Transportation Systems Engineering 1.

Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow

Chapter 1

Fundamental Parameters of Traffic

Flow

1.1 Overview
Traffic engineering pertains to the analysis of the behavior of traffic and to design the facilities
for a smooth, safe and economical operation of traffic. Traffic flow, like the flow of water,
has several parameters associated with it. The traffic stream parameters provide information
regarding the nature of traffic flow, which helps the analyst in detecting any variation in flow
characteristics. Understanding traffic behavior requires a thorough knowledge of traffic stream
parameters and their mutual relationships. In this chapter the basic concepts of traffic flow is
presented.

1.2 Traffic stream parameters

The traffic stream includes a combination of driver and vehicle behavior. The driver or human
behavior being non-uniform, traffic stream is also non-uniform in nature. It is influenced not
only by the individual characteristics of both vehicle and human but also by the way a group
of such units interacts with each other. Thus a flow of traffic through a street of defined
characteristics will vary both by location and time corresponding to the changes in the human
behavior.
The traffic engineer, but for the purpose of planning and design, assumes that these changes
are within certain ranges which can be predicted. For example, if the maximum permissible
speed of a highway is 60 kmph, the whole traffic stream can be assumed to move on an average
speed of 40 kmph rather than 100 or 20 kmph.
Thus the traffic stream itself is having some parameters on which the characteristics can
be predicted. The parameters can be mainly classified as : measurements of quantity, which

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow

includes density and flow of traffic and measurements of quality which includes speed. The
traffic stream parameters can be macroscopic which characterizes the traffic as a whole or
microscopic which studies the behavior of individual vehicle in the stream with respect to each
other.
As far as the macroscopic characteristics are concerned, they can be grouped as measurement
of quantity or quality as described above, i.e. flow, density, and speed. While the microscopic
characteristics include the measures of separation, i.e. the headway or separation between
vehicles which can be either time or space headway. The fundamental stream characteristics
are speed, flow, and density and are discussed below.

1.3 Speed
Speed is considered as a quality measurement of travel as the drivers and passengers will be
concerned more about the speed of the journey than the design aspects of the traffic. It is
defined as the rate of motion in distance per unit of time. Mathematically speed or velocity v
is given by,
d
v= (1.1)
t
where, v is the speed of the vehicle in m/s, d is distance traveled in m in time t seconds. Speed
of different vehicles will vary with respect to time and space. To represent these variation,
several types of speed can be defined. Important among them are spot speed, running speed,
journey speed, time mean speed and space mean speed. These are discussed below.

1.3.1 Spot Speed

Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location. Spot speed can be
used to design the geometry of road like horizontal and vertical curves, super elevation etc.
Location and size of signs, design of signals, safe speed, and speed zone determination, require
the spot speed data. Accident analysis, road maintenance, and congestion are the modern fields
of traffic engineer, which uses spot speed data as the basic input. Spot speed can be measured
using an enoscope, pressure contact tubes or direct timing procedure or radar speedometer or
by time-lapse photographic methods. It can be determined by speeds extracted from video
images by recording the distance travelling by all vehicles between a particular pair of frames.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow

1.3.2 Running speed

Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the vehicle is
moving and is found by dividing the length of the course by the time duration the vehicle was
in motion. i.e. this speed doesn’t consider the time during which the vehicle is brought to a
stop, or has to wait till it has a clear road ahead. The running speed will always be more than
or equal to the journey speed, as delays are not considered in calculating the running speed

1.3.3 Journey speed

Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points and is the
distance between the two points divided by the total time taken for the vehicle to complete the
journey including any stopped time. If the journey speed is less than running speed, it indicates
that the journey follows a stop-go condition with enforced acceleration and deceleration. The
spot speed here may vary from zero to some maximum in excess of the running speed. A
uniformity between journey and running speeds denotes comfortable travel conditions.

1.3.4 Time mean speed and space mean speed

Time mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a highway
over some specified time period. Space mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the
vehicles occupying a given section of a highway over some specified time period. Both mean
speeds will always be different from each other except in the unlikely event that all vehicles
are traveling at the same speed. Time mean speed is a point measurement while space mean
speed is a measure relating to length of highway or lane, i.e. the mean speed of vehicles over
a period of time at a point in space is time mean speed and the mean speed over a space at a
given instant is the space mean speed.

1.4 Flow
There are practically two ways of counting the number of vehicles on a road. One is flow or
volume, which is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway or a given
lane or direction of a highway during a specific time interval. The measurement is carried out
by counting the number of vehicles, nt , passing a particular point in one lane in a defined period
t. Then the flow q expressed in vehicles/hour is given by
nt
q= (1.2)
t

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow

Flow is expressed in planning and design field taking a day as the measurement of time.

1.4.1 Variations of Volume

The variation of volume with time, i.e. month to month, day to day, hour to hour and within a
hour is also as important as volume calculation. Volume variations can also be observed from
season to season. Volume will be above average in a pleasant motoring month of summer, but
will be more pronounced in rural than in urban area. But this is the most consistent of all the
variations and affects the traffic stream characteristics the least.
Weekdays, Saturdays and Sundays will also face difference in pattern. But comparing day
with day, patterns for routes of a similar nature often show a marked similarity, which is useful
in enabling predictions to be made.
The most significant variation is from hour to hour. The peak hour observed during morn-
ings and evenings of weekdays, which is usually 8 to 10 per cent of total daily flow or 2 to 3
times the average hourly volume. These trips are mainly the work trips, which are relatively
stable with time and more or less constant from day to day.

1.4.2 Types of volume measurements

Since there is considerable variation in the volume of traffic, several types of measurements of
volume are commonly adopted which will average these variations into a single volume count
to be used in many design purposes.

1. Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT) : The average 24-hour traffic volume at a

given location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the total number of vehicles passing the site
in a year divided by 365.

2. Average Annual Weekday Traffic(AAWT) : The average 24-hour traffic volume

occurring on weekdays over a full year. It is computed by dividing the total weekday
traffic volume for the year by 260.

3. Average Daily Traffic(ADT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location

for some period of time less than a year. It may be measured for six months, a season, a
month, a week, or as little as two days. An ADT is a valid number only for the period
over which it was measured.

4. Average Weekday Traffic(AWT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on

weekdays for some period of time less than one year, such as for a month or a season.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow
B A

Figure 1:1: Illustration of density

The relationship between AAWT and AWT is analogous to that between AADT and ADT.
Volume in general is measured using different ways like manual counting, detector/sensor count-
ing, moving-car observer method, etc. Mainly the volume study establishes the importance of
a particular route with respect to the other routes, the distribution of traffic on road, and the
fluctuations in flow. All which eventually determines the design of a highway and the related
facilities. Thus, volume is treated as the most important of all the parameters of traffic stream.

1.5 Density
Density is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of highway or lane and
is generally expressed as vehicles per km. One can photograph a length of road x, count the
number of vehicles, nx , in one lane of the road at that point of time and derive the density k
as,
nx
k= (1.3)
x
This is illustrated in figure 1:1. From the figure, the density is the number of vehicles between
the point A and B divided by the distance between A and B. Density is also equally important
as flow but from a different angle as it is the measure most directly related to traffic demand.
Again it measures the proximity of vehicles in the stream which in turn affects the freedom to
maneuver and comfortable driving.

1.6 Derived characteristics

From the fundamental traffic flow characteristics like flow, density, and speed, a few other
parameters of traffic flow can be derived. Significant among them are the time headway,

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow

distance headway and travel time. They are discussed one by one below.

1.6.1 Time headway

The microscopic character related to volume is the time headway or simply headway. Time
headway is defined as the time difference between any two successive vehicles when they cross
a given point. Practically, it involves the measurement of time between the passage of one rear
bumper and the next past a given point. If all headways h in time period, t, over which flow
has been measured are added then,
X
nt
hi = t (1.4)
1

But the flow is defined as the number of vehicles nt measured in time interval t, that is,
nt nt 1
q= = Pnt = (1.5)
t 1 hi hav
where, hav is the average headway. Thus average headway is the inverse of flow. Time headway
is often referred to as simply the headway.

1.6.2 Distance headway

Another related parameter is the distance headway. It is defined as the distance between
corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any given time. It involves the measurement
from a photograph, the distance from rear bumper of lead vehicle to rear bumper of following
vehicle at a point of time. If all the space headways in distance x over which the density has
been measured are added,
Xnx
si = x (1.6)
1

But the density (k) is the number of vehicles nx at a distance of x, that is

nx nx 1
k= = P nx = (1.7)
x 1 si sav
Where, sav is average distance headway. The average distance headway is the inverse of density
and is sometimes called as spacing.

1.6.3 Travel time

Travel time is defined as the time taken to complete a journey. As the speed increases, travel
time required to reach the destination also decreases and vice-versa. Thus travel time is inversely

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow

distance

distance
time time
(a) (b)

distance
time
(c)

Figure 1:2: Time space diagram for a single vehicle

proportional to the speed. However, in practice, the speed of a vehicle fluctuates over time and
the travel time represents an average measure.

1.7 Time-space diagram

Time space diagram is a convenient tool in understanding the movement of vehicles. It shows
the trajectory of vehicles in the form of a two dimensional plot. Time space diagram can be
plotted for a single vehicle as well as multiple vehicles. They are discussed below.

1.7.1 Single vehicle

Taking one vehicle at a time, analysis can be carried out on the position of the vehicle with
respect to time. This analysis will generate a graph which gives the relation of its position on
a road stretch relative to time. This plot thus will be between distance x and time t and x
will be a functions the position of the vehicle for every t along the road stretch. This graphical
representation of x(t) in a (t, x) plane is a curve which is called as a trajectory. The trajectory
provide an intuitive, clear, and complete summary of vehicular motion in one dimension.
In figure 1:2(a), the the distance x goes on increasing with respect to the origin as time
progresses. The vehicle is moving at a smooth condition along the road way. In figure 1:2(b),
the vehicle at first moves with a smooth pace after reaching a position reverses its direction of
movement. In figure 1:2(c), the vehicle in between becomes stationary and maintains the same
position.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow

From the figure, steeply increasing section of x(t) denote a rapidly advancing vehicle and
horizontal portions of x(t) denote a stopped vehicle while shallow sections show a slow-moving
vehicle. A straight line denotes constant speed motion and curving sections denote accelerated
motion; and if the curve is concave downwards it denotes acceleration. But a curve which is
convex upwards denotes deceleration.

