: Suppose the names of 300 students of a
school are sorted in the reverse alphabetical order. To select a sample in a systematic
sampling method, we have to choose some 15 students by randomly selecting a starting
number, say 5. From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th person from the sorted
list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of some students.
▪ Stratified Sampling: In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided
into smaller groups to complete the sampling process. The small group is formed based
on a few characteristics of the population. After separating the population into smaller
groups, the statisticians randomly select the sample. For example, there are three bags
(A, B, and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls, Bag B has 100 balls, and
Bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls from each bag proportionally.
Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B, and 20 balls from bag C.
▪ Clustered Sampling: In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people
is formed from the population set. The group has similar significatory characteristics.
Also, they have an equal chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses simple
random sampling for the cluster of population. Example: An educational institution
has ten branches across the country with almost the same number of students. If we
want to collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we can’t travel to every
unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or
four branches as clusters.

2. Non-Probability Sampling

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the
sample based on subjective judgment rather than random selection. In this method, not all the
members of the population have a chance to participate in the study.

Types Non-Probability Sampling

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, and
snowball sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability sampling in detail.

▪ Convenience Sampling: In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected

from the population directly because they are conveniently available for the researcher.
The samples are easy to select, and the researcher did not choose a sample that outlines
the entire population. Example: In researching customer support services in a particular
region, we ask your few customers to complete a survey on the products after the
purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data. Still, as we only surveyed customers
taking the same product. At the same time, the sample is not representative of all the
customers in that area.
▪ Consecutive Sampling: Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with
a slight variation. The researcher picks a single person or a group of people for
sampling. Then the researcher researches for some time to analyze the result and move
to another group if needed.
▪ Quota Sampling: In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that
involves the individuals to represent the population based on specific traits or qualities.
The researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring a useful collection of data that
generalizes the entire population.
▪ Purposive or Judgmental Sampling: In purposive sampling, the samples are selected
only based on the researcher’s knowledge. As their knowledge is instrumental in
creating the samples, there are chances of obtaining highly accurate answers with a
minimum marginal error. It is also known as judgmental sampling or authoritative
sampling.
▪ Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling
technique. In this method, the samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each
identified member of a population is asked to find the other sampling units. Those
sampling units also belong to the same targeted population.

Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

Some of the important characteristics of a good sample design are:

▪ Sample design should produce a representative sample

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

▪ Sample design should produce a small sampling error

▪ Sample design should be feasible within the research study’s budgetary limits
▪ Sample design should allow for the control of systematic bias

Apart from the above-mentioned characteristics, a good sample design must also have the
following characteristics:

▪ Goal Orientation

A sample design should be orientated to the research aims, adapted to the survey design,
and fitted to the survey conditions. If this is done, it should have an impact on the population
selection, measurement, and sample selection procedure.

▪ Measurability

A sample design should allow meaningful estimates of sampling variability to be

computed. In surveys, this variability is typically reported as standard error. However, this is
only achievable with probability sampling. It is impossible to know the degree of precision of
survey results in non-probability samples, such as a quota sample.

▪ Practicality

This means that the sample design can be correctly followed in the survey, as planned.
Complete, correct, practical, and unambiguous instructions must be provided to the interviewer
so that no errors occur in sampling unit selection and the final selection in the field is consistent
with the initial sample design. Practicality also relates to the design’s simplicity, or its ability
to be understood and followed in actual fieldwork operations.

▪ Economy

Finally, economy means that the survey’s goals should be met with the least amount of
money and effort possible. Generally, survey objectives are stated in terms of precision, which
is defined as the inverse of the variation of survey estimates. The sample design should provide
the lowest cost for a given degree of precision. Alternatively, the sample design should yield
maximum precision for a given per-unit cost (minimum variance).

▪ Sample Size Decisions

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

Following our examination of key sample designs, we now shift our attention to another
critical component of sampling, namely, sample size decisions. When doing a survey and not
being able to reach the complete population, the marketing researcher must first determine how
large the sample should be.

