Theory

TIPS AND
TRICK
CPL/IR
SUMMARY
THE OBJECTIVE

here it is ! This is the last miles before

celebrating and enjoying the privilege of being
a professional pilot but before that, you'll have
to give one more push in order to pass your
final checkride .
This summary was made in order to provide
you with some important aspect of the ATPL
theory as well as many tips and flight rules
which we hope, will help you to answer as best
the questions that might be asked by your
examiner .

Good luck!!!!!!

Raphael Naranin
Osama Elkoumy

FLYENCE AVIATION ACADEMY

THE SCIENCE OF FLYING 1

1
ABLE OF CONTENT 0 1 . Basic theory
Units
Speed
Aerodynamic
Lift
P6
P6
P6
P6
P6
Power Vs Thrust P7
Drag P8
Type of Altitude P9
Instruments P9
Gyro Instruments P10
Pitot- Static Instruments P10

0 2 . Aerodromes P11
Airport signs P11
Lights signals P11
Light System P12
Approach Lights P12
Runway Lights P15
Taxiway Lights P16
RVR P16
CMV P17

0 3 . Performance P18
Take Off/Landing Distance P18
Screen Height P19
Critical Engine P19
Minimum Control Speeds P20
Vmcg P20
Vmca P21
Vmcl P21
T.O Segments P22

FLYENCE AVIATION ACADEMY

THE SCIENCE OF FLYING
2
ABLE OF CONTENT Aircraft Classes
Wake Turbulence
Cost Index

0 4 . Flight Planning
Flight Plan
P23
P23
P24

P 25
P 25
Notam P 26
Flight Rules P 26
SVFR P 27
Semi-Circular Flight Levels P 27
Non-RVSM & RVSM P 28
Airspace P 29
Classes P 29
Areas P 29
ATS Route Designator P 30
Area Navigation P 31
IFR Altitudes P 31-32
Planning Minima P 33
Take Off Minima P 33
Alternates P 34
Lost Comms Procedure P 35
Approach P 36
Types P 36
Approach Ban P 38
Approach Segments P 38
Approach Aircraft Category P 39

0 5 . Fuel Planning P 40-41

0 6 . Mass & Balance P 42

FLYENCE AVIATION ACADEMY

THE SCIENCE OF FLYING
3
ABLE OF CONTENT 0 7 . Meteorology
Basic
ICAO ISA conditions at MSL
Wind
icing
P 45
P 45
P 45
P 45
P 45
Atmosphere Layers P 46
Breeze P 47
Stability P 48
Clouds P 49
Types P 49
Formation P 49
Fronts P 50
METAR & TAF P 50
Braking Action P 53
Minima P 53

0 8 . Radio Aids P 54
NDB P 54
VOR P 55
DME P 56
ILS P 57
Definition P 57
Marker Beacons P 58
ILS Category Minima P 58

0 9 . PBN P 59
Definitions P 59
Checks before a PBN approach P 60
LNAV Minima for PNP/RNAV P 60

FLYENCE AVIATION ACADEMY

THE SCIENCE OF FLYING

4
ABLE OF CONTENT 1 0 . Stabilization Criteria

1 1 . IFR TIPS
Rules Of Thumb
P 61

P 62
P 62
DME Arc P 63
Holding P 64

1 2 . Traffic Pattern P 65
Tecnam P2006T P 65
Cessna 152/172 P 66

1 3 . Tecnam P2006T P 67
Fuel P 67
Oil P 67
Speeds P 67
Temperature Limitation P 68
Power Limitation P 68
Oil Pressure Limitation P 68
Service Ceiling P68

FLYENCE AVIATION ACADEMY

THE SCIENCE OF FLYING

5
Basic Theory

Units
1 m = 3,28 ft 1 USG = 3,785 l
1 ft = 0,305 m 1 Imp Gal = 4,54 l
1 NM = 6080 ft 1 kg = 2,205 lb
1 NM = 1,852 km 1 lb = 0,45 kg
1 KT = 1,852 kph 1 hPa = 0,0295 inHg

Speeds
V1 Decision speed
V2 Take-Off safety speed at which the aircraft can climb with OEI
VR Rotation speed
VREF/VAT Landing reference speed or threshold crossing speed
. (VAT = 1.3 x VS0).
VS1 Clean stall speed
VS0 Stall speed in landing configuration
VMCA Minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative
Vy Best rate of climb speed
VYSE Best rate of climb speed single engine (blue line speed)
Vx Best angle of climb speed
VMD Minimum drag speed (profile drag = induced drag)
VNO Normal operating speed
VNE Never exceed speed

Aerodynamics

Lift
Lift is the phenomenon generated by an airfoil due to pressure differences
above and below the airfoil. The topside of an airfoil is cambered and flat on
the bottom. Therefore, the air on top must travel faster which results in a lower
pressure on the topside. A higher pressure is generated on the bottom, which
results in an upward lifting force.

Lift = ½ x ρ x V2 x CL x S

ρ = Air Density
V = Airspeed
CL = Lift coefficient, which is the lifting ability of a particular wing. It depends
, on the AOA and shape of the wing.
S = Surface Area

6
Load factor = 1 / cos (bank angle), LF = 2 during a level turn with 60°
bank angle.

Angle of Attack (AOA or alpha) is the angle between chord line and the
relative airflow.

Angle of incidence is the angle between the airfoil chord line and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft. It’s a fixed angle for a wing but may be
variable for the tailplane.

Chord line is a straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of
an airfoil.

Mean camber line is a line from leading edge to trailing edge with
equidistant on the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil.

Aspect ratio is the ratio of the wing’s span to its geometric chord.

Center of pressure is a point on the chord line at a right angle to the

relative airflow, through which the wing’s lifting force is produced. It is
not fixed and moves with changes in AOA. Moves forward when AOA is
increased.

Wing tip vortices are created by spanwise airflow over the upper and
lower surface of an airfoil that meet at the wingtips as turbulence and
therefore induce drag.
Spanwise also reduces control surface efficiency and contribute to
wingtip stall.
Spanwise flow can be prevented by vortex generators, fences and/or
winglets.

Power vs thrust

Thrust is how hard we can push whereas power determines how fast we
can push. Thus,

- thrust determines our instantaneous acceleration and angle of climb

- power determines our speed, rate of climb and rate of fuel
consumption.

How much acceleration or how steep we can climb is proportional to the

excess THRUST available. The speed with the greatest margin will be Vx
and is lower than VMD. The best rate of climb speed (VY) can be found at
the point where excess POWER is greatest

7
DRAG

Drag = ½ x ρ x V2 x CD x S

Induced Drag is the result of creating lift, like wingtip vortices.

Parasite Drag is the result of resistance to the airfoil due to friction:

1. Form or pressure drag

2. Skin-friction drag
3. Interference drag

Total drag = induced drag + parasite drag

VMD is the speed where induced drag and parasite drag are equal.

8
Types Of Altitudes

QNH: The atmospheric pressure setting which, when set in the aircraft’s
altimeter, will read altitude referenced to mean sea level.

QFE: The atmospheric pressure setting which, when set in the aircraft’s
altimeter, will cause the altimeter to read zero when at the reference
datum of the airfield (Reads height above the aerodrome).

QNE: The constant atmospheric pressure related to a reference datum of

1013,25 Hpa (29,92 inHg), used for expressing flight levels.

- Indicated altitude Reference to QNH

- Pressure Altitude ISA altitude above the STD 1013mb/29.92in datum.
- Density Altitude Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temp.
- True Altitude Reference to MSL
- Absolute Altitude Reference to airport elevation, QFE

Click here
QNH QNE QFE
INSTRUMENTS :

Airspeed indicator Altimeter

Vertical Speed
Turn Coordinator
Indicator

Attitude indicator Direction indicator

9
GYRO instruments

Attitude indicator (AI)

Needs 4” of the vacuum system

Direction indicator (DI)

Needs 4” of the vacuum system

Turn Coordinator (TC)

Normally operates on electricity

If operated by the vacuum system, it needs 2” from the vacuum system
to operate.