1.7.2 Multiple Vehicles

Time-space diagram can also be used to determine the fundamental parameters of traffic flow
like speed, density and volume. It can also be used to find the derived characteristics like space
headway and time headway. Figure 1:3 shows the time-space diagram for a set of vehicles
traveling at constant speed. Density, by definition is the number of vehicles per unit length.
From the figure, an observer looking into the stream can count 4 vehicles passing the stretch
of road between x1 and x2 at time t. Hence, the density is given as
4 vehicles
k= (1.8)
x2 − x1
We can also find volume from this time-space diagram. As per the definition, volume is the
number of vehicles counted for a particular interval of time. From the figure 1:3 we can see
that 6 vehicles are present between the time t1 and t2 . Therefore, the volume q is given as
3 vehicles
q= (1.9)
t2 − t1
Again the averages taken at a specific location (i.e., time ranging over an interval) are called
time means and those taken at an instant over a space interval are termed as space means.
Another related definition which can be given based on the time-space diagram is the head-
way. Space headway is defined as the distance between corresponding points of two successive
vehicles at any given time. Thus, the vertical gap between any two consecutive lines represents
space headway. The reciprocal of density otherwise gives the space headway between vehicles
at that time.
Similarly, time headway is defined as the time difference between any two successive vehicles
when they cross a given point. Thus, the horizontal gap between the vehicles represented by the
lines gives the time headway. The reciprocal of flow gives the average time headway between
vehicles at that point.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 1. Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow

x2

spacing (s)
headway(h)

distance
x1

t1
t t2
Time

Figure 1:3: Time space diagram for many vehicles

1.8 Summary
Speed, flow and density are the basic parameters of traffic flow. Different measures of speed
are used in traffic flow analysis like spot speed, time mean speed, space mean speed etc. Time-
space diagram also can be used for determining these parameters. Speed and flow of the traffic
stream can be computed using moving observer method.

1.9 References
1. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 2000.

2. L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers,

New Delhi, 1987.

3. Adolf D. May. Fundamentals of Traffic Flow. Prentice - Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliff New
Jersey 07632, second edition, 1990.

4. William R McShane, Roger P Roesss, and Elena S Prassas. Traffic Engineering. Prentice-
Hall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, New Jesery, 1998.

5. C. S Papacostas. Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering. Prentice-Hall, New

Delhi, 1987.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

Chapter 2

Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

2.1 Overview
Speed is one of the basic parameters of traffic flow and time mean speed and space mean
speed are the two representations of speed. Time mean speed and space mean speed and the
relationship between them will be discussed in detail in this chapter. The relationship between
the fundamental parameters of traffic flow will also be derived. In addition, this relationship
can be represented in graphical form resulting in the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.

2.2 Time mean speed (vt)

As noted earlier, time mean speed is the average of all vehicles passing a point over a duration
of time. It is the simple average of spot speed. Time mean speed vt is given by,

1X
n
vt = vi , (2.1)
n i=1

where vi is the spot speed of ith vehicle, and n is the number of observations. In many speed
studies, speeds are represented in the form of frequency table. Then the time mean speed is
given by, Pn
qi vi
vt = Pi=1
n , (2.2)
i=1 qi
where qi is the number of vehicles having speed vi , and n is the number of such speed categories.

2.3 Space mean speed (vs)

The space mean speed also averages the spot speed, but spatial weightage is given instead of
temporal. This is derived as below. Consider unit length of a road, and let vi is the spot speed

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow
1
of ith vehicle. Let ti is the time the vehicle takes to complete unit distance and is given by vi
.
If there are n such vehicles, then the average travel time ts is given by,
Σti 1 1
ts = = Σ . (2.3)
n n vi
1
If tav is the average travel time, then average speed vs = ts
. Therefore, from the above equation,
n
vs = Pn 1 . (2.4)
i=1 vi

This is simply the harmonic mean of the spot speed. If the spot speeds are expressed as a
frequency table, then, Pn
qi
vs = Pni=1 qi (2.5)
i=1 vi

where qi vehicle will have vi speed and ni is the number of such observations.

Numerical Example

If the spot speeds are 50, 40, 60, 54 and 45, then find the time mean speed and space mean
speed.

Solution Time mean speed vt is the average of spot speed. Therefore, vt = Σv

n
i
= 50+40+60+54+45
5
=
249 n
5
= 49.8. Space mean speed is the harmonic mean of spot speed. Therefore, vs = Σ 1 =
vi
5 5
1 1
+ 40 1
+ 60 1
+ 54 1
+ 45
= 0.12
= 48.82.
50

Numerical Example

The results of a speed study is given in the form of a frequency distribution table. Find the
time mean speed and space mean speed.

speed range frequency

2-5 1
6-9 4
10-13 0
14-17 7

Solution The time mean speed and space mean speed can be found out from the frequency
table given below. First, the average speed is computed, which is the mean of the speed range.
For example, for the first speed range, average speed, vi = 2+5
2
= 3.5 seconds. The volume of
flow qi for that speed range is same as the frequency. The terms vi .qi and vqii are also tabulated,

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow
qi
No. speed range average speed (vi ) volume of flow (qi ) vi qi vi
1 2-5 3.5 1 3.5 2.29
2 6-9 7.5 4 30.0 0.54
3 10-13 11.5 0 0 0
4 14-17 15.5 7 108.5 0.45
total 12 142 3.28

10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s

50 50 50 50

20 m/s 20 m/s 20 m/s

100 100

hs = 50/20 = 5sec ns = 60/5 = 12 ks = 1000/50 = 20

hf = 100/20 = 5sec nf = 60/5 = 12 kf = 1000/100 = 10

Figure 2:1: Illustration of relation between time mean speed and space mean speed

Σqi vi
and their summations given in the last row. Time mean speed can be computed as, vt = Σqi
=
142
12
= 11.83. Similarly, space mean speed can be computed as, vs = ΣΣqqii = 3.28
12
= 3.65.
vi

2.4 Illustration of mean speeds

In order to understand the concept of time mean speed and space mean speed, following il-
lustration will help. Let there be a road stretch having two sets of vehicle as in figure 2:1.
The first vehicle is traveling at 10m/s with 50 m spacing, and the second set at 20m/s with
100 m spacing. Therefore, the headway of the slow vehicle hs will be 50 m divided by 10 m/s
which is 5 sec. Therefore, the number of slow moving vehicles observed at A in one hour ns
will be 60/5 = 12 vehicles. The density K is the number of vehicles in 1 km, and is the inverse
of spacing. Therefore, Ks = 1000/50 = 20 vehicles/km. Therefore, by definition, time mean
speed vt is given by vt = 12×10+12×20
24
= 15 m/s. Similarly, by definition, space mean speed is
the mean of vehicle speeds over time. Therefore, vs = 20×10+10×20
30
= 13.3 m/s. This is same as
the harmonic mean of spot speeds obtained at location A; ie vs = 12× 1 24 1 = 13.3 m/s. It
+12× 20
10
may be noted that since harmonic mean is always lower than the arithmetic mean, and also as
observed, space mean speed is always lower than the time mean speed. In other words, space
mean speed weights slower vehicles more heavily as they occupy the road stretch for longer

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

duration of time. For this reason, in many fundamental traffic equations, space mean speed is
preferred over time mean speed.

2.5 Relation between time mean speed and space mean

speed
The relation between time mean speed(vt ) and space mean speed(vs ) is given by the following
relation:
σ2
vt = vs + (2.6)
vs
where,σ 2 is the standard deviation of the spot speed. The derivation of the formula is given in
the next subsection. The standard deviation(σ 2 ) can be computed in the following equation:
Σqi vi2
σ2 = − (vt )2 (2.7)
Σqi
where,qi is the frequency of the vehicle having vi speed.

2.5.1 Derivation of the relation

The relation between time mean speed and space mean speed can be derived as below. Consider
a stream of vehicles with a set of sub-stream flow q1 , q2 , . . . qi , . . . qn having speed v1 ,v2 , . . . vi ,
. . . vn . The fundamental relation between flow(q), density(k) and mean speed vs is,

q = k × vs (2.8)

Therefore for any sub-stream qi , the following relationship will be valid.

qi = ki × vi (2.9)

The summation of all sub-stream flows will give the total flow q:

Σqi = q. (2.10)

Similarly the summation of all sub-stream density will give the total density k.

Σki = k. (2.11)

Let fi denote the proportion of sub-stream density ki to the total density k,

ki
fi = . (2.12)
k
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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

Space mean speed averages the speed over space. Therefore, if ki vehicles has vi speed, then
space mean speed is given by,
Σki vi
vs = . (2.13)
k
Time mean speed averages the speed over time. Therefore,
Σqi vi
vt = . (2.14)
q
Substituting 2.9, vt can be written as,
Σki vi 2
vt = (2.15)
q
Rewriting the above equation and substituting 2.12, and then substituting 2.8, we get,
ki
vt = kΣ vi2
k
kΣfi vi 2
=
q
Σfi vi 2
=
vs

By adding and subtracting vs and doing algebraic manipulations, vt can be written as,
Σfi (vs + (vi − vs ))2
vt = (2.16)
vs
Σfi (vs ) + (vi − vs )2 + 2.vs .(vi − vs )
2
= (2.17)
vs
Σfi vs 2 Σfi (vi − vs )2 2.vs .Σfi (vi − vs )
= + + (2.18)
vs vs vs
The third term of the equation will be zero because Σfi (vi − vs ) will be zero, since vs is the
mean speed of vi . The numerator of the second term gives the standard deviation of vi . Σfi
by definition is 1.Therefore,
σ2
vt = vs Σfi + +0 (2.19)
vs
σ2
= vs + (2.20)
vs
Hence, time mean speed is space mean speed plus standard deviation of the spot speed divided
by the space mean speed. Time mean speed will be always greater than space mean speed since
standard deviation cannot be negative. If all the speed of the vehicles are the same, then spot
speed, time mean speed and space mean speed will also be same.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

speed mid interval flow

No. range vi = vl +v
2
u
qi qi vi vi2 qi vi2 qi /vi
vl < v < vu
1 0-10 5 6 30 25 150 6/5
2 10-20 15 16 240 225 3600 16/15
3 20-30 20 24 600 625 15000 24/25
4 30-40 25 25 875 1225 30625 25/35
5 40-50 30 17 765 2025 34425 17/45
total 88 2510 83800 4.3187

Numerical Example

For the data given below,compute the time mean speed and space mean speed. Also verify the
relationship between them. Finally compute the density of the stream.

speed range frequency

0-10 5
10-20 15
20-30 20
30-40 25
40-50 30

Solution The solution of this problem consist of computing the time mean speed vt =
Σqi vi σ2
Σqi
,space mean speed vs = Σq
Σqi ,verifying their relation by the equation vt = vs + v ,and
i
s
vi
using this to compute the density. To verify their relation, the standard deviation also need to
2
be computed σ 2 = Σqv
Σq
− vt2 . For convenience,the calculation can be done in a tabular form as
shown in table 2.5.1.
The time mean speed(vt ) is computed as:

Σqi vi
vt =
Σqi
2510
= = 28.52
88

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

The space mean speed can be computed as:

Σqi
vs = Σqi
vi
88
= = 20.38
4.3187

The standard deviation can be computed as:

Σqv 2
σ2 = − vt2
Σq
83800
= − 28.522 = 138.727
88

The time mean speed can also vt can also be computed as:
σ2 138.727
vt = vs + = 20.38 + = 27.184
vs 20.38

The density can be found as:

q 88
k = = = 4.3 vehicle/km
v 20.38

2.6 Fundamental relations of traffic flow

The relationship between the fundamental variables of traffic flow, namely speed, volume, and
density is called the fundamental relations of traffic flow. This can be derived by a simple
concept. Let there be a road with length v km, and assume all the vehicles are moving with v
km/hr.(Fig 2:2). Let the number of vehicles counted by an observer at A for one hour be n1 .
By definition, the number of vehicles counted in one hour is flow(q). Therefore,

n1 = q. (2.21)

Similarly, by definition, density is the number of vehicles in unit distance. Therefore number
of vehicles n2 in a road stretch of distance v1 will be density × distance.Therefore,

n2 = k × v. (2.22)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow
v km
B A

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 2:2: Illustration of relation between fundamental parameters of traffic flow

Since all the vehicles have speed v, the number of vehicles counted in 1 hour and the number
of vehicles in the stretch of distance v will also be same.(ie n1 = n2 ). Therefore,

q = k × v. (2.23)

This is the fundamental equation of traffic flow. Please note that, v in the above equation refers
to the space mean speed will also be same.

