Course Outline

1.Introduction:
Classification of control systems
▪ Open and closed loop Control system
▪ Continuous and discrete time systems
▪ Principles of feedback {Voltage, speed, and position control}
▪ Simulation of simple system
▪ Principles of error detection process controllers and servo mechanism.

2.Block diagrams
3.System Modelling {time and frequency domain}
CAT 1
4.Stability analysis of linear continuous systems
Time Domain analysis
▪ Characteristic equation, pole-zero location
▪ Routh-Hurwitz criterion
▪ Root locus Method
Frequency Domain Analysis
▪ Nyquist stability criterion
▪ Bode plots, gain and phase margin

5.Compensation: Velocity and simple passive networks as compensators

6.Control Algorithms:
1. Continuous controller mode {proportional, integral, derivative, PI, PID
controller mode}
2. Discontinuous controller mode {two position mode, multi position mode,
floating control mode}

CAT 2
Assessment:
CAT 10%
Assignments: 10%
Practical: 10%
Exams:70%

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
INTRODUCTION
To control means to regulate/govern/command the behavior of a device or
system so as to achieve the desired result.
An interconnection of devices that work together to perform control is called a
control system.
Control process is aimed at governing a specific variable or a group of variables
such as position, velocity, acceleration, temperature, pressure, voltage, current etc.
Common examples of control systems include an air conditioner, a refrigerator, an
automatic iron box, ATM machine, motor vehicle speed control mechanism, voltage
regulator etc.

Classification of Control Systems

1. Continuous and Discrete Time Systems
Continuous time (CT) control systems: are systems which receive on continuous time
input signals and transform them into continuous time output signals.
Continuous time signals vary continuously with time and have known magnitudes
for all time instances.

Continuous time signal

Continuous time (CT) control system

Discrete time (DT) control systems: are systems which receive discrete time (CT)
input signals and transform them to discrete time output signals.
Discrete time signal is defined only at discrete values of time.

Discrete time signal

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 Discrete time (DT) control system

2. Open and Closed Loop Control System

1. Open Loop Control System

A system which has no control action over the output value. The output is
neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input. Each input setting
determines a fixed operating position for the controller.
This implies that the output has no effect on the control action. Generally, any
control system that operates on a time basis is open loop.
Key features:
▪ The output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input
▪ Their sequence of operations is based on time
▪ Since the output is not accounted for, frequent calibration of components is
necessary to maintain accuracy
▪ input setting determines a fixed operating position for the controller
Example 1: Washing Machine
The washing machine operations such as soaking, washing, and rinsing occur in a
sequence of time. [the machine changes from one operation to another after a certain
period]
The machine does not measure the output signal, which is the cleanliness of
the clothes.
Reference
variable control actuating controlled
(Input) signal signal Plant/ variable
Controller Actuator
Process

Elements of an open-loop control system

Example 2: Traffic control lights
The most common traffic lights work on simple timers. Depending upon traffic levels
at a particular intersection, the traffic light will cycle through green, yellow, and red
at regular intervals to ensure a consistent flow of traffic in all directions through the
intersection. In this case, the system does not take account of the number of vehicles in
traffic (output).
Other examples are:
▪ Electric Hand Drier: detects [using infrared sensors] when hands are placed
for drying and automatically turns on. When hands are withdrawn, it turns
off. Its controller does not consider the degree of dryness of hands (output).
▪ Bread Toaster: runs as per the preset time irrespective of whether toasting is
completed or not.
▪ Clothes Drier: dries wet clothes for pre-adjusted time, but does not gauge the
quality or degree of dryness.
▪ Volume on Stereo System: Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of output
level.
▪ Automatic Coffee/tea maker
▪ ATM machine
Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Advantages
i) Easier to build due to fewer design considerations
ii) Easy to maintain due to fewer components.
iii) Less expensive than a corresponding closed-loop system due to fewer components.
iv) High gain
Disadvantages
i) Inaccurate: Disturbances and changes in calibration cause errors in the desired
output
ii) Unreliable; since the quality of the output is difficult to measure. In order to
maintain the required output quality, recalibration is necessary from time to
time.
iii) Small bandwidth

2. Closed Loop /Feedback Control Systems

A system whereby the output is fed back and compared with the input such that
it affects the control action.
The resulting error signal is fed to the controller which reduces the error and bring
the output of the system to a desired value.

Reference
variable error controlled
control actuating
(Input) signal Plant/ variable
Controller signal signal
Actuator Process

Feedback
signal

Feedback element
(Sensor)
Elements of a Closed loop Control System
There two types of feedback:
a) Positive feedback: feedback signal is in phase with the reference input (adds)
b) Negative feedback: feedback signal is in opposition to the reference input
(subtracts). This study focuses on negative feedback.
Elements of a Feedback Control System
Controller: A device that governs the operations in a system using predetermined
settings/commands/ instructions e.g. micro controller, Thermostat, computer system,
electronic circuit etc.
Signals:
Reference input signal: Desired quantity that is input into the control
system. It is commonly referred to as the set point.
Feedback signal may be the output signal itself or a function of [derivative
or integral] the output signal.
Error signal is the difference between the reference input signal and the
feedback signal.
Control Signal (Manipulated Variable) is the signal generated by the
controller.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 Controlled Variable is the variable that is measured and governed by the
system. It is measured at the output and fed back for control action. e.g. shaft
speed of a motor, flowrate, temperature, pressure, light intensity, force, position,
displacement etc.
Actuator is a device that receives a control signal and performs the required action.
This may include heating (e.g. electric heating coil); controlled movements in a
mechanism. (e.g. electric motors, stepper motors, jackscrews, pneumatic valves etc.)
Generally, they can be classified as Mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electric and
electro-mechanical actuators.
Plant/Process is any physical object or operation to be controlled such as a
mechanical device, a furnace, a chemical reactor, a spacecraft, a room etc.
A disturbance signal is an unwanted input signal that tends to affect the value of
the control system output. It results in an increase of the system error.
The system cannot have direct control over disturbance inputs of any form.
However, it should be properly designed to partially eliminate the effects of
disturbances on the output.

Example 1: Temperature control in an Electric iron box

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 Automatic Temperature control in an Electric iron box
Controlled variable: Temperature
The adjustment knob is used to set the required amount of heat on the thermostat.
The bimetallic thermostat senses the iron plate temperature (output). When the set
value is exceeded, it switches OFF current flow to the heating element (coil). When the
temperature falls below the set value, it switches ON current flow to the coil.
The thermostat therefore controls temperature by switching in between heating and
cooling of the iron plate so as to maintain the correct temperature.
Check this link for illustration:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1Yr5ddTyf8

Example 2: Room Temperature Control System

Figure (a) below shows a schematic diagram of a system that controls the room
temperature.

(a) Schematic diagram of room temperature control system

Controlled variable: Temperature
Considering the block diagram in Figure (b), the desired temperature value [e.g. 25℃]
is set by manually adjusting a potentiometer [gives a resistance proportional to
temperature].
The actual room temperature is detected by a temperature sensor [e.g. a
thermometer, thermocouple or RTD], then it’s fed back and compared with the desired
reference temperature.
Any resulting error signal is fed to the controller; which performs control action and
sends a control signal to the gas solenoid valve (actuator).
The valve adjusts the flow of the gas to the burner. Hence the room temperature gets
restored close to the desired value.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 (b) Block diagram of room temperature control system
Example 3: Sun-Tracking and Position Control of Solar Panel
Controlled variable: Angular Position of the panel
It consists of Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) at the edges of a solar panel,
a servo motor and a Micro-controller.
Working: LDRs produce low
resistance when light falls on them.
The incident sunlight on two LDRs
is compared by a microcontroller,
which then performs control action
and sends a signal to the servo
motor. The servo motor rotates the
panel towards the direction of sun
[towards the LDR with higher light
intensity].
When light intensity on the right
LDR is higher, panel slowly moves
towards right and vice versa. At
noon time, the sun is overhead and
intensity of light on both the LDRs
is same, hence the panel remains at
constant position.