Pitot - Static instruments

video
Altimeter here
Is fed by static pressure
The pointer is connected to a closed capsule which will expand when
climbing due to decreasing static pressure on the outside of the capsule.
In case of a static blockage it will show the altitude when the blockage
occurred.

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

Is fed by Static pressure

Works on the principle a flow of static pressure trough the instrument case.
Must be broken in case of a static blockage and will shortly indicate a
climb and will show reverse indications.
Will indicate 0 in case of static blockage.

Airspeed indicator

Is fed by both dynamic and static pressure. The difference will show IAS
In case of a Pitot blockage will work like an altimeter. When only the
drain hole is not blocked it will under indicate airspeed.
In case of a static blockage will over indicate when descending and under
indicate when climbing. So, when descending you should remember that you
will fly slower then indicated and should be aware that you could enter a stall
when not vigilant.

- PUDSOD: pitot under reads descent – static over reads descent

-Most aircraft are equipped with a kind of “Alternate Static Pressure

Source” which in case of a blockage or erroneous reading in the static
pressure fed instruments will provide a supply of static pressure from the
cabin. The instrument reading will slightly higher (a.i. faster and higher
than reality)

10
Aerodrome

Airport Signs

Runway marking

Taxiway marking

Light Signals

Red pyrotechnic: Not withstanding any previous instructions, do not land for
the time
being.
Acknowledgement of light signals
In the air On ground
Day Rock the wings Ailerons and rudders
Night 2x landing lights or nav light 2x landing lights or nav lights

11
Approach Lights

An approach lighting system or ALS, is a lighting system installed on the approach

end of an airport runway and consisting of a series of lightbars, strobe lights, or a
combination of the two that extends outward from the runway end. ALS usually
serves a runway that has an instrument approach procedure (IAP) associated with it
and allows the pilot to visually identify the runway environment and align the
aircraft with the runway upon arriving at a prescribed point on an approach.

Several ALS configurations are recognized by the International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO); however, non-standard ALS configurations are installed at
some airports. Typically, approach lighting systems are of high-intensity. Many
approach lighting systems are also complemented by various on-runway light
systems, such as Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL), Touchdown Zone Lights
(TDZL), and High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL). The most common approach light
system configurations include:

12
• MALSR: Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment
Indicator Lights

• MALSF: Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing lights

• SALS: Short Approach Lighting System

• SSALS: Simplified Short Approach Lighting System

• SSALR: Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment

Indicator Lights
• SSALF: Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights

• ODALS: Omnidirectional Approach Lighting System

• ALSF-1: Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights configuration 1

13
• ALSF-2: Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights configuration 2

• CALVERT I/ICAO-1 HIALS: ICAO-compliant configuration 1 High Intensity Approach Lighting

System
• CALVERT II/ICAO-2 HIALS: ICAO-compliant configuration 2 High Intensity Approach Lighting
System
• LDIN: Lead-in lighting

• REIL: Runway End Identification Lights • RAIL: Runway Alignment Indicator Lights

14
Runway Lights

• Runway End Identifier Lights (REILs): A pair of white flashing lights, one on each side
of the approach end of the runway, that help identify the runway from taxiways at
night.

• Runway Edge Light Systems (HIRL/MIRL/LIRL): The runway edge lights are steady
white lights on the edges of the runways. On instrument runways, the white lights
change to yellow during last 2,000 feet, or half the runway length, whichever is less,
and then they turn red as the aircraft reaches the end of the runway. They can be high-
intensity (HIRL), medium-intensity (MIRL) or low-intensity (LIRL).

• Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS) - On some precision runways, a runway

centerline light system is installed, with white lights spaced at 50-ft intervals on the
centerline of the runway. With 3,000 feet remaining, the white lights change to
alternating white and red, and then all red during last 1,000 feet.

• Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL) - Touchdown zone lights are steady white lights
placed in two rows next to the centerline, starting at 100 feet and extending to the
midpoint of the runway, or 3,000 feet beyond the threshold, whichever is less.

• Land and Hold Short Lights - When land and hold short operations (LAHSO) are in
effect, flashing white lights may be seen across the runway at the hold short line.

15
Taxiway Lights

• Taxiway Edge Lights: Taxiway edge lights are blue in color and line the
taxiways. Airports often have green taxiway centerline lights, as well.

• Clearance Bar Lights - Set inside the taxiway, clearance bar lights are
steady yellow and are meant to increase the visibility of a hold line or a
taxiway intersection at night.

• Stop Bar Lights - Only installed at select airports, stop bar lights are
meant to reinforce an ATC clearance to cross or enter a runway in low
visibility situations (low IMC). They're in-pavement lights that are steady
red and extend across the taxiway at a hold short line. Once a pilot is
cleared onto the runway, the stop bar lights will be turned off.

• Runway Guard Lights - A pair of two steady yellow lights that are
positioned at each side of the taxiway at the hold short line, the runway
guard lights are meant to draw attention to the hold short line - the area
where a taxiway meets the runway.

RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR)

The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centerline of a runway can see the
runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its
centerline.
An instrumentally derived value, based on standard calibrations, that represents the
horizontal distance a pilot will see down the runway from the approach end;
it is based on the sighting of either high intensity runway lights or on the visual
contrast of other targets whichever yields the greater visual range. RVR, in contrast to
prevailing or runway visibility, is based on what a pilot in a moving aircraft should see
looking down the runway. RVR is horizontal visual range, not slant visual range. It is
based on the measurement of a transmissometer made near the touchdown point of
the instrument runway and is reported in hundreds of feet. RVR is used in lieu of RVV
and/or prevailing visibility in determining minimums for a particular runway.

1. Touchdown RVR — The RVR visibility readout values obtained from RVR equipment
serving the runway touchdown zone.

2. Mid-RVR — The RVR readout values obtained from RVR equipment located midfield
of the runway.

3. Rollout RVR — The RVR readout values obtained from RVR equipment located
nearest the rollout end of the runway.

16
CMV (Converted Met Visibility)

A value equivalent to an RVR which is derived from the reported meteorological

visibility, as converted in accordance with the specified requirements in the CAR.
Conversion of Reported Meteorological Visibility to RVR/CMV Horizontal visibility
reported by the meteorological office could be different from the slant visibility
observed by the pilot due to factors such as low lying haze and a smoke layer. The
reported visibility has inherent limitations due to the fact that it is reported at a site
that is removed from the point at which a pilot makes the approach to land and is
expected to acquire the visual reference to continue the approach. An RVR is a better
representation of the expected distance that the pilot may acquire visual cues on
approach. As RVR and meteorological visibility are established differently, a ratio can
be identified between the two. Effect of lighting intensities and background
luminance play a role when establishing an RVR. In cases where the RVR is not
reported, a pilot may derive RVR/CMV by using a mathematical conversion depending
upon the type of approach lighting and day/night conditions. The RVR/CMV derived
from the table below may be used by an operator to commence or continue an
approach to the applicable DA/MDA. An Operator should ensure that a meteorological
visibility to RVR conversion is not used for takeoff, for calculating any other required
RVR minimum less than 800 m, for visual/circling approaches, or when reported RVR is
available.

The only time you can use converted visibility is:

a) No RVR measurement available and either

b) CAT I ILS, or
c) Straight-in NPA

CMV = Reported Meteorological Visibility x Conversion Factor

17
Performance

Take off/Landing Distance

TORA (Takeoff Run Available)

The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an
aeroplane taking off.

TODA (Take Off Distance Available)

The length of the take off run available (TORA) plus the length of the clearway,
if provided.

ASDA (ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE)

The length of the take-off run available plus the length of the stopway, if provided.

LDA (LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE)

The length of runway which is declared available and suitable for the ground run
of an airplane landing. A 50 ft obstacle at the threshold is considered for the
calculations.

CWY (CLEARWAY)
A defined rectangular area on the ground or water, at the departure end of the
runway selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may
make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height.

SWY (STOPWAY)
A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of take-off run available
prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an
abandoned take-off.