2.7 Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow

The relation between flow and density, density and speed, speed and flow, can be represented
with the help of some curves. They are referred to as the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
They will be explained in detail one by one below.

2.7.1 Flow-density curve

The flow and density varies with time and location. The relation between the density and the
corresponding flow on a given stretch of road is referred to as one of the fundamental diagram
of traffic flow. Some characteristics of an ideal flow-density relationship is listed below:

1. When the density is zero, flow will also be zero,since there is no vehicles on the road.

2. When the number of vehicles gradually increases the density as well as flow increases.

3. When more and more vehicles are added, it reaches a situation where vehicles can’t move.
This is referred to as the jam density or the maximum density. At jam density, flow will
be zero because the vehicles are not moving.

4. There will be some density between zero density and jam density, when the flow is maxi-
mum. The relationship is normally represented by a parabolic curve as shown in figure 2:3

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

B
qmax
A

q D E

flow(q)

O kjam
k0 k1 kmax k2
density (k)

Figure 2:3: Flow density curve

The point O refers to the case with zero density and zero flow. The point B refers to the
maximum flow and the corresponding density is kmax . The point C refers to the maximum
density kjam and the corresponding flow is zero. OA is the tangent drawn to the parabola at O,
and the slope of the line OA gives the mean free flow speed, ie the speed with which a vehicle
can travel when there is no flow. It can also be noted that points D and E correspond to same
flow but has two different densities. Further, the slope of the line OD gives the mean speed at
density k1 and slope of the line OE will give mean speed at density k2 . Clearly the speed at
density k1 will be higher since there are less number of vehicles on the road.

2.7.2 Speed-density diagram

Similar to the flow-density relationship, speed will be maximum, referred to as the free flow
speed, and when the density is maximum, the speed will be zero. The most simple assumption
is that this variation of speed with density is linear as shown by the solid line in figure 2:4.
Corresponding to the zero density, vehicles will be flowing with their desire speed, or free flow
speed. When the density is jam density, the speed of the vehicles becomes zero. It is also
possible to have non-linear relationships as shown by the dotted lines. These will be discussed
later.

2.7.3 Speed flow relation

The relationship between the speed and flow can be postulated as follows. The flow is zero
either because there is no vehicles or there are too many vehicles so that they cannot move.
At maximum flow, the speed will be in between zero and free flow speed. This relationship is
shown in figure 2:5. The maximum flow qmax occurs at speed u. It is possible to have two

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

uf

speed u

k0 density (k) kjam

Figure 2:4: Speed-density diagram

uf

u2
speed u

u1

u0
q Qmax

flow q

Figure 2:5: Speed-flow diagram

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Transportation Systems Engineering 2. Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

speed u
speed u
density k qmax
flow q

flow q

density k

Figure 2:6: Fundamental diagram of traffic flow

different speeds for a given flow.

2.7.4 Combined diagrams

The diagrams shown in the relationship between speed-flow, speed-density, and flow-density
are called the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow. These are as shown in figure 2:6. One
could observe the inter-relationship of these diagrams.

2.8 Summary
Time mean speed and space mean speed are two important measures of speed. It is possible to
have a relation between them and was derived in this chapter. Also, time mean speed will be
always greater than or equal to space mean speed. The fundamental diagrams of traffic flow
are vital tools which enables analysis of fundamental relationships. There are three diagrams -
speed-density, speed-flow and flow-density. They can be together combined in a single diagram
as discussed in the last section of the chapter.

2.9 References
1. L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 1987.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

Chapter 3

Traffic Stream Models

3.1 Overview
To figure out the exact relationship between the traffic parameters, a great deal of research
has been done over the past several decades. The results of these researches yielded many
mathematical models. Some important models among them will be discussed in this chapter.

3.2 Greenshield’s macroscopic stream model

Macroscopic stream models represent how the behaviour of one parameter of traffic flow changes
with respect to another. Most important among them is the relation between speed and density.
The first and most simple relation between them is proposed by Greenshield. Greenshield
assumed a linear speed-density relationship as illustrated in figure 3:1 to derive the model. The
equation for this relationship is shown below.
 
vf
v = vf − .k (3.1)
kj

where v is the mean speed at density k, vf is the free speed and kj is the jam density. This
equation ( 3.1) is often referred to as the Greenshield’s model. It indicates that when density
becomes zero, speed approaches free flow speed (ie. v → vf when k → 0). Once the relation
between speed and flow is established, the relation with flow can be derived. This relation
between flow and density is parabolic in shape and is shown in figure 3:3. Also, we know that

q = k.v (3.2)

Now substituting equation 3.1 in equation 3.2, we get

 
vf 2
q = vf .k − k (3.3)
kj

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

uf
speed u

k0 density (k) kjam

Figure 3:1: Relation between speed and density

uf

u
speed, u

u0 q qmax
flow, q

Figure 3:2: Relation between speed and flow

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

B
qmax
A

q D E

flow(q)

O kjam
k0 k1 kmax k2
density (k)

Figure 3:3: Relation between flow and density 1

Similarly we can find the relation between speed and flow. For this, put k = vq in equation 3.1
and solving, we get  
kj 2
q = kj .v − v (3.4)
vf
This relationship is again parabolic and is shown in figure 3:2. Once the relationship between
the fundamental variables of traffic flow is established, the boundary conditions can be derived.
The boundary conditions that are of interest are jam density, free-flow speed, and maximum
flow. To find density at maximum flow, differentiate equation 3.3 with respect to k and equate
it to zero. ie.,
dq
= 0
dk
vf
vf − .2k = 0
kj
kj
k =
2

Denoting the density corresponding to maximum flow as k0 ,

kj
k0 = (3.5)
2
Therefore, density corresponding to maximum flow is half the jam density. Once we get k0 , we
can derive for maximum flow, qmax . Substituting equation 3.5 in equation 3.3
 2
kj vf kj
qmax = vf . − .
2 kj 2
kj kj
= vf . − vf .
2 4
vf .kj
=
4
Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 3.3 February 19, 2014
Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

Thus the maximum flow is one fourth the product of free flow and jam density. Finally to get
the speed at maximum flow, v0 , substitute equation 3.5 in equation 3.1 and solving we get,
vf kj
v0 = vf − .
kj 2
vf
v0 = (3.6)
2
Therefore, speed at maximum flow is half of the free speed.

3.3 Calibration of Greenshield’s model

In order to use this model for any traffic stream, one should get the boundary values, especially
free flow speed (vf ) and jam density (kj ). This has to be obtained by field survey and this is
called calibration process. Although it is difficult to determine exact free flow speed and jam
density directly from the field, approximate values can be obtained from a number of speed and
density observations and then fitting a linear equation between them. Let the linear equation
be y = a + bx such that y is density k and x denotes the speed v. Using linear regression
method, coefficients a and b can be solved as,
n ni=1 xi yi − ni=1 xi . ni=1 yi
P P P
b = (3.7)
n. ni=1 xi 2 − ( ni=1 xi )2
P P

a = ȳ − bx̄ (3.8)

Alternate method of solving for b is,

Pn
i=1 (xi − x̄)(yi − ȳ)
b = Pn 2 (3.9)
i=1 (xi − x̄)

where xi and yi are the samples, n is the number of samples, and x̄ and ȳ are the mean of xi
and yi respectively.

Numerical example

For the following data on speed and density, determine the parameters of the Greenshield’s
model. Also find the maximum flow and density corresponding to a speed of 30 km/hr.
k v
171 5
129 15
20 40
70 25

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

x(k) y(v) (xi − x̄) (yi − ȳ) (xi − x̄)(yi − ȳ) (xi − x̄2 )
171 5 73.5 -16.3 -1198.1 5402.3
129 15 31.5 -6.3 -198.5 992.3
20 40 -77.5 18.7 -1449.3 6006.3
70 25 -27.5 3.7 -101.8 756.3
390 85 -2947.7 13157.2

Solution Denoting y = v and x = k, solve for a and b using equation 3.8 and equation 3.9.
The solution is tabulated as shown below. x̄ = Σx n
= 390
4
= 97.5, ȳ = Σy
n
= 85
4
= 21.3. From
equation 3.9, b = −2947.7
13157.2
= -0.2 a = y − bx̄ = 21.3 + 0.2×97.5 = 40.8 So the linear regression
equation will be,
v = 40.8 − 0.2k (3.10)
v
Here vf = 40.8 and kfj = 0.2. This implies, kj = 40.8
0.2
= 204 veh/km. The basic parameters of
Greenshield’s model are free flow speed and jam density and they are obtained as 40.8 kmph
and 204 veh/km respectively. To find maximum flow, use equation 3.6, i.e., qmax = 40.8×204
4
=
2080.8 veh/hr Density corresponding to the speed 30 km/hr can be found out by substituting
v = 30 in equation 3.10. i.e, 30 = 40.8 - 0.2 × k Therefore, k = 40.8−30
0.2
= 54 veh/km.

3.4 Other macroscopic stream models

In Greenshield’s model, linear relationship between speed and density was assumed. But in
field we can hardly find such a relationship between speed and density. Therefore, the validity
of Greenshield’s model was questioned and many other models came up. Prominent among
them are Greenberg’s logarithmic model, Underwood’s exponential model, Pipe’s generalized
model, and multi-regime models. These are briefly discussed below.