Block diagram of Sun-Tracking and control system for a Solar Panel

For more illustration, check this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1L_EjuFav4

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Example 4: Voltage regulator
A voltage regulator is a circuit that creates and maintains a constant output
voltage, irrespective of changes in the input voltage or load conditions.
A linear regulator consists of a controller [pass transistor], comparator [error
amplifier], and a feedback element [resistor network].
They convert unregulated voltage supply from the source into steady voltage that
conforms with the ratings of equipment. They are applied in DC/DC, AC/AC or
AC/DC power conversion.

(a) Block diagram

(b) Circuit diagram

The pass transistor varies in its resistance depending on the error signal, thereby
governing the amount of current flowing from the input to the output.
The error amplifier receives and compares two inputs; one from the sampled output
voltage (𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝 ) [feedback voltage] and another from constant reference voltage (𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
such that its output error signal (𝐸𝑠 ) is given by:
𝐸𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝

The regulator aims to reduce this error to zero.

If the output voltage rises [either due to less voltage drawn by the load or an
increased input voltage], then sampled output voltage becomes greater than
reference voltage (𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 ), resulting to negative error signal (𝐸𝑠 ).

This decreases the drive to the pass transistor, therefore reducing the output
voltage to regulated levels.
If the output voltage falls, [either due to more voltage drawn by the load or a fall
in input voltage], then 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

The drive to the controller is increased to raise the output voltage to regulated level.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 Advantages of Closed-Loop Control System
i) Accurate control: the use of feedback reduces the effect of external disturbances
hence giving accurate performance
ii) Noise reduction capability: Negative feedback reduces the effect of unwanted and
unpredictable noise signals
iii) More linear operation: The output follows similar characteristics as the input
iv) Large bandwidth
v) Facilitates automation

Disadvantages of Closed-Loop Control System

i) Hard to build due to stability consideration
ii) More expensive to build because of more components involved
iii) Reduced gain due to the presence of feedback loop
iv) Feedback leads to an oscillatory response.
For more information about types of control systems check:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8m0VP5_feOY

Requirements of a Good Control System

1. Should be highly accurate by reducing the effect of internal and external
disturbances through the use of feedback loops.
2. Sensitivity to desired inputs: The parameters of a control system can be
affected by change in environmental conditions, disturbances etc.
A control system should be insensitive to such changes but sensitive to input signals
only.
3. Should exhibit noise reduction capability for better performance.
4. Should be stable over a wide range of operating conditions. Few oscillations or
constant oscillations of output tends to indicate the system to be stable
5. Bandwidth should be as large as possible for better frequency response.
6. High speed of response: implying less time taken to attain its stable
output.[small transient period]

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Exercise 1
Figure1 shows a schematic diagram of temperature control of an electric
furnace.
The temperature in the electric furnace is measured by a thermometer.The analog
temperature is converted to a digital temperature by an A/D converter.
The digital temperature is fed to a controller through an interface and compared with
the programmed input temperature.
In case of any difference, the controller sends a signal to the heater, through an
interface, amplifier, and relay, to bring the furnace temperature to a desired value.
Draw a block diagram of a closed loop system to represent this information. (7mks)

Figure 1

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Principles of error detection, process controllers and servo
mechanism
Servomechanism is a unique form of automatic control whereby a low-power
command signal controls a high power load (output).
The term is mostly used with regards to mechanical motion whereby position is
controlled by its higher derivatives of velocity and acceleration.
The basic requirements for servomechanism are a source of power and feedback
Features of servomechanism
▪ The controlled variable is position
▪ Error detection and amplification i.e. difference between the feedback and the
desired input (error) is detected, amplified controlled and reduced to zero
▪ The output tracks (follows) the input over a wide range of input variations
The best example that demonstrates the concept of Servomechanism is:
Control of the angular position of output shaft of a motor.

Schematic diagram of servo-mechanism

The requirement: rotation of the output shaft should follow precisely the rotation
of the input shaft.
For instance, the input shaft rotates from 0° 𝑡𝑜 45°; so, the output shaft is required
follow this rotation.
A potentiometer on the input shaft provides a voltage proportional to the angular
position of the input shaft (𝜃𝑖 = 45°).
A potentiometer at the output shaft provides Negative feedback voltage [reversed
polarity] proportional to the angular position (𝜃𝑜 ) of the output shaft at any instant.
The feedback angular position (V) is compared with input angular position (V) by an
error measuring device (comparator) which gives an error voltage signal (45° − 𝜃𝑜 ).
This error signal is amplified and fed to a servo motor which rotates the output
shaft, hence increasing its angular position from 0° 𝑡𝑜 45°.
By so doing, the servo motor tends to reduce the error voltage to zero (𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑜 = 0); i.e.
to drive the output shaft into alignment with the input shaft at 45°.
Once the output shaft aligns with the input at 45°, the servo motor stops.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 Schematic diagram of servo motor
[A servo motor is a DC, AC, or Brushless DC Motor, equipped with a position sensing device
e.g. a digital encoder, hall effect sensor, potentiometer.]

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXURLvga8bQ&t=27s
Importance of Servomechanism:
1. Automatic control of motion [without human intervention]
2. Maintenance of accuracy regardless of mechanical load variations, changes in the
environment, power supply fluctuations, and aging and deterioration of components
3. Enables control of a high-power load from a low-power command signal
4. Enables control of an output from a remotely located input, without the use of
mechanical linkages.
Application:
Servomechanism can be applied in:
▪ Communications e.g. satellite–tracking antenna.
▪ To control aerodynamic surfaces in aircraft and missile
Exercise 2: Read and make notes on Servo-controlled voltage stabilizers

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 Block diagrams

Block diagrams consist of:

Blocks represent subsystems (controllers, actuators, plants, feedback elements)
that are modeled and labeled with gains.
Signals: These are inputs and outputs of blocks e.g. voltage, current, velocity, force
etc. The signal direction is indicated by an arrow.
Summing juctions are points where signals are algebraically summed or
subtracted.
The basic input-output relationship of a single block is:

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 × 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
Blocks can be connected in 3 basic forms:
a) Cascade (series)
b) Parallel
c) Feedback
a) Blocks in cascade:

The equivalent gain of blocks in cascade is the product of individual gains.

b) Blocks in parallel:

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
The equivalent gain of blocks in parallel is the sum of individual gains.

c) Blocks in feedback path

The closed loop gain/transfer function for negative feedback is:

Note that for positive feedback;

𝑮(𝒔)
𝑻(𝒔) =
𝟏 − 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔)
The term 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔) is called open loop gain/transfer function
𝑮(𝒔) is the forward path gain
Example: Calculate the closed loop gain of the following:

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
For unity feedback systems

Simplification of Block diagrams

a) Moving a block to the left of a summimng junction

b) Moving a block to the right of a summimng junction

c) Moving a block to the left of a Pick-off point

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
d) Moving a block to the right of a Pick-off point

Exercise: Rearrange the following into unity feedback

Rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram

A block diagram with many blocks, summing points and take-off points.
Step 1 - Combine all blocks in cascade (series).[Multiply]
Step 2 - Combine all blocks in parallel [Add]
Step 3 - Eliminate all minor feedback loops [using closed loop transfer function]
Step 4 - Shift summing points to the left and takeoff points to the right of the
major loop
Step 5 - Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXUAJtWNuCU

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Example 1: Reduce the block diagram to canonical form [i.e. simplest form].