BALANCED FIELD
A condition where the accelerate-stop distance required (ASDR) is equal to the
takeoff distance required (TODR) for the aircraft weight, engine thrust, aircraft
configuration and runway condition.

18
Screen Height

The height above the ground of an imaginary screen that the aircraft would just
clear when taking off or landing, in an unbanked attitude and with the landing
gear extended.

Class B Screen Height is 50ft for Take Off & Landing, Meanwhile for Class A it's 50ft
for Landing & 35ft for Take Off (Reduced to 15ft on wet & contaminated runways) .

Critical Engine

A critical engine is the engine which, if lost, will most adversely affect the
performance and handling characteristics of the aircraft. On conventional twins where
the propellers rotate clockwise (from the pilot’s point of view), the critical engine is the
left engine.

- On a twin with counter-rotating propellers, such as the Seneca III, there is no critical
engine due to the turning tendencies of losing one engine will be identical no matter
which engine fails

Living in the P.A.S.T. One helpful mnemonic to readily remember the contributing
factors to a critical engine which stands for :

1-P-factor also referred to as asymmetric disc effect and asymmetric blade effect
occurs at high angles of attack.

As is the case with all propeller aircraft, the descending blade is continuously
working at a higher angle of attack than the ascending blade, causing the
center of thrust to shift.

So, even though, the engines are producing the same thrust their arms vary.
This means that for the majority of aircraft, those of which have propellers that
rotate clockwise, the left engine will be considered the critical engine because
the right engine will cause a significantly greater yawing moment.

2-Accelerated slipstream is a rolling phenomenon resulting from P-factor. The

air behind the propeller will move in a similar fashion to the center of thrust.

This creates more airflow on the outside of the right wing than the left, making
the aircraft more eager to roll to the left.
3-Spiraling slipstream further increase the risks associated with a critical
engine as the air reaches the rudder on the left side, resulting in a left turning
tendency.

4-Torque can be referred to as Newton's third law which states that each action
results in an equal and opposite reaction. When both engines are producing
torque the forces “cancel” each other out as neither produces a greater reaction.

However, when the left engine becomes inoperative the resulting roll and yaw
combined cause substantial force.

Minimum Control Speeds

V mcg (Minimum Control Speed on the Ground)

-The Speed at which it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane to

enable the take-off to be safely continued. The aircraft may not deviate
more than 30ft laterally from the centerline using the primary aerodynamic
controls only (without the use of nose-wheel steering).

-VMC[G] must be established, with :

1-Aeroplane in take off configuration.

2-Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the operating engine.
3-The most unfavorable center of gravity.
4-The aeroplane trimmed for take-off.
5-The maximum sea-level take-off weight.

20
 Vmca(Minimum Control Speed in the Air)

-The speed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative after
takeoff, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with that engine still
inoperative, and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more
than 5 degrees.

-VMC is not a static number as it changes with any combination of the variables.
Those variables also have effect on performance. The red line in the ASI is likely the
highest speed that VMC will be, in fact, it will most probably be lower. Some of those
variables (CG, weight and flaps position) can be changed before the flight in order to
have a VMC as low as possible, however performance also must be taken in account.

-For certification, VMC cannot be greater than 1.2 times stall speed with flaps in
takeoff position and gear retracted.

-How VMC determined? Airplane manufacturers determine VMC based on several

factors depicted below. Some of them are the most adverse others were defined by
certification.

C – Critical engine failed and propeller windmilling (Max drag).

O – Operating engine at maximum takeoff power (Max power thus Max yaw).
M – Maximum gross weight (by certification request).
B – Bank of no more than 5 degrees (Zero sideslip).
A – Aft center of gravity (less rudder effectiveness).
T – Takeoff configuration (gear up).
S – Standard temperature (15°C) and pressure (1013 mb) (by certification).

-During recovery, Heading shall not exceed 20°& A maximum Bank of 5°(Towards
the live engine) which can be used to reduce the size of the vertical tail and also
reduce both the sideslip (drag) and VMCA.

Vmcl (Minimum Control Speed For Approach & Landing)

-The minimum control speed in the landing configuration. This is the lowest
speed at which it is possible to maintain control of the aircraft with a maximum
5°bank when full power is applied following the failure of the critical engine while
in landing configuration.

-VMC[L] Must be determined with :

1-The aircraft in the most critical configuration for an approach & landing with all
engine operative.
2-The most unfavorable center of gravity.
3-The most unfavorable weight.
4-The aeroplane trimmed for approach with all engines operating.
5-For Propeller aeroplanes, The propeller of the inoperative engine in the position
it achieves without the pilot action, assuming the engine fails while at the power
or thrust necessary to maintain a 3° approach path angle
6-Go around power or thrust setting on the operating engine.

21
 T.O Segments

Lift off to 35' and V2 (1st segment)

At lift off you are assumed to be in takeoff configuration with at least one engine out.
After liftoff you will retract the gear and accelerate to V2 while climbing. The goal here
is the reach 35' height ( 15' in case of wet runway )before the end of your takeoff
distance. Note that for propeller aircraft, this height is 50' instead of 35'.

35' to acceleration height flown at V2 (2nd Segment)

During this segment you climb at V2 until you reach a height at which it is safe to level
off and accelerate. This height is called the acceleration height and is normally 400'
AGL. However, this value can vary per runway and will be available to you in your
performance data for a particular runway.

Acceleration (3rd Segment)

Level flight at acceleration height to VFS You are clear of all obstacles, and now your
goal shifts from altitude to airspeed. Level the airplane and accelerate.

Continue climbing at VFS to 1500' (4th Segment)

Once VFS is reached you will continue to climb at that airspeed. This will also mark
your transition from takeoff flaps to a clean configuration. The height of 1500' is a
typical value but may be different based on obstacles for a specific runway.

(VSF) Final segment climb speed, which is based upon one-engine inoperative climb, clean configuration,
and maximum continuous power setting.

22
Aircraft Classes

PERFORMANCE CLASS A

Multi-engined airplanes powered by turbo-propeller engines with a maximum

approved passenger seating configuration of more than 9 or a maximum take-off mass
exceeding 5700 kg., and all multi-engined turbo-jet powered airplanes. Class A
airplanes must abide by the Certification Specifications laid out in the document
from EASA called CS-25.

PERFORMANCE CLASS B

Propeller driven airplanes with a maximum approved passenger seating

configuration of 9 or less, and a maximum take-off mass of 5700 kg or less. Class B
airplanes must abide by the Certification Specifications laid out in the document
from EASA called CS-23.

PERFORMANCE CLASS C

Airplanes powered by reciprocating engines with a maximum approved passenger

seating configuration of more than 9 or a maximum take-off mass exceeding 5700 kg.

UNCLASSIFIED

This class is given to those aeroplanes whose performance characteristic is very

unique and special performance consideration is required. For example, the
Unclassified class includes supersonic aeroplanes and sea planes.

Wake turbulence separation

23
 Cost Index

The CI is the ratio of the time-related cost of an airplane operation and the cost of fuel.
The value of the CI reflects the relative effects of fuel cost on overall trip cost as
compared to time-related direct operating costs.

In equation form: CI = Time cost ~ €/hr

Fuel cost ~ €/hr

The lower the CI, the more "importance" the machinery places on saving fuel. Low cost
indexes will result in lower climb speed, (both indicated and mach), lower cruise
speed, a generally higher cruise altitude, a later descent and a slower descent
mach/speed. The higher CI's will result in the opposite.

COST INDEX EXPLAINED

by captain joe

24
Flight Planning

Flight Plan
1-Shall be submitted 60 minutes before departure for a flight provided with
ATC or Advisory service Unless a shorter period of time has been
prescribed by the competent authority.

2-A new Flight Plan is required to be amended or cancelled and resubmitted

in the event of a delay of :
-30 minutes or more for a Controlled Flight.
-60 minutes or more for a Non-Controlled Flight.

3-Possible to submit during a flight at least 10 minutes before the aircraft is

estimated to reach :
-Intended point of entry into a control area or advisory area.
-Point of crossing an airway or advisory route.