3.4.1 Greenberg’s logarithmic model

Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between speed and density. He proposed,
kj
v = v0 ln (3.11)
k
This model has gained very good popularity because this model can be derived analytically.
(This derivation is beyond the scope of this notes). However, main drawbacks of this model is
that as density tends to zero, speed tends to infinity. This shows the inability of the model to
predict the speeds at lower densities.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

speed, v

density, k

Figure 3:4: Greenberg’s logarithmic model

speed, v

density, k

Figure 3:5: Underwood’s exponential model

3.4.2 Underwood’s exponential model

Trying to overcome the limitation of Greenberg’s model, Underwood put forward an exponential
model as shown below.
−k
v = vf .e k0 (3.12)
where vf The model can be graphically expressed as in figure 3:5. is the free flow speed and ko
is the optimum density, i.e. the density corresponding to the maximum flow. In this model,
speed becomes zero only when density reaches infinity which is the drawback of this model.
Hence this cannot be used for predicting speeds at high densities.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

qA, vA, kA qB , vB , kB

Figure 3:6: Shock wave: Stream characteristics

3.4.3 Pipes’ generalized model

Further developments were made with the introduction of a new parameter (n) to provide for a
more generalized modeling approach. Pipes proposed a model shown by the following equation.
  n 
k
v = vf 1 − (3.13)
kj

When n is set to one, Pipe’s model resembles Greenshield’s model. Thus by varying the values
of n, a family of models can be developed.

3.4.4 Multi-regime models

All the above models are based on the assumption that the same speed-density relation is
valid for the entire range of densities seen in traffic streams. Therefore, these models are
called single-regime models. However, human behaviour will be different at different densities.
This is corroborated with field observations which shows different relations at different range
of densities. Therefore, the speed-density relation will also be different in different zones of
densities. Based on this concept, many models were proposed generally called multi-regime
models. The most simple one is called a two-regime model, where separate equations are used
to represent the speed-density relation at congested and uncongested traffic.

3.5 Shock waves

The flow of traffic along a stream can be considered similar to a fluid flow. Consider a stream of
traffic flowing with steady state conditions, i.e., all the vehicles in the stream are moving with
a constant speed, density and flow. Let this be denoted as state A (refer figure 3:6. Suddenly
due to some obstructions in the stream (like an accident or traffic block) the steady state
characteristics changes and they acquire another state of flow, say state B. The speed, density
and flow of state A is denoted as vA , kA , and qA , and state B as vB , kB , and qB respectively.
The flow-density curve is shown in figure 3:7. The speed of the vehicles at state A is given
by the line joining the origin and point A in the graph. The time-space diagram of the traffic

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

vA

qA A
vB
flow

B
qB

kA density kB kj

Figure 3:7: Shock wave: Flow-density curve

distance

B
A

time

Figure 3:8: Shock wave : time-distance diagram

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

stream is also plotted in figure 3:8. All the lines are having the same slope which implies that
they are moving with constant speed. The sudden change in the characteristics of the stream
leads to the formation of a shock wave. There will be a cascading effect of the vehicles in the
upstream direction. Thus shock wave is basically the movement of the point that demarcates
the two stream conditions. This is clearly marked in the figure 3:7. Thus the shock waves
produced at state B are propagated in the backward direction. The speed of the vehicles at
state B is the line joining the origin and point B of the flow-density curve. Slope of the line AB
gives the speed of the shock wave (refer figure 3:7). If speed of the shock-wave is represented
as ωAB , then
qA − qB
ωAB = (3.14)
kA − kB
The above result can be analytically solved by equating the expressions for the number vehicles
leaving the upstream and joining the downstream of the shock wave boundary (this assumption
is true since the vehicles cannot be created or destroyed. Let NA be the number of vehicles
leaving the section A. Then, NA = qB t. The relative speed of these vehicles with respect to
the shock wave will be vA − ωAB . Hence,

NA = kA (vA − ωAB ) t (3.15)

Similarly, the vehicles entering the state B is given as

NB = kA (vB − ωAB ) t (3.16)

Equating equations 3.15 and 3.16, and solving for ωAB as follows will yield to:

NA = NB
kA (vA − ωAB ) t = kB (vB − ωAB ) t
kA vA t − kA ωAB t = kB vB t − kB ωAB t
kA ωAB t − kB ωAB t = kA vA − kB vB
ωAB (kA − kB ) = qA − qB

This will yield the following expression for the shock-wave speed.
qA − qB
ωAB = (3.17)
kA − kB
In this case, the shock wave move against the direction of traffic and is therefore called a
backward moving shock wave. There are other possibilities of shock waves such as forward
moving shock waves and stationary shock waves. The forward moving shock waves are formed
when a stream with higher density and higher flow meets a stream with relatively lesser density

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

and flow. For example, when the width of the road increases suddenly, there are chances for a
forward moving shock wave. Stationary shock waves will occur when two streams having the
same flow value but different densities meet.

3.6 Macroscopic flow models

If one looks into traffic flow from a very long distance, the flow of fairly heavy traffic appears
like a stream of a fluid. Therefore, a macroscopic theory of traffic can be developed with the
help of hydrodynamic theory of fluids by considering traffic as an effectively one-dimensional
compressible fluid. The behaviour of individual vehicle is ignored and one is concerned only
with the behaviour of sizable aggregate of vehicles. The earliest traffic flow models began by
writing the balance equation to address vehicle number conservation on a road. In fact, all
traffic flow models and theories must satisfy the law of conservation of the number of vehicles
on the road. Assuming that the vehicles are flowing from left to right, the continuity equation
can be written as
∂k(x, t) ∂q(x, t)
+ =0 (3.18)
∂t ∂x
where x denotes the spatial coordinate in the direction of traffic flow, t is the time, k is the
density and q denotes the flow. However, one cannot get two unknowns, namely k(x, t) by
and q(x, t) by solving one equation. One possible solution is to write two equations from two
regimes of the flow, say before and after a bottleneck. In this system the flow rate before and
after will be same, or
k1 v1 = k2 v2 (3.19)
From this the shock wave velocity can be derived as
q2 − q1
v(to )p = (3.20)
k2 − k1
This is normally referred to as Stock’s shock wave formula. An alternate possibility which
Lighthill and Whitham adopted in their landmark study is to assume that the flow rate q is
determined primarily by the local density k, so that flow q can be treated as a function of only
density k. Therefore the number of unknown variables will be reduced to one. Essentially this
assumption states that k(x,t) and q (x,t) are not independent of each other. Therefore the
continuity equation takes the form
∂k(x, t) ∂q(k(x, t))
+ =0 (3.21)
∂t ∂x
However, the functional relationship between flow q and density k cannot be calculated from
fluid-dynamical theory. This has to be either taken as a phenomenological relation derived from

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Transportation Systems Engineering 3. Traffic Stream Models

the empirical observation or from microscopic theories. Therefore, the flow rate q is a function
of the vehicular density k; q = q(k). Thus, the balance equation takes the form

∂k(x, t) ∂q(k(x, t))

+ =0 (3.22)
∂t ∂x
Now there is only one independent variable in the balance equation, the vehicle density k. If
initial and boundary conditions are known, this can be solved. Solution to LWR models are
kinematic waves moving with velocity
dq(k)
(3.23)
dk
This velocity vk is positive when the flow rate increases with density, and it is negative when
the flow rate decreases with density. In some cases, this function may shift from one regime to
the other, and then a shock is said to be formed. This shock wave propagate at the velocity

q(k2 ) − q(k1 )
vs = (3.24)
k2 − k1
where q(k2 ) and q(k1 ) are the flow rates corresponding to the upstream density k2 and down-
stream density k1 of the shock wave. Unlike Stock’s shock wave formula there is only one
variable here.

3.7 Summary
Traffic stream models attempt to establish a better relationship between the traffic parameters.
These models were based on many assumptions, for instance, Greenshield’s model assumed a
linear speed-density relationship. Other models were also discussed in this chapter. The models
are used for explaining several phenomena in connection with traffic flow like shock wave. The
topics of further interest are multi-regime model (formulation of both two and three regime
models) and three dimensional representation of these models.

3.8 References
1. Adolf D. May. Fundamentals of Traffic Flow. Prentice - Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliff New
Jersey 07632, second edition, 1990.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

Chapter 5

Measurement at a Point

5.1 Introduction
The data required by a traffic engineer can mainly be observed on field rather than at laboratory.
Now the field studies can be classified into three types depending upon the length of observation:

1. Measurement at a point

2. Measurement over a short section

3. Measurement over a long section

Out of these we will be discussing the first type here. Flow is the main traffic parameter
measured at a point. Flow can be defined as the no of vehicles passing a section per unit time.
Traffic volume studies are mainly carried out to obtain factual data concerning the movement
of vehicles at selected point on the street or highway system.

5.2 Basic concepts

5.2.1 Types of Volume Measurement
Volume count varies considerably with time. Hence, several types of measurement of volume
are commonly adopted to average these variations. These measurements are described below:

Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

This is given by the total no. of vehicles passing through a section in a year divided by 365.
This can be used for following purposes:

1. Measuring the present demand for service by the street or highway

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

2. Developing the major or arterial street

3. Evaluating the present traffic flow with respect to the street system

4. Locating areas where new facilities or improvements to existing facilities are needed.

Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT)

This is defined as the average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays over a full year.

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

An average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location for some period of time less than a year.
It may be measured for six months, a season, a month, a week, or as little as two days. An
ADT is a valid number only for the period over which it was measured.

Average Weekday Traffic (AWT)

An average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays for some period of time less than one
year, such as for a month or a season.

5.2.2 Type of Counts

Various types of traffic counts are carried out, depending on the anticipated use of the data to
be collected. They include:

Cordon Count

These are made at the perimeter of an enclosed area (CBD, shopping center etc.). Vehicles or
persons entering and leaving the area during a specified time period are counted.

Screen Line Count

These are classified counts taken at all streets intersecting an imaginary line (screen line)
bisecting the area. These counts are used to determine trends, expand urban travel data,
traffic assignment etc.

Pedestrian Count

These are used in evaluating sidewalk and crosswalk needs, justifying pedestrian signals, traffic
signal timings etc.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

Intersection Count

These are measured at the intersections and are used in planning turn prohibitions, designing
channelization, computing capacity, analyzing high accident intersections etc.

5.2.3 Counting Techniques

Number of vehicles can be counted either manually or by machine depending upon the duration
of study, accuracy required, location of study area etc.

Manual counting

In its simplest form an observer counts the numbers of vehicles along with its type, passing
through the section for a definite time interval. For light volumes, tally marks on a form are
adequate. Mechanical or electrical counters are used for heavy traffic. Although it is good to
take some manual observations for every counting for checking the instruments, some other
specific uses of manual counts are following:
1. Turning and through movement studies

2. Classification and occupancy studies

3. For analysis of crosswalks, sidewalks, street corner space and other pedestrian facilities

Automatic counting

These can be used to obtain vehicular counts at non-intersection points. Total volume, direc-
tional volume or lane volumes can be obtained depending upon the equipment available.