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4 doesn’t apply

Step 5

Canonical form:

Example 2: The Figure below shows the block diagram of a control system.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 i) Reduce the block diagram into canonical form
ii) Determine the expression for the overall transfer funtion

Solution
Applying step 1 and 3:

Re-applying step 1:

Canonical form

𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
=( )( )
1 + 𝐺1 𝐻1 1 − 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2

𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
=
(1 + 𝐺1 𝐻1 ) (1 − 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 )

𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
(1 + 𝐺1 𝐻1 ) (1 − 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 )
=
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
1+
(1 + 𝐺1 𝐻1 ) (1 − 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 )

𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
𝑇𝐹 =
(1 + 𝐺1 𝐻1 ) (1 − 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 ) + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3

Example 3: Reduce the block diagram and write the overall closed loop transfer
function.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Example 4: Reduce the block diagram into canonical form and determine the
expression for the overall transfer function.

Solution

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Exercise: Consider the systems shown in the Figures below. Simplify the diagrams
and write the overall transfer function.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 (a)

(b)

(c)

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 Mathematical Modelling of Systems
A mathematical model is a set of equations that represents the dynamic behavior
of a physical system.
Dynamics of various systems e.g. electrical, mechanical etc. may be described using
differential equations which are obtained from physical laws governing the system.
Mathematical models can be classified as;
i) Differential equation models: defines the dynamic behavior of physical
systems in terms of differential equations.
ii) Transfer function models: defines the dynamic behavior of physical systems
in terms of transfer functions. These models can be obtained from differential
equations by applying Laplace transforms.
iii) State space models:
The transfer function (Gain)is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
to the Laplace transform of the input.
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝑡
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 [𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛] =
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

1. Modelling Electrical circuits

Basic laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Voltage
Law.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (node law) states that:
“the algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a node is zero”.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (loop law) states that:
“the algebraic sum of the voltages around a loop in an electrical circuit is
zero.”
A mathematical model of an electrical circuit can be obtained by applying one or
both of Kirchhoff’s laws.
Example 1: Find the transfer function of the following RC circuit (LPF)

Solution
Note that the resistor is in series with the capacitor since no current flows to the
open circuit across 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
Method 1: Voltage divider rule
The Laplace transforms of the circuit elements are;
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) ↔ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠)
𝑅↔𝑅
1
𝐶↔
𝐶𝑠
𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) ↔ 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)
By applying the voltage divider rule, the voltage across the capacitor is;

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 1
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝐶𝑠 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠)
1
𝑅 + 𝐶𝑠
Transfer function model becomes
𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝟏
=
𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔
Method 2: Using KVL
Let 𝑖(𝑡) be the common current flowing through R and C elements.
1 𝑄
𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 1: 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝑅 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑉=
𝐶 𝐶
1 But current is rate
𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 2: 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶 of flow of charge:
Taking the Laplace transforms 𝑑𝑄
1 𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐶𝑠 𝑄 = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
1
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠) 1
𝐶𝑠 ∴ 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
1 𝐶
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐼(𝑠)
= 𝐶𝑠
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠) 𝐼(𝑠) (𝑅 + 1 )
𝐶𝑠
𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝟏
=
𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔

Example 2: Find the transfer function of the following RC circuit.

Solution
Method 1: Voltage divider rule
the voltage across the resistor i.e. 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is;
𝑅
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠)
1
𝑅 + 𝐶𝑠

𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝐑𝐂𝐬
=
𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔
Method 2: Using KVL
Let 𝑖(𝑡) be the common current flowing through R and C elements.
1
𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 1: 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝑅 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 2: 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = iR

Taking the Laplace transforms

1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐶𝑠
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)𝑅
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐼(𝑠)𝑅
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠) 𝐼(𝑠) (𝑅 + 1 )
𝐶𝑠
Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝐑𝐂𝐬
=
𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔
Example 3: Obtain the transfer function of the following RC nerwork.
v1 eo

Solution
Let the voltage drop across the C1 be v1
By applying KCL on node v1
𝑒𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝑣1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣1 𝑣1 (𝑡) − 𝑒𝑜 (𝑡)
+ 𝐶1 + =0
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2
Taking the Laplace transforms;
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑉1 (𝑠) 𝑉1 (𝑠) − 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
+ 𝐶1 𝑠 𝑉1 (𝑠) + =0
𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
𝑉1 (𝑠) ( + 𝐶1 𝑠 + ) = + … 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
By applying KCL on node 𝒆𝒐
𝑣1 (𝑡) − 𝑒𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑒𝑜
+ 𝐶2 =0
𝑅2 𝑑𝑡
Taking the Laplace transforms;
𝑉1 (𝑠) − 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
+ 𝐶2 𝑠 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) = 0
𝑅2
1 𝑉1 (𝑠)
(𝐶2 𝑠 + ) 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) =
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑉1 (𝑠) = (𝐶2 𝑠𝑅2 + 1) 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) … 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (2)
Substitute v1(s) into equation 1
1 1 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
((𝐶2 𝑠𝑅2 + 1) 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)) ( + 𝐶1 𝑠 + ) = +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐶2 𝑅2 𝑠 1 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) ( + 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝑠 2 + 𝐶1 𝑠 + + 𝐶2 𝑠) =
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑬𝒐 (𝒔) 𝟏
=
𝑬𝒊 (𝒔) 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + (𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟐 )𝒔 + 𝟏
Example 4: The figure below shows an R-C network. Determine its transfer
function (6mks)

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 node1

Solution
𝑅1 ‖𝐶1 is in series with 𝑅2 hence 𝑖(𝑡) is common.
Applying KCL at node1
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑐1
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜
𝑖𝑅1 =
𝑅1
𝑑(𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 )
𝑖𝑐1 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑜
𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑅2
𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 𝑑(𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 )
= + 𝐶
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
Applying the Laplace transforms;
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)
= + 𝐶𝑠(𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠))
𝑅2 𝑅1
1 1 1
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) [ + + 𝐶𝑠] = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) [ + 𝐶𝑠]
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶𝑠 1 + 𝑅1 𝐶𝑠
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) [ ] = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) [ ]
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1
The transfer function model will be;
𝑽𝒐 (𝒔) 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝒔
=
𝑽𝒊 (𝒔) 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝒔
Using Complex Impedance method
1
𝑍𝑅1 = 𝑅1 , 𝑍𝑐1 =
𝐶1 𝑠
1 1 1 1
= + = + 𝐶1 𝑠
𝑍1 𝑍𝑅1 𝑍𝑐1 𝑅1
𝑅1
𝑍1 =
1 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
𝑍2 = 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑍2 (𝑠) 𝑅2 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝒔
= = =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠) + 𝑍2 (𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝒔
+ 𝑅2
1 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
Example 5 Obtain the transfer function of the RC network shown in the
figure below.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Solution
Method 1: Kirchhoff’s Laws
Applying KCL on R2 and C2 elements
Let 𝑖(𝑡) be the current flowing through the circuit elements
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑅2 + 𝑖𝑐2
𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜
𝑖𝑅2 =
𝑅2
𝑑(𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 )
𝑖𝑐2 = 𝐶2
𝑑𝑡
𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 𝑑(𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 )
∴𝑖= + 𝐶2 … . 𝑒𝑞𝑡𝑛 1
𝑅2 𝑑𝑡
Applying KVL to obtain the expression for the output voltage 𝑒𝑜
1
𝑒𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝑅1 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 … 𝑒𝑞𝑡𝑛 2
𝐶1
Laplace transforms for 𝐸𝑞𝑛 1;
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑜
𝐼= + 𝐶2 𝑠(𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑜 )
𝑅2
1
𝐼 = (𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑜 ) ( + 𝐶2 𝑠) … 𝑒𝑞𝑡𝑛 3
𝑅2
Laplace transforms for 𝐸𝑞𝑛 2
1
𝐸𝑜 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼
𝐶1 𝑠
1
𝐸𝑜 = 𝐼 (𝑅1 + ) … 𝑒𝑞𝑡𝑛 4
𝐶1 𝑠
Substituting equation 3 into equation 4
1 1
𝐸𝑜 = (𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑜 ) ( + 𝐶2 𝑠) (𝑅1 + )
𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠
1 1 1 1
𝐸𝑜 {1 + ( + 𝐶2 𝑠) (𝑅1 + )} = 𝐸𝑖 ( + 𝐶2 𝑠) (𝑅1 + )
𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠
1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1 1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1
𝐸𝑜 {1 + ( )( )} = 𝐸𝑖 ( )( )
𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠
𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 + (1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠) (𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1) (1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠) (𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1)
𝐸𝑜 { } = 𝐸𝑖
𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) (𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟏)(𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏)
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) (𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟏)(𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏) + 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝒔

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Complex impedance method
Complex impedances for resistors, inductors and capacitances are given 𝑏𝑦 𝑍 =
𝑅, 𝐿𝑠, 1/𝐶𝑠 respectively

𝑍𝑅2 = 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍𝑐2 = 1⁄𝐶 𝑠

2

For complex impedances connected in parallel, the resultant impedance is

1 1 1 1
= + = + 𝐶2 𝑠
𝑍2 𝑍𝑅2 𝑍𝑐2 𝑅2
𝑅2
𝑍2 =
1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠
For complex impedances connected in series, the resultant impedance is;
1
𝑧1 = 𝑅1 +
𝐶1 𝑠
Using voltage divider rule;
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠)
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠) + 𝑍2 (𝑠)
1 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐶1 𝑠
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 1 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 𝑅2
+
𝐶1 𝑠 1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) (𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟏)(𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏)
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) (𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟏)(𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏) + 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝒔
Example 6: Consider the electrical circuit shown. Obtain its transfer
function.
Solution
Method 1: Complex impedance
𝑧1 = 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅

𝑍2 = 1⁄𝐶𝑠

By voltage divider rule;

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑍2 (𝑠) 1⁄
= = 𝐶𝑠
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠) + 𝑍2 (𝑠) 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + 1⁄
𝐶𝑠
𝑬𝒐 (𝒔) 𝟏
= 𝟐
𝑬𝒊 (𝒔) 𝑳𝑪𝒔 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔 + 𝟏
Method2: Using KVL
𝑑𝑖 1
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
1
∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒𝑜
𝐶
11
𝐿𝑠𝐼(𝑠) + 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) + 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐶𝑠
11
𝐼(𝑠) = 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
𝐶𝑠

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 𝑬𝒐 (𝒔) 𝟏
=
𝑬𝒊 (𝒔) 𝑳𝑪𝒔𝟐 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔 + 𝟏
Exercise: Obtain the transfer function of the following networks;

(a)

(b)

(c)

2. Modelling of Mechanical Systems

Involves modeling of Translational and rotational mechanical systems
Translational is motion of a body along a straight line while rotational is around its
own axis.
A mechanical system can be modelled in terms of its inertia, elastic properties and
resistance to motion. Basic elements for modelling a translational mechanical
system are:
Mass: represents inertia of a body
Spring: represents the elastic deformation of materials
Damper: Represents opposition to motion in mechanical systems
Translational Systems

(a) Spring
A linear elastic element is assumed to produce a displacement proportional to the
force applied to it.

F F
For an ideal translational spring (assuming negligible inertia and friction);
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 ∝ 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 𝑖𝑓 𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝐹 = 𝐾(𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡))

Where 𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝑥𝑜 (t) is the spring displacement and K is the spring constant which
depends on the spring material.

(b) Damper
Represents opposition to motion (friction) in mechanical systems. Damping
improves system response.
It can be represented by a dashpot which consists of a piston and oil-filled cylinder.
Any relative motion between the piston rod and the cylinder is resisted by the oil
because the oil must flow around the piston (or through orifices provided in the
piston) from one side of the piston to the other.
A damper produces a velocity proportional to the force applied to it.
xo(t)
F

For an ideal translational damper (assuming negligible inertia and elasticity);

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 ∝ 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑑𝑥𝑜
𝐹 = 𝑏𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑏
𝑑𝑡
Where b is the damping coefficient and v(t) the velocity of the piston inside the
cylinder.

(c) Mass
The force needed to accelerate a body is the product of its mass and acceleration
(Newton’s 2nd Law)

xo(t)

m F

For an ideal translational system with negligible damping and elasticity;

Force ∝ Acceleration
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑥𝑜
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 = 𝑚 =𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
where m is mass, a is the acceleration of the mass
A practical translational mechanical system can be modelled by using
D’Alermebrt’s Principle which states that:
“The algebraic sum of externally applied forces on a body and the forces opposing the
motion in any given direction is zero.”
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐹(𝑡) − 𝑚 2 − 𝐶 − 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 ∑ 𝐹(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑭

Let B be the damping coefficient

𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐵 + 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Applying Laplace transforms;
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐵𝑠𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑘𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑚𝑠 2 𝑋
𝑋 1
=
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝑘
Example1: Obtain the transfer function model of the mass spring-damper
system shown in the firgure below. Xi(t) and Xo(t) represents the input and
output displacements; while K is the spring constant, C is the damping
coefficient and m is the mass.

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑑𝑥𝑜 𝑑 2 𝑥𝑜
𝐾(𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥𝑖 ) + 𝐶 +𝑚 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑 2 𝑥𝑜 𝑑𝑥𝑜
𝐾𝑥𝑜 − 𝐾𝑥𝑖 + 𝑚 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥𝑜 𝑑𝑥𝑜
𝑚 2
+𝐶 + 𝐾𝑥𝑜 = 𝐾𝑥𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
By taking the Laplace transforms, assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain the
transfer function model.
(𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑘)𝑋𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑋𝑖 (𝑠)
𝑋𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑘
= 2
𝑋𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑘
Example 2: Consider the spring-mass-dashpot system mounted on a massless
cart as shown in the Figure below. In this system, u(t) is the input
displacement of the cart and y(t) is the output displacement; m denotes the
mass, b is the damping coefficient, and k is the spring constant.
Assuming that the frictional force F of the dashpot is proportional to 𝑦̇ − 𝑢̇ and that
the spring is linear; obtain the mathematical model of this system.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 Spring-mass dashpot system mounted on a cart
Solution
From Newton’s 2nd Law,