4-All changes to a flight plan for an IFR flight or a VFR flight operated as a
controlled flight, shall be reported as soon as practicable.

5-Information submitted prior to departure regarding fuel endurance or total

number of persons carried, if differs at time of departure, must be reported.

6-Can be cancelled at any time outside class A airspace, while in VMC.

7-Must be Cancelled when landing in a non-controlled Aerodrome by the

quickest means available to the nearest air traffic services unit.

8-Always check national AIP before submitting a FPL because some of the
abovementioned criteria and rules may differ from country to country.

A Flight Plan Must Be Submitted If :

(see also bullet 8 from previous)

A flight or portion of a flight to be provided with ATC service.

An IFR flight within advisory airspace.

A flight within or into designated areas or Along routes, when so required by ATS
authority to facilitate the provision of FIS, Alerting and SAR services.

A flight within or into designated areas or Along designated routes, when so

required by the appropriate ATS authority to facilitate co-ordination with
appropriate military units or ATS units in adjacent States in order to avoid the
possible need for interception for the purpose of identification;

A flight across international borders.

25
Notam
-Definition

A notice to airmen containing information essential to personnel concerned with flight

operations which is of either a temporary nature or not sufficiently known in
advance to permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other operational
publications.

-Decoding A Notam

Flight Rules

VFR Minima

26
 Special VFR
may be conducted during day only, unless otherwise permitted by the Authority

Flight have to be clear of cloud and with the surface in sight

Minimum Flight visibility of 1 500m

Max speed of 140 kts IAS or less to avoid a collision

ATC shall refuse to issue a Special VFR Clearance For A/C to Take off, Land or enter
the control zone of an aerodrome when :
-Ground visibility is less than 1 500 m
-Ceiling is less than 180 m (600 ft).

Semi-Circular Flight Levels

odd plus 500ft

below FL 290
odd plus 500ft

even plus 500ft

above FL 290

27
Non-Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums (Non-RVSM)

Aircraft flying above FL290 needed :

2,000 feet separation with opposite traffic.

4,000 feet separation with same direction

traffic

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums (RVSM)

Aircraft flying above FL290 needed :

1,000 feet separation with opposite

traffic.

2,000 feet separation with same

direction traffic

The principal benefits of implementing RVSM are :

1-Theoretically doubling the airspace capacity between FL290 and FL410.

2-Operating aircraft at closer optimum flight levels with the resulting fuel economies.

28
Airspace

Classes

Areas

1-Danger Area :

An airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous to the

flight of aircraft may exist at specified times.

Flight is approved under the commander’s own responsibility.

2-Restricted Area :

An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial waters

of a state, within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with certain
specified conditions.

PIC shall request entry from ATC when area is active.

Found Either in Notams or AIP (ENR section).

3-Prohibited Area

An airspace of defined dimensions above the land areas or territorial waters of

which the flights are not permitted at any time under any circumstances.

29
ATS Route :DESIGNATOR Shall Consist Of :

One prefix (optional)

One letter
A number
One additional letter (optional)

BASIC DESIGNATOR :
One letter
One number from 1 to 9999

Regional ATS airways: Non regional ATS airways:

-A, B, G, R = conventional routes (VOR) -H, J, V, W = conventional routes (VOR)
-L, M, N, P = RNAV routes -Q, T, Y, Z = RNAV routes

Ex. P20

OPTIONAL PREFIX SELECTION

K ( Kopter ) low level airways for primary use by helicopter.

U ( Upper Airspace ) above FL195 in Greece & all airspace will be class C.
(Note : Some countries use FL 245).
S ( Supersonic ) Route exclusively for use by supersonic A/C during
Acceleration, Deceleration & while in supersonic flight.

Note. Letters Are Pronounced Using Standard Phraseology In voice Communication

Ex. UP64

OPTIONAL ADDITIONAL LETTER

• F (behind suffix) advisory service only is provided.

• G (behind suffix) flight information service only is provided.

• Y For RNP-1 routes at and above FL200; all turns on the route between
30 and 90 degrees shall be made within a radius of 22,5 NM.

• Z For RNP-1 routes at and below FL190; all turns on the route between 30
and 90 degrees shall be made within a radius of 15 NM.

30
Area Navigation (RNAV)

Required Navigation performances (RNP 95%)

• En-route: 2.0

click here
• Terminal: 1.0
• Departure: 1.0
• Approach: 0.3 (Can be lowered to 0.1)
IFR ROUTES

IFR Altitudes

1-Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA) :

-maximum usable altitude or flight level for an airspace
structure or route segment.
-It is the highest altitude on a Federal airway, jet route,
RNAV low or high route, or other direct route for which
an MEA is designated at which adequate reception of
navigation signals is assured.

2-Minimum En-Route Altitude (MEA) :

-The lowest published altitude in effect between
radio fixes on VOR airways.
-Assures acceptable navigational coverage for
the entire width of the airway but do NOT
guaranty Communication reception
-Obstacle clearance for the entire route of :
- 1000' In Non-Mountainous Areas.
- 2000' in Mountainous Areas.

3-RNAV "T" ROUTE SYSTEM :

-Low altitude RNAV only routes are identified by the prefix
"T".
-Provides more direct routing for IFR aircraft to enhance
the safety & efficiency of the National Airspace System.
-RNAV Altitudes can be identified with the letter "G".

4-Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA) :

-The lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes
on VOR airways, off airway routes, or route segments which
meets obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route
segment.
-assures acceptable navigational signal coverage only
within 22NM of a VOR.
-Normally shows An Asterisk "*" next to the altitude.

31
 5-Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude (OROCA) :
-All IFR aircraft must operate at an altitude of 1,000 feet
(2,000 in designated mountainous areas) above the highest
obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nm from the course
to be flown, except for takeoff or landing.
-Provides Obstacles clearance but doesn't guarantee
Navigational Nor Communication signal coverage.

6-Minimum Off Route Altitude (MORA/Grid MORA) :

-Provides a defined vertical clearance above all known obstructions within 10 NM
from the route centerline.
-No guarantee for navigational coverage.
-Grid MORA :
-Supplied by the State Authority provides the normal obstacle clearance.
-Values Obtained from Jeppesen clears Obstacles by 1000ft in areas where
the highest elevations are 5000ft MSL or lower, And clears obstacles by
2000ft in area where the highest elevations are 5001ft MSL or higher.

7-Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA) :

-Minimum altitude the navigation signal can be received for the
route and for off-course NAVAID facilities that determine a fix.
-When MRA at a fix is higher than MEA, An MRA is established for
the fix and will be lowest altitude at which an intersection can be
determined.
-Depicted on charts as a flag with the letter "R".

8-Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA) :

-Provides vertical & lateral obstruction clearance based
on turn criteria over certain fixes, NAVAIDs, waypoints.
-Provides obstacle clearance for both turn anticipation &
flyover protection.

9-Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA) :

-When a change of MEA to a higher MEA is required, A climb may
be initiated at the point where the MEA change occurs & obstacle
clearance is still assured. When terrain or obstructions dictate the
necessity, A minimum crossing altitude will be declared. If an MCA
exists, the pilot must initiate the climb so as to cross the point at or
above the MCA.
-MCA is charted as an "X" inside a flag, Along with the associated
airway, altitude, and direction.

32
Planning Minima

In case of a precision approach only the RVR or visibility is taken into account. RVR is
always leading and must be above minima at ETA +- 1hr.

Take Off Minima

A low visibility takeoff is where RVR is lower than 400m but above 75m

(high intensity RWY light)

33
Alternates

1-Take off Alternate

A Take-off alternate is an aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able to land should

this become necessary shortly after take-off and it is not possible to use the aerodrome
of departure.

Must be within a distance equivalent to a flight time of 1 HR (2 HRS for ETOPS

Aircraft) with OEI in still air at actual take-off mass in ISA. If no OEI cruise speed is
specified, use achievable speed resulting from MAX CONT thrust on the remaining
engines.
weather must be at or above landing minima within ETA +- 1 hour
- Ceiling is considered for NPA only.
- limitation related to OEI operations must be taken into account.