Permanent Counters

These are installed to obtain control counts on a continuous basis. A detector (sensor) which
responds on the passage of vehicle past a selected point is an essential part of this type of
counters. These can be mainly grouped into contact types, pulsed types, radar types. Among
the contact type counters, pneumatic tubes are mostly used. Air pulse actuated by vehicle
wheels, pass along the tube thereby increasing the count. Pulsed types mainly depend upon
the interruption of a beam generated from a station located near the site, which is detected
by the receiver. In radar types, a continuous beam of energy is directed towards the vehicle.
The frequency shift of energy reflected from approaching vehicle is conceived by sensors. Due
to tedious reduction of the voluminous amount of data obtained, use of such counters was
decreasing. But the use of computers and data readable counters has reversed the trend.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

Portable Counters

These are used to obtain temporary or short term counts. Generally these make use of a
transducer unit actuated by energy pulses. Each axle or vehicle passage operates a switch
attached to a counter which is usually set to register one unit for every two axles. If significant
number of multi-axle vehicles is present, an error is introduced. A correction factor, obtained
from a sample classification count, is introduced to reduce this error. This can further be
sub-divided into two types:

1. Recording counters provides a permanent record of volumes by printing the total

volume. These may be set for various counting intervals.

2. Non-Recording Counters must be read by an observer at desired intervals.

5.2.4 Counting Periods

The time and length that a specific location should be counted depends upon the data desired
and the application in which the data are used. Counting periods vary from short counts at spot
points to continuous counts at permanent stations. Hourly counts are generally significant in all
engineering design, while daily and annual traffic is important in economic calculations, road
system classification and investment programmes. Continuous counts are made to establish
national and local highway use, trends of use and behaviour and for estimating purposes. Some
of the more commonly used intervals are:

1. 24-hour counts normally covering any 24-hour period between noon Monday and noon
Friday. If a specific day count is desired, the count should be from midnight to midnight.

2. 16 hour counts usually 5:30 am to 9:30 pm or 6 am to 9 pm.

3. 12 hour counts usually from 7 am to 7 pm

4. Peak Period counting times vary depending upon size of metropolitan area, proximity to
major generators and the type of facility. Commonly used periods are 7 to 9 am and 4
to 6 pm.

5.3 Variation of Volume Counts and Peak Hour Factors

Variation of volume counts can be further sub-divided into daily, weekly and seasonal variation.
For studying the daily variation, the flow in each hour has been expressed as percentage of daily

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

flow. Weekdays, Saturdays and Sundays usually show different patterns. That’s why comparing
day with day is much more useful. Peak Hour Volume is very important factor in the design of
roads and control of traffic, and is usually 2 - 2.5 times the average hourly volume. Apart from
this there is one additional feature of this variation: two dominant peaks (morning and evening
peak), especially in urban areas. These mainly include work trips and are not dependent on
weather and other travel conditions.
Similar to daily variation, weekly variation gives volumes expressed as a percentage of total
flow for the week. Weekdays flows are approximately constant but the weekend flows vary a
lot depending upon the season, weather and socio-economic factors. Seasonal variation is the
most consistent of all variation patterns and represents the economic and social condition of
the area served.
Peak hour factors should be applied in most capacity analyses in accordance with the
Highway Capacity Manual, which selected 15 minute flow rates as the basis for most of its
procedures. The peak-hour factor (PHF) is descriptive of trip generation patterns and may
apply to an area or portion of a street and highway system. The PHF is typically calculated
from traffic counts. It is the average volume during the peak 60 minute period Vav60 divided by
four times the average volume during the peak 15 minute’s period Vav15 .
60
Vav
P HF = (5.1)
4 × Vav15

One can also use 5, 10, or 20 minutes instead of 15 minutes interval for the calculation of
PHF. But in that case we have to change the multiplying factor in the denominator from 4.
Generalizing,
V 60
P HF = 60 av n (5.2)
n
× V av

where Vavn is the peak n minute flow. The Highway Capacity Manual advises that in absence
of field measurements reasonable approximations for peak hour factor can be made as follows:

• 0.95 for congested condition

• 0.92 for urban areas

• 0.88 for rural areas

General guidelines for finding future PHF can be found in the Development Review Guidelines,
which are as follows:

• 0.85 for minor street inflows and outflows

• 0.90 for minor arterial

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

Time interval Cars

4:00 - 4:15 30
4:15 - 4:30 26
4:30 - 4:45 35
4:45 - 5:00 40
5:00 - 5:15 49
5:15 - 5:30 55
5:30 - 5:45 65
5:45 - 6:00 50
6:00 - 6:15 39
6:15 - 6:30 30

Table 5:1: Volumetric data

• 0.95 for major streets

Numerical Example

The table below shows the volumetric data observed at an intersection. Calculate the peak
hour volume, peak hour factor (PHF), and the actual (design) flow rate for this approach.

Solution We can locate the hour with the highest volume and the 15 minute interval with
the highest volume. The peak hour is shown in blue below with the peak 15 minute period
shown in bold font. The peak hour volume is just the sum of the volumes of the four 15 minute
intervals within the peak hour (219). The peak 15 minute volume is 65 in this case. The peak
hour factor (PHF) is found by dividing the peak hour volume by four times the peak 15 minute
219
volume. P HF = 4×65 = 0.84 The actual (design) flow rate can be calculated by dividing the
peak hour volume by the PHF, 219/0.84 = 260 vehicles/hr, or by multiplying the peak 15
minute volume by four, 4 × 65 = 260 vehicles per hour.

5.4 Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

Passenger Car Unit (PCU) is a metric used in Transportation Engineering, to assess traffic-flow
rate on a highway. A Passenger Car Unit is a measure of the impact that a mode of transport has
on traffic variables (such as headway, speed, density) compared to a single standard passenger

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

Time interval Cars

4:00 - 4:15 30
4:15 - 4:30 26
4:30 - 4:45 35
4:45 - 5:00 40
5:00 - 5:15 49
5:15 - 5:30 55
5:30 - 5:45 65
5:45 - 6:00 50
6:00 - 6:15 39
6:15 - 6:30 30

Table 5:2: Solution of the problem

Car 1.0
Motorcycle 0.5
Bicycle 0.2
LCV 2.2
Bus, Truck 3.5
3-wheeler 0.8

Table 5:3: Values of PCU

car. This is also known as passenger car equivalent. For example, typical values of PCU (or
PCE) are: Highway capacity is measured in PCU/hour daily.

Numerical Example

The table below shows the volumetric data collected at an intersection: Calculate the peak
hour volume, peak hour factor (PHF), and the actual (design) flow rate for this approach.

Solution The first step in this solution is to find the total traffic volume for each 15 minute
period in terms of passenger car units. For this purpose the PCU values given in the table are
used. Once we have this, we can locate the hour with the highest volume and the 15 minute
interval with the highest volume. The peak hour is shown in blue below with the peak 15
minute period shown in a darker shade of blue. The peak hour volume is just the sum of the

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

From To HCV LCV CAR 3W 2W

2.30 2.40 4 10 6 38 24
2.40 2.50 8 12 9 63 33
2.50 3.00 7 13 8 42 27
3.00 3.10 6 13 15 37 32
3.10 3.20 7 14 10 51 28
3.20 3.30 6 10 9 63 41
3.30 3.40 8 11 8 48 38
3.40 3.50 10 6 15 47 21
3.50 4.00 9 7 9 54 26
4.00 4.10 10 9 11 62 35
4.10 4.20 12 11 12 61 39
4.20 4.30 8 8 10 54 42

Table 5:4: Volumetric data collected

From To Flow in PCU

2.30 2.40 84.4
2.40 2.50 130.3
2.50 3.00 108.2
3.00 3.10 110.2
3.10 3.20 120.1
3.20 3.30 122.9
3.30 3.40 117.6
3.40 3.50 111.3
3.50 4.00 112.1
4.00 4.10 132.9
4.10 4.20 146.5
4.20 4.30 119.8

Table 5:5: Solution of the problem

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

volumes of the six 10 minute intervals within the peak hour (743.6 PCU). The peak 10 minute
volume is 146.5 PCU in this case. The peak hour factor (PHF) is found by dividing the peak
hour volume by four times the peak 10 minute volume.
743.6
P HF = = 0.85
6 × 146.5
The actual (design) flow rate can be calculated by dividing the peak hour volume by the PHF,
743.6/0.85 = 879 P CU/hr, or by multiplying the peak 10 minute volume by six, 6 × 146.5 =
879 P CU/hr.

5.5 Determination of PCU

Traffic in many parts of the world is heterogeneous, where road space is shared among many
traffic modes with different physical dimensions. Loose lane discipline prevails; car following
is not the norm. This complicates computing of PCU. Some of the methods for determining
passenger car units (PCU) are following:

• Modified Density Method

• Chandra’s method

• Method Based on Relative Delay

• Headway method

• Multiple linear regression method

• Simulation method

It may be appropriate to use different values for the same vehicle type according to circum-
stances like volume of traffic, speed of vehicle, lane width and several external factors.

5.5.1 Method based on relative delay

The 1965 HCM used relative speed reduction to define PCUs for two lane highways and quan-
tified this by the relative number of passing known as the Walker method. For multi-lane
highways, PCUs were based on the relative delay due to trucks. PCUs for multi-lane highways
based on relative delay may be found as
Dij − Db
Et = (5.3)
Db
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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

where Dij is the delay to passenger cars due to vehicle type i under condition j and Db is the
base delay to standard passenger cars due to slower passenger cars.
PCUs in the 1965 HCM were reported for grades of specific length and percent, proportion
of trucks, and LOS grouped as A through C or D and E. As expected, the highest PCU was
reported for the longest and steepest grade with the highest proportion of trucks and the lowest
LOS. However, in many cases the PCU for a given grade and LOS decreased with increasing
proportion of trucks. PCUs in the 1965 HCM were reported for grades of specific length and
percent, proportion of trucks, and LOS grouped as A through C or D and E. As expected,
the highest PCU was reported for the longest and steepest grade with the highest proportion
of trucks and the lowest LOS. However, in many cases the PCU for a given grade and LOS
decreased with increasing proportion of trucks.

5.5.2 Multiple linear regression model

Multiple linear regression method try to represent the speed of a traffic stream as function of
number of variables. For example, the percentile speed vp can represented as:
vp = vf + c1 × Vc + c2 × Vt + c3 × Vr + c4 × Vo + c5 × Va (5.4)
where vf is the free speed, Vc is the number of passenger cars, Vc is the number of trucks Vr
is the number of recreational vehicles, Vr is the number of other types of vehicles, Va is the
number of vehicles moving against the current stream, C1 to C5 are coefficient representing the
relative sizes of speed reductions for each vehicle type. Although this model was formulated
for two lane highways with opposing traffic flow, it could be applied to multi-lane highways by
setting the coefficient C5 to zero. Using the speed reduction coefficients, En , the PCU for a
vehicle type n is calculated as:
Cn
En =
C1
where Cn is the speed reduction coefficient for vehicle type n and C1 is the speed reduction
coefficient for passenger cars.