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Where ∑ 𝐹 is the summation of all forces acting on the mass in the direction of the
acceleration a.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑚 2
= −𝑏 ( − ) − 𝑘(𝑦 − 𝑢)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑚 2
+𝑏 + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
This is the differential equation model. By taking the Laplace transforms assuming
zero initial conditions, we obtain the transfer function model.
(𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘)𝑌(𝑠) = (𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘)𝑈(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
𝐺(𝑠) = =
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
For more information, check this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wv2MgI2sFkM
Example 3: The Figure below is a simplified version of an automobile or
motorcycle suspension system. Obtain its transfer function Y(s)/U(s).
The input u is a displacement input. Assume that displacements x and y are
measured from their respective steady-state positions in the absence of the
input u.
𝑚2 : mass of the car
𝑚1 :unsprung mass
𝑘2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∶suspension
𝑘1 :tire stiffness
𝑢: ground motion displacement input
Solution
Applying the Newton’s 2nd law
𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑥̇ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥̈ = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
𝑚1 𝑥̈ = 𝑘2 (𝑦 − 𝑥) + 𝑏(𝑦̇ − 𝑥̇ ) + 𝑘1 (𝑢 − 𝑥)
𝑚2 𝑦̈ = −𝑘2 (𝑦 − 𝑥) − 𝑏(𝑦̇ − 𝑥̇ )
Collecting like terms;
𝑚1 𝑥̈ + 𝑏𝑥̇ + (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑥 = 𝑏𝑦̇ + 𝑘2 𝑦 + 𝑘1 𝑢
𝑚2 𝑦̈ + 𝑏𝑦̇ + 𝑘2 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥̇ + 𝑘2 𝑥
Taking Laplace transforms of these two equations, assuming zero initial conditions;
[𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )]𝑋(𝑠) = [𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2 ]𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑘1 𝑈(𝑠) … (1)
[𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2 ]𝑌(𝑠) = [𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2 ]𝑋(𝑠) … (2)

Eliminating X(s) by substituting equation (2) into (1), we have;

𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2
(𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ) 𝑌(𝑠) = [𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2 ]𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑘1 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘2
𝒀(𝒔) 𝒌𝟏 (𝒃𝒔 + 𝒌𝟐 )
=
𝑼(𝒔) 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒔 + (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒃𝒔 + [𝒌𝟏 𝒎𝟐 + (𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒌𝟐 ]𝒔𝟐 + 𝒌𝟏 𝒃𝒔 + 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
𝟒 𝟑

Example 4: Obtain the transfer function of the system shown in the Figure
below with input u as the displacement input.

Solution:
𝑚1 𝑦̈1 + 𝑏𝑦̇ 1 + 𝑘(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) = 0
𝑚2 𝑦̈ 2 + 𝑘(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = 𝑢
Taking Laplace transforms of these two equations, assuming zero initial conditions;
[𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘]𝑌1 (𝑠) − 𝑘𝑌2 (𝑠) = 0 … (1)

(𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑘)𝑌2 (𝑠) − 𝑘𝑌1 (𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠) … (2)

Eliminating Y1(s) by substituting equation (2) into (1), we have;

(𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑘)𝑌2 (𝑠) − 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑌1 (𝑠) =
𝑘
(𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑘)𝑌2 (𝑠) − 𝑈(𝑠)
[𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘] − 𝑘𝑌2 (𝑠) = 0
𝑘
(𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘)(𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑘)𝑌2 (𝑠) − 𝑈(𝑠)(𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘) − 𝑘 2 𝑌2 (𝑠)
𝑘
(𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘)(𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑘)𝑌2 (𝑠) − 𝑘 2 𝑌2 (𝑠) 𝑈(𝑠)(𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘)
=
𝑘 𝑘
𝒀𝟐 (𝒔) 𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘
=
𝑼(𝒔) (𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘)(𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑘) − 𝑘 2
Example 5: Obtain the transfer function Xo(s)/Xi(s) of the mechanical
system shown in the following Figure.
Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 Solution:
Equation of motion of the system is given by:
𝑏1 (𝑥𝑖̇ − 𝑥𝑜̇ ) + 𝑘1 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑜 ) = 𝑏2 (𝑥𝑜̇ − 𝑦̇ )
𝑏2 (𝑥𝑜̇ − 𝑦̇ ) = 𝑘2 𝑦
Taking Laplace transforms of these two equations;
𝑏1 (𝑠𝑋𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑠𝑋𝑜 (𝑠)) + 𝑘1 (𝑋𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑋𝑜 (𝑠)) = 𝑏2 (𝑠𝑋𝑜 (𝑠) − 𝑠𝑌(𝑠))
𝑏2 (𝑠𝑋𝑜 (𝑠) − 𝑠𝑌(𝑠)) = 𝑘2 𝑌(𝑠)
Eliminating Y(s) from the last two equations, then we obtain;
𝑏2 𝑠𝑋𝑜 (𝑠)
𝑏1 (𝑠𝑋𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑠𝑋𝑜 (𝑠)) + 𝑘1 (𝑋𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝑋𝑜 (𝑠)) = 𝑏2 𝑠𝑋𝑜 (𝑠) − 𝑏2 𝑠
𝑏2 𝑠 + 𝑘2
𝑏2 𝑠
(𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑘1 )𝑋𝑖 (𝑠) = (𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑘1 + 𝑏2 𝑠 − 𝑏2 𝑠 ) 𝑋 (𝑠)
𝑏2 𝑠 + 𝑘2 𝑜
The transfer function can be obtained as;
𝒃 𝒃
𝑿𝒐 (𝒔) ( 𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟏) ( 𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏)
𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
=
𝑿𝒊 (𝒔) (𝒃𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟏) (𝒃𝟐 𝒔 + 𝟏) + 𝒃𝟐 𝒔
𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟏
Exercise: Obtain the transfer function model of the mechanical system shown in the
following Figure if 𝑢2 is the input and 𝑦2 is the output.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Stability: Ability of a system to restore to equilibrium when subjected to
disturbances.
Absolute stability—Stability of a system for the whole range of system
component values.
It’s the qualitative analysis of stability and can be determined from the location of
poles.
Conditional stability: Stability of a system for a certain range of system
component values.
Relative Stability is a measure of how fast the transient dies in a system. It
can also be defined as the degree of stability of a system.
It’s the comparative analysis of stability and can be determined from gain margin,
phase margin, maximum overshoot etc.
Bounded signal: A signal which has finite values of amplitude for all
instances of time.
For a bounded signal, it is possible to determine both the upper and lower bounds
for all possible values of t; e.g. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡), 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡), 𝑢(𝑡) are bounded by amplitude of ±1.
3 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡), 3𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡), 3𝑢(𝑡) are bounded by amplitude of ±3.

Examples of bounded inputs

Unbounded signal: Signal whose values increase with time and tends towards
infinity (±∞). They have infinite values of amplitude for some instances of
time.
𝜋
e.g. 𝑦 = tan 𝑡 ; at 𝑡 = , the value of 𝑦 = ∞
2

Other examples are: cot(𝑡) ; sec(𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐( 𝑡); 𝑒 𝜎𝑡 ; 3𝑡

a) A stable system produces a bounded output for any bounded input. (BIBO
stable)

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 (Eq.1)

Equation 1 shows an oscillatory time response function (𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) with an

envelope of exponential form (𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 ). If the exponential term decays as time
increases, the system is said to be stable.

(Eq.2)

Therefore, a linear time invariant control system is stable if the output eventually
comes back to its equilibrium state when the system is subjected to an initial
condition.
b) An unstable system produces unbounded output for any bounded input.
Unstable system
(Eq.3)

If the exponential term increases with increase in time, the system is said to be
unstable.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 (Eq.4)

Therefore, a linear continuous control system is unstable if the output diverges

without bound from its equilibrium state when the system is subjected to an initial
condition.
c) Marginally/ Critically stable system: generates an output signal which is
oscillating with constant frequency and amplitude for any bounded input.