2-En-Route Alternate

An aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able to land in the event that a diversion
becomes necessary while en-route.

ETOPS Operations
- At least one Instrument approach is required.
- Weather must be above planning minima at anticipated landing time until 1 hour
after latest possible landing time.
RCF (Reduced Contingency Fuel 3%) Procedure
- Weather must be above planning minima ETA +- 1hr.

3-Destination Alternate

Destination Alternate is NOT required when:

- Destination Aerodrome is isolated, In this case a point of no return (PRN) is
required. This point must not be passed unless an assessment of the prevailing
weather, traffic and other operational conditions indicates that a safe landing can
be achieved at the ETA.
- Total Flight time Of 6 HRS or less.
- 2 independent runways available (May cross, but A blockage of one runway
must not stop operations of the other runway).
- Ceiling of 2,000' or Circling plus 500', whichever the greater.
- Visibility of 5 km or more.

Destination Alternate is required when:

- One Alternate is required when information is available which indicates that the
conditions at the destination are above aerodrome operating minima ETA +- 1hr.
- Two Alternates Are required If the conditions are such that conditions for the
destination aerodrome are below minima at ETA +-1hr, or when no weather report
is available.

34
Lost Comms Procedure

In Visual Meteorological Condition, The Pilot Shall :

Continue to fly in VMC, Land at the nearest suitable aerodrome; and report its arrival
by the most expeditious means to the appropriate air traffic services unit.

In Instrument Meteorological Condition, The Pilot Shall :

- When radar is not used in the provision of air traffic control, maintain the last
assigned (1)speed and level, or (2) minimum flight altitude if higher, for a period of
20 minutes following the aircraft’s failure to report its position over a compulsory
reporting point and thereafter adjust level and speed in accordance with the filed
flight plan.

- When radar is used in the provision of air traffic control, maintain the last assigned
(1) speed and level, or (2) minimum flight altitude if higher, for a period of 7 minutes
following :
1-The time the last assigned level or minimum flight altitude is reached.
2-The time the transponder is set to Code 7600.
3-The aircraft's failure to report it's position over a compulsory reporting point,
whichever is later, and thereafter adjust level and speed in accordance with the
filed flight plan.

Always keep transmitting on the radio, saying transmitting blind.

Always try to keep reaching other stations.
Land if possible within 30 minutes after the ETA specified, or the last
acknowledged expected approach time, whichever is later.

Lost comms procedure at Megara

Circle overhead 2000 ft with right turns. Make a low pass over the active
runway while rocking the wings and look out for light signals. Join downwind
and complete an approach on the active runway.

35
Approach

Type of Approach

Precision Approach
An instrument approach and landing using precision lateral and vertical guidance
with minima as determined by the category of operation. Furthermore, ATC can
also provide the pilot radar vectors to the runway. Here's A few types of PA :

1-Instrument Landing System (ILS) : ILS is the most common available PA.
It uses both a localizer and a glideslope ground-based signal that are
transmitted to the aircraft receiver guiding pilots to the runway.
Minima for ILS are predetermined by the category of operation.

no less than 200ft

<200 to 100ft 300 for EASA

<100 to 50fr

<50 ft 75 for EASA

2-Precision Approach Radar (PAR) : Approaches that involve radar & two-way radio
communications. The controller provides the pilot headings, altitudes, and
necessary corrections to remain on course.

Non-Precision Approach
Standard instrument approach procedures with only lateral guidance from the
localizer signal. it has a MDH or DH in case of CDFA, not lower than 250ft and a
RVR/CMV of 750m or more

1-Area Navigation (RNAV) : It's a method of navigation which permits the operation
of an aircraft on any desired flight path; it allows its position to be continuously
determined.

2-Localizer Performance (LP) : LP approaches are non-precision approaches with

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) lateral guidance. it's are located
where terrain or obstructions do not allow a vertically guided procedure.

36
3-Continuous descent final approach (CDFA) : CDFA is a technique for flying the final
approach segment of a non-precision approach (NPA) procedure as a constant
descent from the FAF to typically 50ft above the threshold. This is why a small
margin, typically 50ft is added to create a DA/H so the aircraft won't violate the
minima in case of a missed approach procedure.

Approaches with Vertical Guidance (APV)

An instrument approach based on a navigation system that does not meet the
ICAO precision approach standards but course and glidepath deviation information.

Circling Approach
A circling approach is a maneuver initiated by the pilot to align the aircraft with a
runway for landing when a straight-in landing from an instrument approach is not
possible or desirable.

Circling Approach Patterns Circling Approach Protected Area

Straight-in approach
An instrument approach in which final approach is begun without having to
execute a procedure turn. Straight-in approach can be completed with a
straight-in landing or circle-to-land procedure.

Straight-In Landing : A landing made on a runway aligned within 30° of the final
approach course (for CAT A&B) & 15° for all other categories.

37
Approach Ban

- The commander/Pilot of the flight may commence an instrument approach

regardless of the reported RVR/VIS, But There's a limit to how low he can go!

-When RVR is not Available, RVR values may be derived by converting the
reported visibility.

1-If the Reported RVR/VIS is less than the applicable minimum the approach shall
not be continued :
-Below 1000ft AGL.
-Into the final approach segment When DA/H or MDA/H is Higher then 1 000 ft
AGL.

2-If the Reported RVR/VIS is Above the applicable minimum, The Approach was
commenced & After passing 1000ft AGL, The reported RVR/VIS falls below the
applicable minimum, In this case you may be continued to DA/H or MDA/H.

3-The approach may be continued below DA/H or MDA/H & landing may be
completed provided that the visual reference adequate for the type of approach &
for the intended runway is established at the DA/H or MDA/H and is maintained.

Approach Segments

38
 Arrival Route/Segment :
Starts At the end of the En-Route airways system & Ends At the IAF. If the Distance
between these two points is more than 25NM, A standard arrival route (STAR) will
be published. Obstacle clearance in the primary area is 1000 ft & Altitude specified
for the aircraft to be over the IAF is not below the highest MSA for the aerodrome.

Initial Approach Segment (IAF) :

Starts at the IAF and ends at the IF. The Purpose is to provide a method for aligning
your aircraft with the approach course. MOC (Minimum Obstacle Clearance) for IAF
is 1000ft. Maximum intercept angle is 120° for Non-precision approach & 90° for
Precision approach. If there is no track guidance to the IF, A DR(Dead Reckoning)
segment may be specified with a Maximum Interception angle of 45° & a distance
of 10NM or less.

Intermediate Approach Segment (IF) :

In this segment aircraft speed & configuration is adjusted to prepare for the final
approach. It Starts at the IF and ends at the FAF/FAP. When there is no FAF, it
ends when the aircraft is established on the inbound track. Usually this segment
is aligned within 30°of the final approach course. MOC is reduced to 500ft within
the primary Area.

Final Approach Segment (FAF/FAP) :

Starts at FAF/FAP & Ends At MAP. This segment in which alignment and descent
for landing are made. Descent gradient various between 2.5° & 3.5°.

Missed Approach Segment (MAP) :

-Initial Phase begins at the MAPt & ends at the start of climb.
-Intermediate Phase starts when positive climb is established until 50m obstacle
clearance is obtained and can be maintained. Track may be changed by a
maximum of 15° in this phase.
-Final Phase begins when 50m obstacle clearance is first obtained & maintained.
until a point where a new approach, holding or a return to en-route is initiated.

Approach Aircraft Categories

S1

V =(1.3 x Vso) or (1.23 x Vs1 ) whichever is greater.

39
FUEL PLANNING

Block Fuel / Total Fuel on Board

Block fuel is the total fuel required for the flight and is the sum of the Taxi fuel, Trip
fuel, Contingency fuel, Alternate fuel, Final Reserve fuel, Additional fuel and Extra fuel.