5.5.3 Method based on headway

Realizing one of the primary effects of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream is that they take up
more space, headways have been used for some of the most popular methods to calculate PCUs.
In 1976, Werner and Morrall suggested that the headway method is best suited to determine
PCUs on level terrain at low levels of service. The PCU is calculated as
( HHmb ) − Pc
Et = (5.5)
Pt
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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

hm hc pc pt
2.70 2.5 0.90 0.10
2.80 2.5 0.85 0.15
2.94 2.5 0.80 0.20
3.10 2.5 0.75 0.25
3.25 2.5 0.70 0.30
3.35 2.5 0.65 0.35
3.70 2.5 0.50 0.50
3.80 2.5 0.45 0.55
3.95 2.5 0.40 0.60
4.20 2.5 0.30 0.70

Table 5:6: Headway data for a number of traffic conditions

where HM is the average headway for a sample including all vehicle types, HB is the average
headway for a sample of passenger cars only, PC is the proportion of cars, and PT is the
proportion of trucks.

Numerical Example

The table given below show headway data for a number of traffic conditions. It is assumed that
the traffic contains only car and truck. Compute the PCU value for each traffic condition Note
that hm , hc , pc , pt respectively denote the average headway for mixed traffic, average headway
for traffic consisting of cars only, the percentage of cars and percentage of trucks of the traffic
stream.

Solution Use the formula given above to find the value of PCU.

5.5.4 Chandra’s method

This method uses two factors: namely, velocity of vehicle type and its projected rectangular
area to calculate the PCU value.
(Vc /Vi )
(P CU)i = (5.6)
(Ac /Ai )
where Vc and Vi are mean speeds of car and vehicle of type i respectively and Ac and Ai are
their respective projected rectangular area length * width on the road.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

hm hc pc pt Et
2.70 2.5 0.90 0.10 1.80
2.80 2.5 0.85 0.15 1.80
2.94 2.5 0.80 0.20 1.88
3.10 2.5 0.75 0.25 1.96
3.25 2.5 0.70 0.30 2.00
3.35 2.5 0.65 0.35 1.97
3.70 2.5 0.50 0.50 1.96
3.80 2.5 0.45 0.55 1.95
3.95 2.5 0.40 0.60 1.97
4.20 2.5 0.30 0.70 1.97

Table 5:7: Table for the value of PCU

Category Vehicle Dimension Projected Area

Car Car, Jeep, Van 3.72 x 1.44 5.39
Bus Bus 10.10 x 2.43 24.74
Truck Truck 7.50 x 2.35 17.62
LCV Mini bus/trucks 6.10 x 2.10 12.81
M-Truck Multi-axle truck 2.35 x 12.0 28.60
Bikes Scooter, Motorbike 1.87 x 0.64 1.20
Cycle Pedal Cycle 1.90 x 0.45 0.85
Autos Auto, Tempo 3.20 x 1.40 4.48

Table 5:8: Table for calculation using Chandra’s method

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point
2.05

2.00

PCU
1.95

1.90

1.85

1.80

1.75
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Percentage of trucks

Figure 5:1: Graph showing the variation of PCU with percentage of truck using the data of the
problem given above

Numerical Example

The table given shows the data obtained in spot speed study for various vehicle types. Find
the PCU value for each vehicle type using the Chandra’s Method.

Solution Step 1 We have to find the space mean speed for each vehicle type using the
formula:
n
Vs =
Σi=1 ( v1i )
n

Where n is the no. of observations and vi is the spot speeds.

Step 2 Find the PCU values using Chandra’s Method. Use the table having the areas of
various vehicle types given above. Then we can use the table given above to find the areas of
different vehicle types to find corresponding PCU values.

5.5.5 Density method

In the density method, the PCU of truck (Et ) is computed as:
(kc /Wl )
Et = (5.7)
(kt )/Wl )
where kc is the density of cars in pure homogeneous conditions(car/km.), Wl is the width of
the lane in homogeneous traffic, kt is the density of the truck in pure homogeneous conditions

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

No Car 3 wheeler 2 wheeler LCV HCV

1 11.32 8.67 6.67 6.0 7.4
2 6.74 7.25 8.27 6.88 6.09
3 11.11 9.68 7.75 7.5 5.88
4 6.67 6.98 6.12 8.57 6.38
5 8.11 8.77 9.52 9.67 5.66
6 7.41 8.77 11.9 8.57 5.66
7 8.11 9.52 6.97 5.7 5.55
8 9.93 9.40 6.97 4.68 6.12

Table 5:9: Table of spot speed study for various vehicle types

No Car 3 wheeler 2 wheeler LCV HCV

1 11.32 8.67 6.67 6.0 7.4
2 6.74 7.25 8.27 6.88 6.09
3 11.11 9.68 7.75 7.5 5.88
4 6.67 6.98 6.12 8.57 6.38
5 8.11 8.77 9.52 9.67 5.66
6 7.41 8.77 11.9 8.57 5.66
7 8.11 9.52 6.97 5.7 5.55
8 9.93 9.40 6.97 4.68 6.12
vs 8.34 8.52 7.70 6.83 6.05

Table 5:10: PCU values using Chandra’s Method

vs 8.34 8.52 7.70 6.83 6.05

PCU 1 0.81 0.24 2.90 6.33

Table 5:11: Table of PCU values

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

From To HCV Flow HCV Mean Speed CAR Flow CAR Mean Speed
2.30 2.40 4 10.4 16 14.32
2.40 2.50 6 9.09 19 12.74
2.50 3.00 5 8.88 18 13.11
3.00 3.10 6 9.38 20 10.67
3.10 3.20 6 10.66 17 12.11
3.20 3.30 6 9.66 21 13.41
3.30 3.40 5 9.55 18 13.11
3.40 3.50 8 10.12 17 10.93
3.50 4.00 7 9.2 22 13.33
4.00 4.10 6 9.54 19 13.58
4.10 4.20 10 10.67 25 12.34
4.20 4.30 8 9.61 20 10.58

Table 5:12: space mean speed of Car and HCV in a two lane road without shoulders

and Et is the passenger car unit of the trucks given homogeneous traffic behaviour. In density
method where car following and lane discipline behaviour prevails, all traffic entities use an
equal Wl .

Numerical Example

The table given below shows the data of flow and space mean speed of Car and HCV in a two
lane road without shoulders. Assume the 85 percentile distribution width of HCV and Car to
be 9.50m. and 7.50m. Compute the PCU value of HCV for each time interval.

Solution We know that PCU value can be calculated using the formula:

(Kcar /W l)
(P CU)truck = (5.8)
(Ktruck /W l)

Step 1 Find the density of car and truck using basic relationship between the traffic flow
parameters
Q=K×V (5.9)
Step 2 The using the method stated above we can find the PCU values. The table showing
the PCU values has been illustrated below.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

From To HCV Flow HCV Speed Car Flow Car Speed Car density PCU
2.30 2.40 4 10.4 27 14.32 1.86 3.68
2.40 2.50 6 9.09 32 12.74 2.49 2.86
2.50 3.00 5 8.88 30 13.11 2.29 3.09
3.00 3.10 6 9.38 33 10.67 3.12 3.71
3.10 3.20 6 10.66 28 12.11 2.34 3.16
3.20 3.30 6 9.66 35 13.41 2.61 3.19
3.30 3.40 5 9.55 30 13.11 2.29 3.32
3.40 3.50 8 10.12 28 10.93 2.59 2.49
3.50 4.00 7 9.2 37 13.33 2.75 2.75
4.00 4.10 6 9.54 32 13.58 2.33 2.82
4.10 4.20 10 10.67 42 12.34 3.38 2.74
4.20 4.30 8 9.61 33 10.58 3.15 2.88

Table 5:13: PCU values for the above problem

5.6 Conclusion
Measurement over a section is probably one of the easiest field parameter that can be mea-
sured. Various types of volume counts and counting techniques have been discussed in brief.
Along with this a brief insight into various methods of calculating Passenger Car unit has been
provided. Out of the various methods discussed, Chandra’s Method is only method that can
be applied to the Indian condition of heterogeneous traffic that is characterized by loose lane
discipline. All the other methods are primarily based on homogeneous traffic conditions mainly
prevailing in developed countries.

5.7 References
1. S Chandra and U Kumar. Effect of lane width on capacity under mixed traffic conditions
in india. Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 129:155–160, 2003.

2. F D Hobbs. Traffic Planning and Engineering. Pergamon Press, 1979. 2nd Edition.

3. W S Homburger. Fundamentals of traffic engineering. 2019. 12th Edition, pp 5-1 to 5-5.

4. Anthony Ingle. Development of Passenger Car Equivalents for Basic Freeway Segments.
Blacksburg, Virginia, July 8, 2004.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 5. Measurement at a Point

5. Geetam Tiwari, Joseph Fazio, and Sri Pavitravas. Passenger Car Units for Heterogeneous
Traffic Using a Modified Density Method. 2019.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

Chapter 6

Measurement over a Short Section

6.1 Overview
The main purpose of this chapter is to determine traffic parameter, specially speed. Speed
measurements are most often taken at a point (or a short section) of road way under conditions
of free flow. The intent is to determine the speeds that drivers select, unaffected by the existence
of congestion. This information is used to determine general speed trends, to help determine
reasonable speed limits, and to assess safety.