From the time response functions (1) to (4);

𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 … … … . (𝟏)
𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 … … … . (𝟐)
𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 … … … . (𝟑)
𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝜎𝑡 … … … . (𝟒)
The stability of a system depends upon the sign of the exponential index (𝑒 ±𝝈 ). The
exponential index (𝝈) is the same as the real part of the roots of the characteristic
equation of a 2nd order system defined as:
𝑎𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑐 = 0
The roots of the above characteristic equation are:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑠1 , 𝑠2 =
2𝑎
These roots determine the transient response of a system and for a 2nd order
system, it can be written as:
▪ Positive: i.e. 𝑏 2 > 4𝑎𝑐 which gives real & unequal negative roots (𝑠1 = −σ1 ; 𝑠2 =
−𝜎2 ) leading to overdamped transient response
▪ Zero: i.e. 𝑏 2 = 4𝑎𝑐 results to real and equal negative roots (𝑠1 , 𝑠2 = −𝜎) leading to
critically damped transient response
▪ Negative: 𝑏 2 < 4𝑎𝑐 resulting to complex conjugate roots of the form
𝑠1 , 𝑠2 = −𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔 leading to underdamped transient response
If 𝑏 < 4𝑎𝑐, for a negative coefficient b in the equation 𝑎𝑠 2 − 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑐 = 0, the roots
2

would be:

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 = +𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔
The roots 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 = −𝝈 ± 𝑗𝜔 provide a stable response, whereas the roots 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 =
+𝝈 ± 𝑗𝜔 provide unstable response.
The difference between these roots is the sign of the real part. If the real part is
negative, the system is stable; but if positive, then the system is unstable. This
applies to systems of any order. So generally, it can be stated that:
If the roots of the characteristic equation have positive real parts, then the
system is unstable; if they have negative real parts, then the system is
stable.

The characteristic equation

Considering the closed loop transfer function:
𝐶 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅 𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔)
The characteristic equation is formed by equating the denominator to zero;
𝟏 + 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔) = 𝟎
Example:
Open loop transfer function;
𝐾
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 5
The characteristic equation is;
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0
𝐾
1+ =0
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5 + 𝐾 = 0

System Poles and Zeros

The closed loop transfer function may be written in factored form as;
𝐺(𝑠) 𝐾𝑐 (𝒔 ± 𝒛𝒄𝟏 )(𝒔 ± 𝒛𝒄𝟐 ) … (𝒔 ± 𝒛𝒄𝒏 )
𝑇(𝑠) = =
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) (𝒔 ± 𝒑𝒄𝟏 )(𝒔 ± 𝒑𝒄𝟐 ) … (𝒔 ± 𝒑𝒄𝒏 )

𝒔 = ±𝒑𝒄𝟏 , 𝒑𝒄𝟐 , … . 𝒑𝒄𝒏 are closed loop poles: There values make the equation
infinite
Poles are same as roots of the characteristic equation.
𝒔 = ±𝒛𝒄𝟏 , 𝒛𝒄𝟐 , … 𝒛𝒄𝒏 are closed loop zeros, since they make the equation zero.
Example:
5 𝑠+7
𝐺(𝑠) = ; 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠+2 𝑠+3
5
𝐺(𝑠) 𝑠+2
𝑇(𝑠) = = =
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) 1 + ( 5 ) (𝑠 + 7)
𝑠+2 𝑠+3
5(𝑠 + 3)
𝑇(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3) + 5(𝑠 + 7)
Poles: 𝑠 = −2; 𝑠 = −3; 𝑠 = −7

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
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Zeros: 𝑠 = −3

Stability on the s-plane

A closed loop system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the transfer function
are present in left 1/2 of s-plane. A similar case also applies for open-loop system.
A closed loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the closed
loop transfer function are present on the imaginary axis. A similar case also applies
for open-loop system.
Relative Stability is a measure of how fast the transient dies in a system. It
can also be defined as the degree of stability of a system.
It’s the comparative analysis of stability and can be determined from gain margin,
phase margin, maximum overshoot etc.

Relative stability

The Routh’s Stability Criterion

Indicates the presence and number of unstable roots but NOT their values. This
stability criterion applies to polynomials with only a finite number of terms. It
states that:
Test 1

For a stable system, all coefficients in the characteristic equation must

be present and all positive. [This is necessary but NOT sufficient condition].
This is because positive coefficients yield roots with negative real parts. If some
coefficients are zero or negative they yield either imaginary roots or roots that
have positive real parts. Therefore, in such a case, the system is unstable.

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Test 2
If test 1 is satisfied, then the necessary and sufficient condition for stability is:

All coefficients in the first column of Routh’s array must have same
sign.
In case of sign changes in the first column, the number of sign changes indicate
the number of unstable roots.
Routh array can be written as:

In Routh’s array:

Example 1: Check the stability of the system which has the following characteristic
equation:

Solution
Test 1: All coefficients are present and are all positive.
The first two rows can be obtained directly from the given polynomial. The
remaining terms are calculated.
𝑛=4
S0 p1
S1 c1
S2 b1 b2
S3 a3 a1
S4 a4 a2 a0

𝑎4 = 1, 𝑎3 = 2, 𝑎2 = 1, 𝑎1 = 4, 𝑎0 = 2, 𝑃1 = 2

1 𝑎3 𝑎1
𝑏1 = | 𝑎2 |
𝑎3 𝑎4

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 1 𝑎3 0
𝑏2 = | |
𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎0

1 𝑏1 𝑏2
𝑐1 = | |
𝑏1 𝑎3 𝑎1

There are two sign changes in the first column of the Routh array. This implies that
there are two roots with positive real parts. Hence the system is unstable.
Example 2: The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by:
0.382𝐾
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(1 + 0.1𝑠)(1 + 0.06𝑠)
Using Routh array, determine the limiting value of K for the system to be stable.
(6mks)
Solution
Let 0.382𝐾 = 𝐺
The characteristic equation is formed by adding 1 and equating to zero;
1 + 𝐺(𝑠) = 0
𝐺
1+ =0
𝑠(1 + 0.1𝑠)(1 + 0.06𝑠)
𝑠(1 + 0.1𝑠)(1 + 0.06𝑠) + 𝐺
=0
𝑠(1 + 0.1𝑠)(1 + 0.06𝑠)
0.006𝑠 3 + 0.016𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 𝐺 = 0
S0 P1
S1 b1
S2 a2 a0
S3 a3 a1

S0 G
S1 1 − 0.0375𝐺
S2 0.016 G
S3 0.006 1
1 𝑎2 𝑎0 1 0.16 𝐺
𝑏1 = × |𝑎 𝑎1 | = 0.16 × |0.006 1 |
𝑎2 3

For the system to be stable in the 1st column;

1 > 0.0375𝐺
Substituting the value of G;
1 > 0.0375(0.382𝐾)
𝐾 ≤ 69.8
The liming value of K for the system to be stable is;
𝐾 = 69.8
Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Example 3: Find the value of the proportional controller gain 𝐾1 of the following
open loop transfer function that makes the control system just unstable.
8𝐾1
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 2)
For simplicity, let the open loop gain 8𝐾1 be 𝐾;
𝐾
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 2)
The characteristic equation will be;
𝐾
1+ =0
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 2)
𝑠 3 + 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
S0 P1
S1 b1
S2 a2 a0
S3 a3 a1