Taxi Fuel
Taxi fuel is the fuel used prior to take-off and must include pre-start APU consumption,
engine start and taxi fuel. It shall not be less than the amount expected to be used
prior to take-off. Taxi fuel is usually a fixed quantity for average taxi duration

Trip Fuel / Fuel to Destination

The Trip fuel is the required fuel quantity from brake release on take-off at the
departure aerodrome to the landing touchdown at the destination aerodrome.
This quantity includes the fuel required for:
take-off - climb to cruise level - flight in level cruise - flight from the beginning of
descent to the beginning of approach - approach - landing at the destination.

Contingency
Contingency fuel is part of reserve fuel, and is (basically) the higher of 1 (a or b) and 2.
1-
a) 5% of trip fuel (no en-route alternate).
b) 3% of trip fuel in case there is an en-route alternate.
2-
an amount to fly for 5 minutes at holding speed at 1500ft above destination
aerodrome in standard conditions.

40
 Alternate Fuel
Alternate fuel is the amount of fuel required from the missed approach point at the
destination aerodrome until landing at the alternate aerodrome. It takes into account
the required fuel for: missed approach at the destination airport, the longest route
from the furthest Missed Approach Point, the cruise, descent , approach and landing
at the alternate aerodrome.
When two alternates are required by the Authority, alternate fuel must be sufficient to
proceed to the alternate which requires the greater amount of fuel.

Final reserve fuel

quantity of fuel that should never be used but it is carried in order to provide a final
safety net. You should always land with Final reserve fuel intact. Final reserve fuel is:

- For aeroplanes with reciprocating engines, fuel to fly for 45 minutes

- For aeroplanes with turbine engines, fuel to fly for 30 min at holding speed at 1500ft
above the aerodrome elevation in standard conditions, calculated with the estimated
mass on arrival at the destination alternate aerodrome. (or destination aerodrome
when no alternate is required).

Reserve Fuel / Minimum Diversion Fuel

Reserve fuel or Minimum Diversion fuel is the sum of Alternate fuel plus Final Reserve
fuel. Minimum diversion fuel does not imply that a diversion must be initiated.
Depending on operational circumstances committing to the destination is also an
option.

Additional Fuel
Additional fuel is fuel which is added to comply with a specific regulatory or company
requirement. Examples include fuel for technical deficiencies such as engine failure or
loss of pressurization, ETOPS fuel, fuel required for a remote or island destination
where no alternate is available.
If you do not nominate an alternate aerodrome, then your minimum block
fuel must include an additional fuel of 15 minutes of holding at 1500ft above
aerodrome level.

Extra Fuel
Extra fuel is fuel added at the discretion of the Commander. The Commander must
consider the viability of the planned route and alternates, and consider whether any
statistical contingency is valid to the particular conditions on the day.

41
Mass & balance

Maximum Take-off Mass (MTOM)

This is either a structural limit or a performance limit.

Maximum Landing Mass (MLM)

Either a structural limit, not to be exceeded in normal operations, or a performance

limit. Maximum

Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM)

This is also a structural limitation. As the term implies ‘’Zero Fuel Mass’’ is the total mass
of the aeroplane less the usable fuel.

Unusable fuel

Is the fuel inside of the tanks that cannot be transferred to the engines. The unusable
fuel forms part of the ZFM.

Basic Empty Mass (BEM)

Includes the mass of the airframe, engines, lubricating oil, unusable fuel and the
equipment required for all roles of the aeroplane, e.g. passenger seat and cargo
restraints.

Variable Load (VL)

The weight of the crew and their baggage and equipment, food, beverages, water and
any special equipment required for a particular aeroplane role.

Dry Operating Mass (DOM)

The sum of the BEM and VL. It excludes usable fuel and Payload. Payload The
combined weight of the passengers and their baggage, cargo and mail; in other words,
whatever brings revenue →
PAYload.

Traffic load

Payload plus non-revenue load. Traffic load + DOM = ZFM Take-off Mass (TOM) The
weight (mass) of the aeroplane at the start of the take-off run. TOM = ZFM + Take-off
Fuel Operating Mass (OM) The sum of the DOM plus take off fuel, i.e. OM = DOM + take
off fuel

42
 Ramp Mass (RM) (Or Taxy Mass)

The total mass of the aircraft and its contents at start up. ZFM + Fuel
Load = Ramp Mass or Taxy Mass.

Landing Mass

The mass of the aircraft on landing. LM = TOM - Trip fuel

All Up Mass (AUM)

The total aircraft mass at a specified point. Also known as the Gross
Mass

43
 Centre of Gravity (CG) Limitations 4 kg for clothing, 6 kg for hand baggage

CG aft: less drag, less fuel, less stable, lower when < 10 pax seats available then oral
stall
CG fwd: more drag, more fuel, more elevator use standard baggage weights when >= 20
force pax seats

Loading These values are the standards for CAT, in

General Aviation use the exact weigh values
of crew, passengers, luggage and fuel

flight crew: 85 kg

cabin crew: 75 kg

Fundamentals of CG

Moment=Force×Arm

M & B Details of Aircraft

weighing: by operator, prior to initial entry

into service and every 4 years

9 years when using fleet mass:

Mass Limits Maximum Floor Load:

mass per area (e.g. kg/m2 )

Mass calculations basic empty mass is recorded in weighing

schedule

Cargo Handling

bulk cargo – large items with uneven shape,

inappropriate for containers or pallets, rush
bags, crew bags

containers – each container has its own

manifest

pallets – secured with straps or nets

variable load: mass of crew, crew baggage,

removable units of equipment

mzfm is calculated for +2.5g

44
METEOROLOGY

Basic
ICAO ISA conditions at MSL

Temperature: +15°C, with a lapse rate (ELR) of -2°C per 1000 ft.
Pressure: 1013 hPa (29,92 inHg)
Density: 1225 g/m3

Wind
-Wind veers with an increase of altitude, and backs with decrease of altitude in
the northern hemisphere.

- A Jet stream is located on the warm air side, where a strong temperature
gradient is found. Minimum jet stream speed is 60 KT, no upper limit.

- Wind is measured 10 m above the ground.

-Every stripe on a calibrated windsock represents 5 knots.

- Mean wind is reported variable (VRB) when:

Wind is 3 kts or less
Variation is 180 degrees or more
When there is no possibility to get a mean direction of the wind e.g. when a
thunderstorm passes.

- Wind is reported calm when wind is less than 1 knot.

- Variable reported wind is when the mean wind divers more than 60 degrees but
less than 180 degrees from the mean wind in a METAR.

- Wind reported in the TAF or METAR are referenced to true north unless
specified otherwise. Wind reported from controllers are referenced to
magnetic north.
Icing

No airframe icing occurs at temperatures above 0°C or below -45°C.

Clear ice (large SCWD) forms in stratus clouds between 0°C and -7°C
and in cumulus between 0°C and -23°C.

Rime ice (small SCWD) occurs between -23°C and -45 °C.
- Can reduce lift to 30% and increase drag to 40%

Carburetor icing should be expected in a piston engine when OAT

between -10°C and +30°C with a high humidity (>40%).

45
 Atmosphere Layers

75% of atmosphere by weight lies below tropopause.

tropopause;

poles Æ 7,6 km / -45°C

mid latitude Æ 12,2 km / -55°C

equator Æ 16,8 km / -75°C

standard atmosphere temperature drop = 1,98 °C/1000ft to 11km at -56,5°C

46
SEA BREEZES

LAND BREEZES

MOUNTAIN BREEZES
(anabatic)

VALLEY BREEZES
(katabatic)

47
Stability

stable : resist to vertical movement

a parcel lifted in this condition will
come back to its original position

Unstable :
a parcel lifted in this condition will
continue to rise

Neutral:
When the atmosphere neither resists
nor assists vertical motion

ELR = environmental lapse rate // adiabatic = no energy loss or gain

DALR = 3 °C/1000ft
SALR = 1,8 °C/1000ft in temperate climates (not constant)

Absolutely stable
ELR is less than SALR

Absolutely unstable
ELR is greater than DALR

Conditionally unstable
ELR lies between DALR and
SALR

48
Type Of Clouds
- Cloud base: height above the aerodrome where the first clouds are FEW or SCT.

- Cloud ceiling: The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest layer
of cloud below 6000 m (20,000 ft) covering more than half the sky. So between 5
and 8 oktas, which is BKN or OVC.