Advantages of Sampling

▪ Less expense of sampling: If information somehow managed to be gathered for the

whole population, the expense will be very high. A Sample is a small extent of a
population. In this way, the expense will be lower assuming the information is gathered
for a Sample of the population which is a major benefit.
▪ Less tedious in Sampling: Utilization of Sampling takes less time too. It consumes
less time than the evaluation method. Arrangement, examination, and so forth, take
significantly less time on account of a Sample than on account of a population.
▪ The extent of Sampling is high: The specialist is worried about the speculation of
information. To concentrate on an entire population to show up at speculations would
be illogical. A few populations are huge to the point that their attributes couldn’t be
estimated. Before the estimation has been finished, the population would have changed.
However, the most common way of examining makes it conceivable to show
speculations by concentrating on the factors inside a moderately small extent of the
population.
▪ Exactness of information is high: Having drawn a Sample and figured out the ideal
graphic measurements, it is feasible to decide the security of the test esteem. A Sample
addresses the population from which it is drawn. It allows a serious level of precision
because of a restricted area of activities. In addition, cautious execution of fieldwork is
conceivable. Eventually, the consequences of Sampling concentrate on end up being
adequately exact.
▪ Association of comfort: Hierarchical issues engaged with Sampling are not many.
Since the test of a small size, immense offices are not needed. Examining is in this
manner affordable regarding assets. Investigation of tests includes less space and
hardware.
▪ Escalated and thorough information: In Sample studies, estimations or perceptions
are made of a predetermined number. Along these lines, escalated and thorough
information is gathered.

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

▪ Reasonable in restricted assets: The assets accessible inside an association might be

restricted. Concentrating on the whole universe isn’t feasible. The population can be
acceptably covered through Sampling. Where restricted assets exist, utilization of
Sampling is a fitting technique while directing and promoting research.

Disadvantages of Sampling

▪ Chances of predisposition: The genuine constraint of the examining technique is that

it includes one-sided choice and in this manner drives us to reach incorrect
determinations. Inclination emerges when the technique for the choice of test utilized
is broken. Relative little Samples appropriately chosen might be substantially more
dependable than huge Samples ineffectively chosen.
▪ Troubles in choosing a delegated test: Hardships in choosing a genuinely delegated
test produce solid and precise outcomes just when they are illustrative of the entire
gathering. The choice of a genuine agent test is troublesome when the peculiarities
under review are of an intricate sort. Choosing great Samples is troublesome.
▪ In satisfactory information in the subject: Utilization of examining strategy requires
sufficient subject explicit information in the Sampling method. A sampling includes
factual examination and estimation of likely blunders. Whenever the analyst needs
specific information in Sampling, he might submit genuine errors. Thus, the aftereffects
of the review will be misdirected.
▪ Alterability of units: Whenever the units of the population are not inhomogeneous,
the Sampling procedure will be informal. In examining, however, the quantity of cases
is little, it isn’t simple 100% of the time to adhere to the, chosen cases. The units of the
test might be broadly scattered. A portion of the instances of the test may not help out
the analyst and some others might be blocked off. Due to these issues, every one of the
cases may not be taken up. The chosen cases might need to be supplanted by different
cases. Variability of units holds up traffic of consequences of the review.
▪ The inconceivability of examining: Inferring a delegate test is troublesome when the
universe is excessively little or excessively heterogeneous. For this situation,
registration study is the main other option. Additionally, in examinations requiring an
exceptionally exclusive expectation of precision, the Sampling strategy might be
unsatisfactory. There will be chances of mistakes regardless of whether tests are drawn
most cautiously.

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 Mr. Sajid Rahman B.Com, LL.M. (Corporate & Commercial Law)
Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

F. Report Writing

Introduction

Every research leads to the creation of a research report. The report is the formal logical
presentation of the research that has been conducted. The purpose of a research report is to
convey to the interested persons the whole result of a study in sufficient detail and to determine
the validity of the conclusions. The culmination of research is in the form of the research report
which explains with clarity the various steps that have been undertaken to conclude. Writing a
research report requires not only technical skills but also thorough knowledge of the subject
matter, perseverance, and the right perspective on every aspect of the research problem.

Objectives of a Research Report

The objectives of a research report are:

1. Conveying knowledge to the concerned people in the field of research

2. Proper presentation of the findings for further utilization of the recommendations.

3. Give impetus to research in the concerned knowledge area.

4. To re-examine the validity of generalizations drawn by the researcher after the

report has been submitted.