6.2 Speed Studies

As speed defines the distance travelled by user in a given time, and this is a vibrant in every
traffic movement. In other words speed of movement is the ratio of distance travelled to time
of travel. The actual speed of traffic flow over a given route may fluctuated widely, as because
at each time the volume of traffic varies. Accordingly, speeds are generally classified into three
main categories

1. Spot speed This is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at any specific location.

2. Running speed This is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the
vehicle is in the motion.

3. Journey speed This is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points
and the distance between two points and the distance between these points divided by
the total time taken for the vehicle to complete the journey, it includes all delay.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

Stream Speed Length

below 15 30
15 -25 60
above 25 90

6.3 Spot Speed Studies

When we measure the traffic parameter over a short distance, we generally measure the spot
speed. A spot speed is made by measuring the individual speeds of a sample of the vehicle
passing a given spot on a street or highway. Spot speed studies are used to determine the speed
distribution of a traffic stream at a specific location. The data gathered in spot speed studies
are used to determine vehicle speed percentiles, which are useful in making many speed-related
decisions. Spot speed data have a number of safety applications, including the following

1. Speed trends,

2. Traffic control planning,

3. Accidental analysis,

4. Geometric design,

5. Research studies.

6.4 Methods of Measurement

Methods of conducting spot speed Studies are divided into two main categories: Manual and
Automatic. Spot speeds may be estimated by manually measuring the time it takes a vehicle
to travel between two defined points on the roadway a known distance apart (short distance),
usually less than 90m. Distance between two points is generally depending upon the average
speed of traffic stream. Following tables gives recommended study length (in meters) for various
average stream speed ranges (in kmph) Following are the some methods to measure spot speed
of vehicles in a traffic stream, in which first two are manual methods and other are automatic:

6.4.1 Pavement markings

In this method, markings of pavement are placed across the road at each end of trap. Observer
start and stops the watch as vehicle passes lines. In this method, minimum two observers

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

required to collect the data, of which one is stand at the starting point to start and stop the
stop watch and other one is stand at end point to give indication to stop the watch when vehicle
passes the end line. Advantages of this method are that after the initial installation no set-up
time is required, markings are easily renewed, and disadvantage of this is that substantial error
can be introduced, and magnitude of error may change for substitute studies and this method
is only applicable for low traffic conditions.
Vertical Reference
point Vertical Reference
End Timing point

Study length
Approaching Vehicle

Start timing

Observer 2 Observer 1
X

Figure 6:1: Pavement Marking

6.4.2 Enoscope or Mirror box

Enoscope consists of a simple open housing containing a mirror mounted on a tripod at the
side of the road in such a way that an observer’s line of sight turned through 90o. The observer
stands at one end of section and on the other end enoscope is placed and measure the time
taken by the vehicle to cross the section (fig 6.2). Advantages of this method are that it simple
and eliminate the errors due to parallax and considerable time is required to time each vehicle,
which lengthen the study period and under heavy traffic condition it may be difficult to relate
ostentatious to proper vehicle are the disadvantages of enoscope method.

6.4.3 Road Detector (Pressure contact strips)

Pressure contact strips, either pneumatic or electric, can be used to avoid error due to parallax
and due to manually starting and stopping the chronometer or stopwatch. This is the best
method over short distance it gives quite relevant data and if it is connected through graphical
recorder then it gives continuous data automatically.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section
x
observer enoscope

Base length

Figure 6:2: Enoscope Method

6.4.4 Doppler-Principle Meters (Radar)

This is recently developed method, it automatically records speed, employs a radar transmitter-
receiver unit. The apparatus transmits high frequency electromagnetic waves in a narrow beam
towards the moving vehicle, and reflected waves changed their length depending up on the
vehicles speed and returned to the receiving unit, through calibration gives directly spot speed
of the vehicle.

6.4.5 Electronic-Principle Detectors (Photography)

In this method a camera records the distance moved by a vehicle in a selected short time. In this
exposure of photograph should be in a constant time interval and the distance travelled by the
vehicle is measured by projecting the films during the exposure interval. The main advantage
of method that, it gives a permanent record with 100% sample obtained. This method is quite
expensive and generally used in developed cities. In this we can use video recorder which give
more accurate result.

6.5 Data Collection Sheets

The measured data by the above techniques should be collected into some formats, following
are the some types of data collection sheets which are used for manual and automatic methods,

1. For Enoscope and Pavement Marking Methods

2. For automatic methods

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section
Location: Date:

Weather: Time:

Type of road: Base Length:

Measurement Technique:

TIME TAKEN (in sec)

S NO.
Car/jeep 3 Wheeler 2 Wheeler Cycle LCV HCV
1

7
8

9
10

Surveyor:

Figure 6:3: Data collection sheet for Enoscope and Pavement Marking Methods
Spot Speed Data Collection Form

Location: Data:

Time:
Weather:

Measurement Technique:
Type of road:

Vehicle No. Speed Vehicle No. Speed

Surveyor:
Spot Speed Data Collection Form

Location: Date:

Weather: Time:

Type of road: Base Length:

Measurement Technique:

Speed Range Tally Mark Number

Total
in kmph Car/Jeep Bus/Truck Car/Jeep Bus/Truck
0 5

5 10
10 15

15 20
20 25
25 30
30 35
35 40

40 45
45 50
50 55
55 60
60 65

Surveyor:

Figure 6:4: Data collection sheet for Automatic Methods

6.6 Data Presentation

From the above methods, the collected data have to present into the some representable form,
this makes its calculation and analysis simpler and easier. The following methods to present
the spot speed data:

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

6.6.1 Frequency Distribution Table

After the collection of data in the given conditions, arrange the spot speed values in order to
their magnitudes. Then select an interval speed (e.g. 5 kmph) and make grouping of data
which come under this range. Now, prepare the frequency distribution table.

6.6.2 Frequency Distribution Curve

For each speed group, the % frequency of observations within the group is plotted versus the
middle (mid-mark) speed of the group(s). As shown in Fig 6.5. From this curve the modal
speed and pace of traffic flow can be determine. Generally the shape of the curve follows the
normal distribution curve, this because the most of the vehicles move on road near by mean
speed and very few deviate from mean speed.

6.6.3 Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve

For each speed group, the % cumulative frequency of observations is plotted versus the higher
limit of the speed group (Fig 6.5). The cumulative frequency distribution curve, however,
results in a very useful plot of speed versus the percent of vehicles traveling at or below the
designated speed. For this reason, the upper limit of the speed group is used as the plotting
point. In both the distribution curve, the plots are connected by a smooth curve that minimizes
the total distance of points falling above the line and those falling below the line. A smooth
curve is defined as one without.

6.7 Distribution Characteristics

Common descriptive statistics may be computed from the data in the frequency distribution ta-
ble or determined graphically from the frequency and cumulative frequency distribution curves.
These statistics are used to describe two important characteristics of the distribution:

6.7.1 Measure of Central Tendency

Measure which helps to describe the approximate middle or center of the distribution. Measures
of central tendency include the average or mean speed, the median speed, the modal speed,
and the pace.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section
25
Mode

$\% Frequency
20

15
Pace
10

0
32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 Speed
100 (kph)

$Cum.\%freq$
90
80 $86\%$
70
60 $\% Veh in pace =86−14= 72\%$
50 Median
40
30
20 $14\%$
10
0 Speed
32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 (kph)

Figure 6:5: Frequency and Cumulative Frequency Distribution curve

Mean Speed

The arithmetic (or harmonic) average speed is the most frequently used speed statistics. It is
the measure of central tendency of the data. Mean calculated gives two kinds of mean speeds.
Σfi vi
vt = (6.1)
n
where, vt is the mean or average speed, vi is the individual speed of the ith vehicle, fi is the
frequency of speed, and n is the total no of vehicle observed (sample size). Time mean Speed
If data collected at a point over a period of time, e.g. by radar meter or stopwatch, produce
speed distribution over time, so the mean of speed is time mean speed. Space mean Speed
If data obtained over a stretch (section) of road almost instantaneously, aerial photography or
enoscope, result in speed distribution in space and mean is space mean speed. Distribution
over space and time are not same. Time mean speed is higher than the space mean speed. The
spot speed sample at one end taken over a finite period of time will tend to include some fast
vehicles which had not yet entered the section at the start of the survey, but will exclude some
of the slower vehicles. The relationship between the two mean speeds is expressed by:

σs2
vt = vs + (6.2)
vs
where, vt and vs are the time mean speed and space mean speed respectively. And σs is the
standard deviation of distribution space.

Median Speed

The median speed is defined as the speed that divides the distribution in to equal parts (i.e.,
there are as many observations of speeds higher than the median as there are lower than

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

the median). It is a positional value and is not affected by the absolute value of extreme
observations. By definition, the median equally divides the distribution. Therefore, 50% of all
observed speeds should be less than the median. In the cumulative frequency curve, the 50th
percentile speed is the median of the speed distribution. Median Speed = v50

Pace

The pace is a traffic engineering measure not commonly used for other statistical analyses. It is
defined as the 10Km/h increment in speed in which the highest percentage of drivers is observed.
It is also found graphically using the frequency distribution curve. As shown in fig 6.5. The
pace is found as follows: A 10 Km/h template is scaled from the horizontal axis. Keeping this
template horizontal, place an end on the lower left side of the curve and move slowly along the
curve. When the right side of the template intersects the right side of the curve, the pace has
been located. This procedure identifies the 10 Km/h increments that intersect the peak of the
curve; this contains the most area and, therefore, the highest percentage of vehicles.

Modal Speed

The mode is defined as the single value of speed that is most likely to occur. As no discrete values
were recorded, the modal speed is also determined graphically from the frequency distribution
curve. A vertical line is dropped from the peak of the curve, with the result found on the
horizontal axis.

6.7.2 Measure of Dispersion

Measures describe the extent to which data spreads around the center of the distribution.
Measures of dispersion include the different percentile speeds i.e. 15th, 85th,etc. and the
standard deviation.

Standard Deviation

The most common statistical measure of dispersion in a distribution is the standard deviation.
It is a measure of how far data spreads around the mean value. In simple terms, the standard
deviation is the average value of the difference between individual observations and the average
value of those observations. The Standard deviation, σs , of the sample can be calculated by
r
Σfi (vi − vv )2
σs = (6.3)
n−1

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

Percentile Speeds

The 85th and 15th percentile speeds give a general description of the high and low speeds
observed by most reasonable drivers. It is generally thought that the upper and lower 15% of
the distribution represents speeds that are either too fast or too slow for existing conditions.
These values are found graphically from the cumulative frequency distribution curve of Figure
6.4. The curve is entered on the vertical axis at values of 85% and 15%. The respective speeds
are found on the horizontal axis. The 85th and 15th percentile speeds can be used to roughly
estimate the standard deviation of the distribution σest , although this is not recommended when
the data is available for a precise determination.
v85 − v15
σest = (6.4)
2
The 85th and 15th percentile speeds give insight to both the central tendency and dispersion of
the distribution. As these values get closer to the mean, less dispersion exists and the stronger
the central tendency of the distribution becomes.
The 98th percentile speed is also determining from the cumulative frequency curve, this
speed is generally used for geometric design of the road.

6.8 Data Analysis

6.8.1 Standard Error of the mean
The means of different sample taken from the same population are distributed normally about
the true mean of population with a standard deviation, is known as standard error.
σs
Se = √ (6.5)
n

6.8.2 Sample Size

Generally, sample sizes of 50 to 200 vehicles are taken. In that case, standard error of mean is
usually under the acceptable limit. If precision is prior then minimum no. of sample should be
taken, that can be measured by using the following equation.
Z 2 σs2
nr = (6.6)
Se2
where, nr is the no. of sample required, σs is the Standard deviation, Z is value calculated from
Standard Normal distribution Table for a particular confidence level (i.e. for 95% confidence
Z=1.96 and for 99.7% confidence Z=3.0) and Se is the permissible (acceptable) error in mean
calculation.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

6.8.3 Precision and Confidence Intervals

Confidence intervals express the range within which a result for the whole population would
occur for a particular proportion of times an experiment or test was repeated among a sample
of the population. Confidence interval is a standard way of articulate the statistical accuracy
of an experiment based assessment. If assess has a high error level, the equivalent confidence
interval will be ample, and the less confidence we can have that the experiment results depict
the situation among the whole population. When quoting confidence It is common to refer to
the some confidence interval around an experiment assessment or test result. So, the confidence
interval for estimated true mean speed can be calculated by

µ = vt ± Zσs (6.7)

where, µ is the confidence interval, vt is mean speed, σs is standard deviation and Z is constant
for specified confidence.