Clouds Formation

49
Fronts

Stationary front Cold front

cold and warm air masses meet but A fast moving cold air mass
neither can move the other overtake a warm air mass

Warm front Occluded front

A warm air mass overtake a A warm air mass is caught
slow moving cold air mass between two cooler air masses

METAR TAF

METeorological airdrome report Terminal airdrome forecast

Updated every 30 min or significant Updated normally every 6 hours (3h for
change military or some civil airport)

Cover an area of 5NM around the airport Cover an area of 5NM around the airport

No duration ! Issued at least four time per day and

It's an Observation Range from 3h to 30h

50
In the vicinity (VC): Occurring between 5 and 10 NM from a station.

Distant (DSNT): Area more then 10 NM from the airport.

Shallow(MI): little vertical extend (Maximum 2 m(6ft) above ground)

Low Drifting(DR): When dust, sand, or snow is raised by the wind to less than
2m/6ft, "low drifting" shall be used to further describe the weather phenomenon.

Blowing(BL): When dust, sand, snow, and/or spray is raised by the wind to a height
of 6 feet or more, "blowing" shall be used to further describe the weather
phenomenon.

Showers(SH): Precipitation characterized by the suddenness with which they start

and stop, by the rapid changes of intensity, and usually by rapid changes in the
appearance of the sky.

Thunderstorm(TS): A local storm produced by a cumulonimbus cloud (CB) that is

accompanied by lightning and/or thunder.

Freezing(FZ): When fog is occurring and the temperature is below 0°C, "freezing"
shall be used to further describe the phenomenon. When drizzle and/or rain freezes
upon impact and forms a glaze on the ground or other exposed objects, "freezing"
shall be used to further describe the phenomenon.

Fog(FG) vs Mist(BR) vs haze(HZ): Fog visibility is below 1000 meters. Mist visibility is
between 1000 and 5000 meters. Haze has no water droplets.

51
NOSIG: When no change of weather is forecasted in the next 2 hours, excluding
RVR, temperature/dew-point and QNH.

NSW: No significant weather is used to indicate the end of significant weather. If,
after a time period in which significant weather has been forecasted, a change to a
forecast of no significant weather occurs, the contraction NSW will apear as the
weather group in the new time period. However, NSW is only included in the
BECMG or TEMPO groups.

NSC: No significant cloud. If there is no cloud below 5000 ft or below the highest
minimum sector altitude (whichever is greater) and there is no towering cumulus
or cumulonimbus, ‘NSC’ is reported.

TEMPO: Temporary fluctuation in some of the elements lasting for periods of 30

minutes or more but not longer than one hour and does not cover more than half of
the total period of a TAF or 2-hour trend indication in a METAR.

PROB: Probability of weather to come. If prob is higher than 50%, TEMPO is used.
slobmys trahc XWGIS

52
Braking Action

Minima

53
RADIO AIDS

NDB

Definition
Non-Directional Beacon is defined as a radio beacon operating in the MF or LF band-
widths.

Description
A non-directional beacon (NDB) is a radio beacon operating in the MF or LF band-
widths. NDBs transmit a signal of equal strength in all directions. The signal contains a
coded element which is used for station identification (normally 1-3 letters in Morse
Code) and data that allows the airborne receiving equipment (ADF) to derive the
magnetic bearing from the station to the aircraft.

NDBs are often associated with Non-Precision Approach procedures as fix identifiers..

NDB
Symbol Cone of confusion

NDB range:
1. Compass Locator 15NM
2. Medium High (MH) 25NM
3. High (H) 50NM (may be less, as published in a NOTAM or the A/FD)
4. High High (HH) 75NM

Airborne Instruments that use NDB

Automatic Direction Finder Radio Magnetic Instrument

(ADF) (RMI)

54
VOR

Description

VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR), is an aircraft navigation system operating in

the VHF band. VORs broadcast a VHF radio composite signal including the station's
Morse Code identifier (and sometimes a voice identifier), and data that allows the
airborne receiving equipment to derive the magnetic bearing from the station to the
aircraft. This line of position is called the "radial".

VOR station are frequently used as way-points on conventional Airway systems, or

associated with Non-Precision Approach procedures as fix identifiers.

click on
symbols picture
below Cone of confusion
HOW TO INTECEPT A RADIAL
IN AND OUTBOUND

Airborne Instruments that use VOR

Radio Magnetic Instrument Omni Bearing Indicator Horizontal Situation Indicator

(RMI) (OBI) (HSI)

CDI

CDI
OBS Corse Deviation Indicator Course selector
VOR needle NDB needle
Omni Bearing Selector
Heading selector

55
DME

Definitions

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is defined as a navigation beacon, usually

coupled with a VOR beacon, to enable aircraft to measure their position relative to that
beacon in slant range. Aircraft send out a signal which is sent back after a fixed delay
by the DME ground equipment. An aircraft can compute its distance to the beacon
from the delay of the signal perceived by the aircraft's DME equipment using the speed
of light.

If an aircraft is flying directly overhead a DME transmitter it will read the

altitude in NM .
Rule of thumb, at an altitude of 6,000 feet, the DME will read approximately 1 NM.

symbols

Airborne Instruments that use DME

56
ILS

Definition

Instrument Landing System (ILS) is defined as a precision runway approach aid based
on two radio beams which together provide pilots with both vertical and horizontal
guidance during an approach to land.

Coverage range: 35° to 10° to

each side of the centerline for 17
NM and between 0° and 10° up
to 25 NM from the antenna and
up to an altitude of 4500ft.

Usually 5° total width.

(2.5 full deflection) to each side,
4 times more sensitive than a VOR.

Width: 1.5 degree (full deflection is

0.75º either direction). 0.15 per dot.

Coverage: typically, up to 10 NM, 8º

to each side of the centerline.

Slope: 2.5°-3.5°.

Errors: False glide slope above

normal glide slope.

57
Marker Beacons

ILS Category Minima

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Performance Based Navigation (PBN)

Definitions

PBN: Specifies that aircraft RNP and RNAV systems performance requirements be
defined in terms of accuracy, integrity, availability, continuity, and functionality
required for the proposed operations in the context of a particular airspace, when
supported by the appropriate navigation infrastructure.

RNP: Required Navigation Performance, is a type of PBN that allows an aircraft to fly
a specific path between two 3D-defined points in space. RNP 5 requires a track
keeping accuracy of +/-5 NM for at least 95% of flight time. En-route RNP’s are usually
2.0 or greater and approach RNP’s can be as low as 0.11. RNP procedures require on
board monitoring equipment.

RNAV: A method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any desired

flightpath within the coverage of the station-referenced navigation aids or within the
limits of the capacity of self-contained aids, or a combination of these. RNAV
procedures do not require on board monitoring equipment.

LNAV: Lateral navigation is a function that guides the aircraft’s lateral movement
and is available from takeoff to localizer capture.

VNAV: Vertical navigation is a function that guides the aircraft’s vertical path,
including climb and descent profiles.

LPV: Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance. Lateral guidance is equivalent to

LOC, and the protected area is considerably smaller than that of LNAV and
LNAV/VNAV approaches.

APV: Approach Procedure with Vertical guidance. An instrument approach based

on a navigation system that is not required to meet the precision approach
standards but provides course and glidepath deviation information. Sometimes
called semi-precision and includes Baro-VNAV, LDA with glide path, LNAV/VNAV and
LPV approaches.

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Checks before using a PBN approach

- That the Navigation Database of the aircraft is up-to-date.

- That the intended approach is stored and can be retrieved from the
Navigation Database.
- That the RAIM check returns positive replies for the ETA.

- That the final track and path discrepancy between the chart and the
Navigation Database are within specific tolerance.