S0 K
S1 2−𝐾
S2 1 K
S3 1 2

1 𝑎2 𝑎0 1 𝐾
𝑏1 = × |𝑎 𝑎1 | = 1 × |1 |=2−𝐾
𝑎2 3 2
To produce a sign change in the 1st column,
2<𝐾
2 < 8𝐾1
𝐾1 = 0.25
Special Cases.
Case 1: If the element [of any row] in the first-column, is zero but the
remaining terms are NOT zero, then the zero term is replaced by a very small
positive number ε and the rest of the array is evaluated. For example, consider the
following equation:

If the sign of the coefficient above 0 ≈ 𝜀 is the same as that below it, it indicates
that there is a pair of imaginary roots.
If, however, the sign of the coefficient above 0 ≈ 𝜀 is opposite that below it, it
indicates that there is a sign change. For example:

the array of coefficients is

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
There are two sign changes of the coefficients in the first column. So, there are two
unstable roots (located in the right 1/2 of s-plane)

Case 2: All elements in a row are zero

If all elements of a particular row are zero, then they are replaced by the
derivatives of an auxilliary polynomial, formed from the elements of the
previous row.
Example:
𝑠 5 + 2𝑠 4 + 6𝑠 3 + 12𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 16 = 0
S0 −
S1 −
S2 − −
S3 𝟎 0
S4 2 12 16
S5 1 6 8

The elements of the 𝑆 3 row are zero.

An auxilliary polynomial 𝑃(𝑠) is therefore formed from the elements of the previous
row (𝑆 4 ).
𝑃(𝑠) = 2𝑠 4 + 12𝑠 2 + 16
𝑑𝑃(𝑠)
= 8𝑠 3 + 24𝑠
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑃(𝑠)
The coefficients of the derivative become the elements of the S3 row, thereby
𝑑𝑠
allowing the array to be completed.
S0 16
S1 8/3
S2 6 16
S3 8 24
S4 2 12 16
S5 1 6 8

Limitations of Routh- Hurwitz Criterion

1. It is applicable only for a linear system.
2. It does not provide the exact location of poles on the right and left half of the S-
plane.
3. In case of the characteristic equation, it is valid only for real coefficients.

Exercise: Check the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is given by:
𝑠 4 + 2𝑠 3 + 6𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 1 = 0

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
In this technique, the roots of a charateristic equation (closed loop poles) are
determined when the open loop gain constant 𝐾 is increased from zero to infinity
[0 < 𝐾 < ∞].
The objective is to shape the loci so that closed-loop poles can be placed in the s-plane
at positions that produce a transient response that meets a given performance
specification.

Root Locus Construction Rules

1. Starting point (𝐾 = 0). The root locus starts at open loop poles
2. Termination point (𝐾 = ∞): The root locus terminates at open loop zeros, if
they exist; otherwise it terminates at infinity.
3. Number of distinct root loci equals to the order of the characteristic
equation.
4. Symmetry of root loci: Root loci are symmetrical about the real axis.
5. Angles of asymptotes: For large values of 𝑘, the root loci are asymptotic to
straight lines with angles given by;
(1 + 2𝑘)180°
𝜃=
𝑝−𝑧
𝑝: number of poles
𝑧: number of zeros
𝑘: 0,1 … . 𝑝 − 𝑧 − 1
6. Asymptote intersection: Asymptotes meet the real axis at the centroid (𝜎𝑎 ).
∑ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − ∑ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝜎𝑎 =
𝑝−𝑧
7. Root locus locations on the real axis: A point on the real axis is part of
the loci if the sum of the number of open-loop poles and zeros on the
right hand side of that point is ODD.
8. Break away points (𝜎𝑏 ): Can be determined by;
𝑑𝐾
=0
𝑑𝑠
9. Imaginary axis cross-over: Determined by replacing 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 in the
characteristic equation.
10. Determination of points on the root loci: Points that lie on the root loci
are determined by angle criterion.
Angle criterion: For a point 𝑠 to lie on the root locus,

∑ 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 − ∑ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 180°

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑 − 𝝓𝟏 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎
11. Determination of gain constant K on the root loci: The value of K on
the root locus is determined using magnitude criterion.
Magnitude criterion: If a point lies on the root locus, the value of open loop gain
constant K at that point may be evaluated as follows;

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠

𝑲=
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠

From the figure above K is given by;

|𝑥| |𝑦| |𝑧|
𝐾=
|𝑤|
NB: If there are NO open loop zeros in the transfer function, the the denominator in
the equation above is unity.
12. Angles of departure and arrival: Computed using the the angle criterion
by positioning a trial point at a compolex open loop pole (departure) or zero
(arrival).
For instance, if 𝜃1 & 𝜃2 are angles formed from poles p1 and p2 relative to pole p3
[which is considered as a trial point]
Then the angle of depearture 𝜃𝑑 is;
𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃𝑑 = 180°
∴ 𝜽𝒅 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Example 1: A control system has an open loop transfer function given by:
𝑘
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 5)
Determine the number of:
a) Poles
b) Zeroes
c) Loci
d) Asymptotes
e) Angles of asymptotes (8mks)
Solution
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠: 𝑝 = 3{𝑠 = 0; 𝑠 = −3; 𝑠 = −5}
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠: 𝑧 = 0
Number of Loci= Order of the characteristic equation
𝑘
1+ =0
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 5)
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 5) + 𝑘 = 0
𝑠 3 + 8𝑠 2 + 15𝑠 + 𝑘 = 0
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑖 = 3
Angles of asymptotes:
(1 + 2𝑘)𝜋
𝜃𝑘+1 =
𝑝−𝑧
𝑘 = 0,1,2
When 𝑘 = 0;
(1 + 0)𝜋 𝜋
𝜃1 = = = 60°
3−0 3
When 𝑘 = 1;
(1 + 2)𝜋
𝜃2 = = 𝜋 = 180°
3−0
When 𝑘 = 2;
(1 + 4)𝜋 5
𝜃3 = = 𝜋 = 300° = −60°
3−0 3
Example 2: Sketch the root locus of unity feedback system with open loop transfer
function as K is varied from 0 𝑡𝑜 ∞.
Poles and zeros;
𝑘
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠: 𝑝 = 3; {𝑠 = 0; 𝑠 = −2; 𝑠 = −3}
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠: 𝑧 = 0
∴ 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐾 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐾 = ∞
Number of Loci: order of the characteristic equation

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 𝐾
1+ =0
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3) + 𝐾 = 0
𝑠 3 + 5𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑖 = 3
Angles of asymptotes:
(1 + 2𝑘)𝜋
𝜃=
𝑝−𝑧
𝑘 = 0, 1, 2
When 𝑘 = 0;
(1 + 0)𝜋 𝜋
𝜃1 = = = 60°
3−0 3
When 𝑘 = 1;
(1 + 2)𝜋
𝜃2 = = 𝜋 = 180°
3−0
When 𝑘 = 2;
(1 + 4)𝜋 5
𝜃3 = = 𝜋 = 300° = −60°
3−0 3
Asymptote intersection (centroid);
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠
𝜎𝑎 =
𝑝−𝑧
0 + (−2) + (−3) − 0
𝜎𝑎 = = −1.67
3−0
Break away points (𝜎𝑏 );
𝑑𝐾
=0
𝑑𝑠
𝑠 3 + 5𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
Making K the subject;
𝐾 = −𝑠 3 − 5𝑠 2 − 6𝑠
𝑑𝐾
= −3𝑠 2 − 10𝑠 − 6 = 0
𝑑𝑠
3𝑠 2 + 10𝑠 + 6 = 0