Types of Research Report

Reports are of different types depending on their area, purpose, and approach. Following
are some illustrations of the various types of reports:

▪ Business report
▪ Project report
▪ Dissertation
▪ Inquiry report of a commission
▪ Thesis

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 Mr. Sajid Rahman B.Com, LL.M. (Corporate & Commercial Law)
Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

Components of Research Report

Pauline V. Young summarized the contents of a good report as follows:

A. Introduction

(i) Clear-cut statements as to the nature of the study,

(ii) Aims,

(iii) Sources of information

(iv) Scope of study

B. Brief statement of the working hypothesis which guided the study.

C. Explicit definitions of the units of study

D. Brief statements of techniques used in the study:

(i) Types of observations used and conditions under which observations were made;

(ii) Types of schedules formulated and conditions under which information was
secured;

(iii) Types of case history data secured, their sources, manner of presentation, and
preliminary analysis made;

(iv) Sampling procedures and conditions of selection and testing for appropriateness,
representativeness, arte errors;

(v) Statistical procedures, sources of statistical data conditions under which they were
obtained;

(vi) Types of scaling techniques used.

E. Brief description of experimental treatment of data and techniques in experiments.

F. Major findings.

G. Major conclusions reached about findings.

H. Special remarks:

(i) Problems encountered in gathering the data, classifying them, and analyzing them;

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Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

(ii) Possible discrepancies in the data collected;

(iii) Suggestions to subsequent investigators on the same topics in the same context.

(iv) Bibliographical references found useful in the study (with annotations).

(v) Appendixes might include sample questionnaires, transcription sheets, sample

interviews, and the like.

Importance of Research Report

Report writing in research methodology must be considered an integral part of the

whole research process. Once writing a research report becomes a part and parcel of the
process, the essence of research is effectively communicated.

They are an essential tool for disseminating research findings, sharing knowledge, and
advancing the understanding of a particular subject or problem. Here are some key
reasons why research reports are important:
1) Communication of findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate
their findings, methodologies, and conclusions to a wider audience. They provide a detailed
account of the research process, enabling other researchers, policymakers, and professionals to
understand and evaluate the study's validity and relevance.
2) Knowledge advancement: Research reports contribute to the overall advancement
of knowledge in a specific field. They build upon existing research, provide new insights, and
expand the existing body of knowledge. By documenting research findings, reports help
establish a foundation for future studies and facilitate further exploration and innovation.

3) Peer review and quality assurance: Research reports often undergo a rigorous peer
review process, where experts in the field critically evaluate the study's methodology, data
analysis, and conclusions. This process helps ensure the quality and accuracy of the research.
Peer-reviewed reports are considered reliable and trustworthy sources of information.

4) Evidence-based decision-making: Research reports provide evidence that can

inform decision-making processes. Policymakers, business leaders, and professionals rely on
research findings to make informed choices, develop strategies, and implement effective
solutions. Well-conducted and well-documented research reports enhance the credibility of the
information and increase the likelihood of evidence-based decision-making.

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 Mr. Sajid Rahman B.Com, LL.M. (Corporate & Commercial Law)
Ph.D. Research Scholar (NLUJAA)

5) Replicability and transparency: Research reports document the research process,

including methodologies, data collection methods, and analysis techniques. This transparency
allows other researchers to replicate the study, validate the findings, or build upon them.
Replicability strengthens the scientific method and ensures the reliability and robustness of
research outcomes.

6) Influence on policy and practice: High-quality research reports can have a

significant impact on policy development and practice in various fields. They provide evidence
that can inform policy decisions, shape regulations, and influence the implementation of
effective practices. Research reports often serve as a basis for discussions, debates, and
reforms, leading to positive societal and organizational changes.

7) Documentation and reference: Research reports serve as valuable documentation

of research projects. They provide a detailed record of the research design, methodology, and
results, enabling future researchers to refer to and build upon previous work. Research reports
also help researchers establish their credibility and demonstrate their contributions to the field.

Conclusion
The ability to write effective reports is one of the most useful skills a researcher can
acquire. The arrangement of ideas and interpretations of the findings is of utmost importance.
In this regard, Brown observes: “We say it as simply as we possibly can, and this that is, that a
report is a communication from someone to another who wants to use that information. The
report may be elaborately formal, it may be a letter, in a great many organizations, it is a
memorandum, but it is always planned for use.”

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