RNP/RNAV approach with LNAV minima

- Allows the least accuracy among the PBN approaches, but still the minima
are usually lower than those of a conventional NPA.

- Since it does not include vertical guidance, it is considered a NPA (or 2D

approach).

- The vertical path is not part of the approach, so the pilots will initiate the
descent and then adjust the flight path angle as required.

LNAV+V

-Lateral Navigation + vertical guidance

. (the vertical guidance is only advisory Therefore it is consider as non-precision
approach and 50ft must be added to MDA.)

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Stabilization Criteria

All approaches must be flown stabilized, ensuring proper configuration is selected

timely and correct flight path is followed throughout the approach.

As a general rule, approach configuration (Gear down, Flaps 1) must have been
achieved by 1000' AGL the latest.

Furthermore, all stabilization criteria must be satisfied by 500 feet in order to continue
the approach. If any of the stabilization criteria is not met by the minimum altitudes
mentioned before, a go-around shall be initiated without delay.

Stabilization criteria are:

The aircraft is on the correct path.

Small changes in pitch/heading are required to maintain the correct

flight path.

Aircraft configuration is complete (Landing with flaps 2 or 3 selection shall

be delayed until landing assured).

The correct approach speed

Vertical speed is less than 1000fpm.

Briefings and checklists are completed.

Deviation on the ILS scales is not greater than:

o Half scale deflection (below 1000 feet).
o Full scale deflection (above 1000 feet).

Deviation during Non-Precision Approaches is not greater than:

o Half scale deflection on the VOR or ± 5° on the ADF.
o 150ft high or low on the vertical profile.

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IFR TIPS
Rules of thumb and other trick

BANK ANGLE FOR 1

WHEN TO START T.O.D WITH 3° GLIDE SLOPE: ALT/ 300 RATE TURN:
Ex: You're flying at 11000 ft and you need to descent to 2000ft, therefore,
you need to descent 9000ft TAS / 10 + 7

9000/ 300 = 30 Miles TURN RADIUS:

ROD FOR 3° GLIDE PATH: TAS / 200

-Ground speed X5 = ft/min
or
-Ground speed / 2 and add 0 at the end ATC: SX ACO report final

CIRCLING APPROACH:
RADIAL INTERCEPTION :
When on runway heading, turn 45° and keep
INBOUND: from Desire to Head +30 heading for 30sec, then fly parallel to RWY, at
threshold count 3 sec/ 100ft AGL then turn for final.
OUTBOUND: from Tail to Desire +45
CDFA APPROACH:
Begin descent 0.2 NM before FAF

10/20 RULE :
PROCEDURE TURNS:
10% change of GS = 1.
20% change of ground
roll.

10% change of weight =

20% change of ground
roll. in
1m A, B
t
CROSSWINF COMPONENT:
a
-C

15° = 25% Of wind speed

30°= 50% Of wind speed
45° = 75% Of wind speed
60° = 100% Of wind speed
Careful a racetrack is similar to, but fundamentally NOT a hold. The main
purpose is to reduce altitude during the initial approach segment and/or
establish the aircraft inbound when the entry into a reversal procedure is
not practical..

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DME ARC

When inbound :
The initial turn have to be on the opposite direction of the DME arc
When outbound :
The initial turn should be on the same direction of the DME arc

due to inertia your initial turn should be made before reaching the arc.
Rule of Thumb : bellow 150Kt you should start your turn 1/2 NM before the arc
OR TAS/200 = distance before entering the arc in NM that you should start the entry turn

click on the picture bellow to see how to do an Arc :

MEASURE DISTANCE FROM STATION WITH DME FAILURE

1. Fly an arc for 1 min and count how many radial you're crossing
2. Estimate NM per min (GS/60)
3. Divide the N° of radial crossed in 1 min by the N° of NM per min
4. Divide the result from N°3 by 60
5. The final result is your distance from the station
Ex:
GS =120 therefore 120/60 = 2NM/min
N° of radial crossed in 1 min = 10
10/2 = 5
60/5 = 12 NM from station

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HOLDING:

holding gives 1000ft obstacle clearance (2000ft over montain)

Outbound leg - 1min below 14000ft

- 1.5 min above 14000ft

Max holding speed

up to FL140 CAT A&B 170KT Others 230KT
FL140-FL200 240KT
FL200-FL340 265KT
FL340 + 0.83 Mach

Click on the picture bellow to see how

to determine your holding entry
(Rule Of Thumb)

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 Traffic Pattern

For Tecnam

Final, after landing clearance

before landing checklist :
Landing gear - down 3 green
Prop lever - Full FWD
Flaps - Full
After take off Taxi landing lights - On
Positive climb - gear up Fuel pump - On
Speed - 82kt Trims - neutral
300ft - flaps up + Landing gear - Down re-check
Speed - 70KT
Taxi and landig light off

At 500ft

Prop lever - 2265RPM

Speed - 82 KT

Base

Flaps - landing

At 1000ft AGL
level off
Speed - 90kt Abeam threshold
Flaps - take off
Fuel pump - stay on Gear down - three green
Report downwind Prop lever - 2250 RPM

If leaving traffic pattern

At 1000ft - Fuel pump off
Adjust - 23-25 MAP, 2000-2100 RPM

When increasing power first select props then manifold pressure

When decreasing power first select manifold pressure then props.

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 Traffic Pattern
*Add approx. 10 to Knot to get Mph
For Cessna
Take off Final Approach
Full Power
VR - AQF EHV ACO Report Final
55Kt 55Kt 65 Mph Speed - 65kt - 70kt*
Vy 70Kt 70Kt 80 Mph
Flaps - as require
Landing light - when cleared to
land

At 500ft
LOOKOUT
Turn Left 90° to X-wind
Maintain Vy
MAX 15° Bank

Base
RPM - 1500
Flaps - 20°
Descent - 70-80 kt*

At 1000ft AGL
level off
Max 30° bank DOWNWIND Abeam Threshold
Speed 80 - 90kt* Belt-Both-Break Carb heat - Out
RPM 2200 Taxi & Landing Light - ON RPM +1700
Report downwind Mixture - Rich Flaps 10°
Flaps - 10°

When increasing power first select props then manifold pressure

When decreasing power first select manifold pressure then props.

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TECNAM P2006T

FUEL
Mogaz- Avgaz

fitted with 2 tanks of 100litres (26.42 USG) each, Total of 200L (52.8
USG)
194.4 L (51.35 USG )of usable fuel and 5.6L (1.46 USG)of unusable fuel
Fuel consumption 40L (9 USG)/h 5 hours of autonomy

OIL

Max 3L and minimum 2 L on each tank

SPEEDS

VR -Rotation speed- 65KT

VX -best angle of climb- 73KT
VY -best rate of climb- 82KT
VMC -min controle speed- 62KT (red line)
VYSE -best rate climb single engine- 84KT (blue line)
VA -design maneuvering speed- 120KT
VNE -Never exceed speed- 171KT
VNO -Normal ops- 138KT
VLE -Landing gear ext 93KT
Approach speed - 90KT
Final approach speed - 70KT
VFE Flaps extension- 119KT fot T.O flaps / 93KT for landing flaps
VS 65KT at full flaps / 60KT at T.O flaps / 55KT no flaps

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 TEMPERATURES LIMITATION

MAX CHT : 135°C

MAX CT : 120°C
OIL T° : min 50°C/ max 130°C
NORM OIL T° : 90-110°C
EMBIENT T° : -25°C/+50°C

POWER LIMITATION

Max power Max RPM Time max

MAX T.O POWER 73.5 KW 2388 RPM 5min

98.6 HP 5800 Engine

MAX CONTINUS POWER 69 KW 2265 RPM ---

92.5 HP 5500 Engine

OIL PRESSURE LIMITATION

MIN : 0.8 BAR / 12 PSI less than 1400 RPM prop

PRESSURE NORM : 2-5 BAR / 29-73 PSI more than 1400 RPM prop
MAX : 7BAR / 102 PSI

SERVICE CEILING

2 ENGINES = 15000ft 1 ENGINE = 7000ft

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