−10 ± √28
𝑠1 , 𝑠2 =
6
𝑠1 = −2.55; 𝑠2 = −0.78
The 1st root 𝑠1 = −2.55 has even number of open loop poles to the right (since there
are no zeroes), hence its not part of the root locus.
The 2nd point 𝑠2 = −0.78 has odd open loop poles to the right, hence its part of the
root locus.
𝜎𝑏 = −0.78
Imaginary axis cross-over;

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Substitute 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 into the characteristic equation;
𝑠 3 + 5𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
(𝑗𝜔)3 + 5(𝑗𝜔)2 + 6𝑗𝜔 + 𝐾 = 0

Equating the imaginary parts to zero gives;

(𝑗𝜔)3 + 6𝑗𝜔 = 0
𝜔3 = 6𝜔
𝜔2 = 6

𝜔 = ±√6 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠/𝑠 = ±2.45𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠/𝑠

Equating the real parts to zero;
−5𝜔2 + 𝐾 = 0
𝐾 = 5𝜔2
2
𝐾 = 5(√6) = 30

Example 3: A control system has the following open-loop transfer function;

𝑘
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 5)
i) Obtain the following;
a) Asymptotes
b) Breakaway point
c) Imaginary axis crossover point
d) The value of K for marginal stability
e) Sketch the root locus diagram

ii) Locate a point on the locus that corresponds to a damping ratio of 0.5 and find
the value of K for this condition.
Solution
Poles and zeros;
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠: 𝑝 = 3; {𝑠 = 0; 𝑠 = −2; 𝑠 = −5}
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠: 𝑧 = 0
∴ 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐾 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐾 = ∞

Angles of asymptotes:
(1 + 2𝑘)𝜋
𝜃=
𝑝−𝑧
𝑘 = 0, 1, 2
When 𝑘 = 0;
(1 + 0)𝜋 𝜋
𝜃1 = = = 60°
3−0 3
When 𝑘 = 1;
(1 + 2)𝜋
𝜃2 = = 𝜋 = 180°
3−0
When 𝑘 = 2;
Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 (1 + 4)𝜋 5
𝜃3 = = 𝜋 = 300° = −60°
3−0 3
Asymptote intersection (centroid);
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝜎𝑎 =
𝑝−𝑧
0 + (−2) + (−5) − 0
𝜎𝑎 = = −2.33
3−0
Break away points (𝜎𝑏 );
𝑑𝐾
=0
𝑑𝑠
𝑘
1+ =0
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 5)
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 5) + 𝐾 = 0
𝑠 3 + 7𝑠 2 + 10𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
Making K the subject;
𝐾 = −𝑠 3 − 7𝑠 2 − 10𝑠
𝑑𝐾
= −3𝑠 2 − 14𝑠 − 10 = 0
𝑑𝑠
Multiplying both sides by −1;
3𝑠 2 + 14𝑠 + 10

−14 ± √142 − 120

𝑠1 , 𝑠2 =
6
𝑠1 = −3.79, 𝑠2 = −0.884
The 1st root 𝑠1 = −3.79 has even number of open loop poles to the right (since there
are no zeroes), hence its not part of the root locus.
The 2nd point 𝑠2 = −0.884 has odd open loop poles to the right, hence its part of the
root locus.
𝜎𝑏 = −0.884
Imaginary axis cross-over;
Substitute 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 into the characteristic equation;
𝑠 3 + 7𝑠 2 + 10𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
(𝑗𝜔)3 + 7(𝑗𝜔)2 + 10𝑗𝜔 + 𝐾 = 0
−𝑗𝜔3 − 7𝜔2 + 10𝑗𝜔 + 𝐾 = 0
Equating the imaginary parts to zero gives;
(𝑗𝜔)3 + 10𝑗𝜔 = 0
𝜔3 = 10𝜔
𝜔2 = 10

𝜔 = ±√10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠/𝑠 = ±3.16𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠/𝑠

Equating the real parts to zero;
−7𝜔2 + 𝐾 = 0
Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 𝐾 = 7𝜔2
2
𝐾 = 7(√10) = 70

The value of K for marginal stability is 𝐾 = 70

Line of constant damping ratio is;

𝛽 = cos −1  = cos −1 0.5 = 60°
Trial points along this line are tested using angle criterion;
At point 𝑠 = −0.7 + 𝑗1.25
1.25
𝜃1 = tan−1 ( ) = 60.75° = 180° − 60.75° = 119.25°
0.7
1.25
𝜃2 = tan−1 ( ) = 43.88°
1.3
1.25
𝜃3 = tan−1 ( ) = 16.21°
4.3
𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 = 180
The value of K can be obtained by magnitude criterion;

|𝑎| = √1.252 + 0.72 = 1.43

|𝑏| = √1.252 + 1.32 = 1.80

|𝑐| = √1.252 + 4.32 = 4.48

𝐾 = |𝑎||𝑏||𝑐| = 11.53

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
Example 3: The open loop transfer function of a system is;
𝐾
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 13)
Sketch the root locus diagram and determine;
i) The value of K for marginal stability
ii) the angles of departure
iii) Locate a point on the root locus diagram that corresponds to a damping ratio
of 0.25 and the value of 𝐾 at this point.
Solution
Poles
𝑝=3
𝑠1 = 0

−4 ± √16 − 52
𝑠2 , 𝑠3 = = −2 ± 𝑗3
2
Zeros: none
Angles of asymptotes:
(1 + 2𝑘)180°
𝜃=
𝑝−𝑧
𝑘 = 0, 1, 2
When 𝑘 = 0;
(1 + 0)180°
𝜃1 = = 60°
3−0
When 𝑘 = 1;
(1 + 2)180°
𝜃2 = = 180°
3−0
When 𝑘 = 2;
(1 + 4)180°
𝜃3 = = 300° = −60°
3−0
Asymptote intersection
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝜎𝑎 =
𝑝−𝑧
[0 + (−2) + (−2)] − 0
𝜎𝑎 = = −1.33
3−0
Break away points: None due to complex open loop poles;
Imaginary axis cross over;
Characteristic equation;
𝑠 3 + 4𝑠 2 + 13𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔
(𝑗𝜔)3 + 4(𝑗𝜔)2 + 13𝑗𝜔 + 𝐾 = 0
−𝑗𝜔3 − 4𝜔2 + 13𝑗𝜔 + 𝐾 = 0
−𝑗𝜔3 + 13𝑗𝜔 = 0
Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016
 𝜔2 = 13

𝜔 = √13 = ±3.6 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

Equating real parts;
−4𝜔2 + 𝐾 = 0
𝐾 = 4 × 13
The value of K for marginal stability is 𝐾 = 52

To determine the angles of departure, consider pole −2 + 3𝑗

𝜃𝑑 = 180 − (𝜃𝑎 + 𝜃𝑏 )
3
At 𝑠 = 0; 𝜃𝑎 = 180 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 123.69°
2

𝐴𝑡 𝑠 = −2 − 3𝑗; 𝜃𝑏 = 90°
𝜃𝑑 = 180 − 123 − 90 = −𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟗°
Line of constant damping ratio is;
𝛽 = cos−1  = cos −1 0.25 = 75.5°
Trial points along this line are tested using angle criterion.
At a point;
𝑠 = −0.8 + 𝑗2.9
104 + 79.5 − 4 = 180°
Applying the magnitude criterion to obtain the gain;0
3 × 6 × 1.25 = 22.5

Control Systems
Eng. Omuzi H.A.O.
electrical@mmust2016