6.8.4 Numerical Example

Using the spot speed data given in the following table, collected from a freeway site operating
under free-flow conditions: (i) Plot the frequency and cumulative frequency curves for these
data; (ii) Obtain median speed, modal speed, pace, and percent vehicles in pace from these
plots; (iii) Compute the mean and standard deviation of the speed distribution; (iv) The
confidence bounds on the estimate of the true mean speed of the underlying distribution with
95% confidence? With 99.7% confidence; and (v) Based on these results, compute the sample
size needed to achieve a tolerance of ±1.5 kmph with 95% confidence.

Solution For the spot speed study, first draw a frequency distribution table show below.
1. From the table 6.3, we can draw frequency distribution and cumulative frequency distri-
bution curve.(shown in Fig 6.6 and 6.7)

2. From the curves, Median speed, v50 = 43 kmph; Modal speed, = 38 kmph; the Pace =
33 - 43 kmph; Percent vehicles in pace = 54-20= 34%; and the 85th Percentile speed =
58 kmph.

3. Mean is calculated by using

Σfi vi
vt =
n
5950
= = 45.77 kmph
130
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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

Speed Range Frequency fi

21-25 2
26-30 6
31-35 18
36-40 25
41-45 19
46-50 16
51-55 17
56-60 12
61-65 7
66-70 4
71-75 3
76-80 1

fi × (Vi − Vm )2
P
Speed Range Mid speed Vi Frequency fi % fi % fi fi × Vi
21-25 23 2 2% 2% 46 1036.876
26-30 28 6 5% 6% 168 1894.473
31-35 33 18 14% 20% 594 2934.959
36-40 38 25 19% 39% 950 1509.024
41-45 43 19 15% 54% 817 145.7041
46-50 48 16 12% 66% 768 79.6213
51-55 53 17 13% 79% 901 888.8284
56-60 58 12 9% 88% 696 1795.101
61-65 63 7 5% 94% 441 2078.296
66-70 68 4 3% 97% 272 1976.828
71-75 73 3 2% 99% 219 2224.544
76-80 78 1 1% 100% 78 1038.822
Total 130 100% 5950 17603.08

Table 6:1: Solution of the example problem

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section
25\%

20\%
Mode

Frequency(\%)
pace
15\%

10\%

5\%

0\%
33 38 43
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Speed (kmph)

Figure 6:6: Frequency Distribution Curve

100\%

90\% $v_85$
85\%
80\%
cumulative frequency(\%)

70\%

60\%

$v_50$
50\%

40\%

30\%

20\%
$v_15$
15\%
10\%

32 43 58
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Speed (kmph)

Figure 6:7: Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve

Standard Deviation of the Speed

r
Σfi (vi − vt )2
σs =
n−1
r
17603.08
= = 11.7 kmph
130 − 1

4. The confidence bounds on the estimate of the true mean speed of the underlying distri-
bution are:
µ = vt ± Zσs

(a) For 95% confidence, Z= 1.96, so

µ = 45.77 ± 1.96 × 11.7 = 45.77 ± 22.93 kmph

(b) For 99.7% confidence, Z= 3.0, so

µ = 45.77 ± 3.0 × 11.7 = 45.77 ± 35.1 kmph

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

Parameter Value
Median speed 43 kmph
Modal speed 38 kmph
Pace 33-43 kmph
Vehicles in pace 34%
Mean speed 45.77 kmph
Standard Deviation 11.7 kmph
85th percentile speed 58 kmph
15th percentile speed 32 kmph
98th percentile Speed 72 kmph
Confidence interval
For 95%. 45.7722.93 kmph
For 99.7% 45.7725.1 kmph
Required sample Size 234

Table 6:2: Result of the example problem

5. Sample size required for 95% confidence with acceptable error of 1.5 kmph
Z 2 σs2
nr =
Se2
1.962 × 11.72
= = 234.
1.52
So, given sample size is not sufficient and we require minimum 234 samples to achieve
that confidence with given acceptable error. The results are summaries in table 6.8.4

6.9 Location for Speed Studies

The speed studies are accompanied for eminently logical purposes that will influence what
traffic engineering measures are implemented in any given case. The location at which speed
measurements are taken must conform to the intentional purpose of the study. The guiding phi-
losophy behind spot speed studies is that measurements should include drivers freely selecting
their speeds, unaffected by traffic congestion. For example if driver approaches to a toll plaza,
then he has to slow his speed, so this is not suitable location to conduct the study, measure-
ments should be taken at a point before drivers start to decelerate. Similarly, if excessive speed
around a curve is thought to be contributing to off-the-road accidents, speed measurements

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Transportation Systems Engineering 6. Measurement over a Short Section

should be taken in advance of the curve, before deceleration begins. It may also be appro-
priate, however, to measure speeds at the point where accidents are occurring for evaluation
with approach speeds. This would allow the traffic engineer to assess whether the problem is
excessive approach speed or that drivers are not decelerating sufficiently through the subject
geometric element, or a combination of both. A study of intersection approach speeds must
also be taken at a point before drivers begin to decelerate. This may be a moving point, given
that queues get shorter and longer at different periods of the day.

6.10 Summary
This chapter has presented the basic concepts of speed studies. Spot speed studies are conducted
to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicle in the traffic stream at a particular position
on highway. This is done by recording the speeds of vehicle at the specified location. These
data are used to obtain speed characteristics such as mean speed, modal speed, pace, standard
deviation and different percentile of speeds. The important factors which should consider during
plan of studies is the location of study, time and duration of study. The data sample collected
should contain samples size. These gives precision and accuracy of result.

6.11 References
1. F D Hobbs. Traffic Planning and Engineering. Pergamon Press, 1979. 2nd Edition.

2. Nicholas J Garber Lester A Hoe. Traffic and Highway Engineering. Cengage Learning
Product, Fourth Edition, 2009.

3. Theodore M Matson, Wilbure S smith, and Fredric W Hurd. Traffic engineering, 1955.

4. R P Roess, S E Prassas, and W R McShane. Traffic Engineering. Pearson Education

International, 2005.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 6.14 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 7. Measurement along a Length of Road

Chapter 7

Measurement along a Length of Road

7.1 Overview
This is normally used to obtain variations in speed over a stretch of road. Usually the stretch
will be having a length more than 500 meters. We can also get speed ,travel time and delay.
Speed and travel time are the most commonly used indicators of performance for traffic facilities
and networks. Delays are often used to measure the performance of traffic flow at intersections.

7.2 Travel time study

Travel time is the elapsed time it takes for a vehicle to traverse a given segment of a street.
Travel time studies provide the necessary data to determine the average travel time. Combined
with the length of the corridor under study, this data can be used to produce average travel
speed. Travel time and delay are two of the principal measures of roadway system performance
used by traffic engineers, planners and analysts. Since vehicle speed is directly related to travel
time and delay, it is also an appropriate measure-of-performance to evaluate traffic systems.
A study conducted to determine the amount of time required to traverse a specific route
or section of a street or highway. The data obtained provide travel time and travel speed
information but not necessarily delay. This term is often used to include speed and delay
study. Travel time may be defined as the total elapsed time of travel, including stop and delay,
necessary for a vehicle to travel from one point to another point over a specified route under
existing traffic condition.

7.3 Delay studies

Delay is defined as an extra time spent by drivers against their expectation. Delay can have
many forms depending on different locations. A study made to provide information concerning

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Transportation Systems Engineering 7. Measurement along a Length of Road

the amount, cause, location, duration and frequency of delay as well as travel time and similar
value. The time lost by traffic due to traffic friction and traffic control device is called delay.

7.4 Types of Delay

1. Congestion delay- Congestion delay is the delay caused by the constricting or slowing down
effect of overloaded intersections, inadequate carriageway widths, parked cars, crowded
pavement and similar factor.

2. Fixed Delay- The delay to which a vehicle is subjected regardless of the amount of traffic
volume and interference present.

3. Operational Delay-The delay caused by interference from other component of the traffic
stream. Examples include time lost while waiting for a gap in a conflicting traffic stream,
or resulting from congestion, parking maneuvers, pedestrians, and turning movement.

4. Stopped Delay- The time a vehicle is not moving.

5. Travel Time Delay- The difference between the actual time required to traverse a section
of street or highway and the time corresponding to the average speed of traffic under
uncongested condition. It includes acceleration and deceleration delay in addition to
stopped delay.

6. Approach Delay -Travel time delay encountered to an approach to an intersection.

7.5 Purpose of travel time and Delay Studies

1. The purpose of a Travel Time and Delay Study is to evaluate the quality of traffic move-
ment along a route and determine the locations, types, and extent of traffic delays by
using a moving test vehicle.

2. This study method can be used to compare operational conditions before and after road-
way or intersection improvements have been made. It can also be used as a tool to assist
in prioritizing projects by comparing the magnitude of the operational deficiencies (such
as delays and stops) for each project under consideration.

3. The Travel Time and Delay Study can also be used by planners to monitor level of service
for local government comprehensive plans.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 7. Measurement along a Length of Road

4. The methodology presented herein provides the engineer with quantitative information
with which he can develop recommendations for improvements such as traffic signal re-
timing, safety improvements, turn lane additions, and channelization enhancements

7.6 Method for obtaining travel time and delay study

1. Floating Car Method: Floating car data are positions of vehicles traversing city streets
throughout the day. In this method the driver tries to float in the traffic stream passing
as many vehicles as pass the test car. If the test vehicle overtakes as many vehicles as
the test vehicle is passed by, the test vehicles should, with sufficient number of runs,
approach the median speed of the traffic movement on the route. In such a test vehicle,
one passenger acts as observer while another records duration of delays and the actual
elapsed time of passing control points along the route from start to finish of the run.

2. Average Speed Method: In this method the driver is instructed to travel at a speed
that is judge to the representative of the speed of all traffic at the time.

3. Moving-vehicle method: In this method, the observer moves in the traffic stream and
makes a round trip on a test section. The observer starts at section, drives the car in a
particular direction say eastward to another section, turns the vehicle around drives in
the opposite direction say westward toward the previous section again. Let, the time in
minutes it takes to travel east (from X-X to Y-Y) is ta, the time in minutes it takes to
travel west (from Y-Y to X-X) is tw, the number of vehicles traveling east in the opposite
lane while the test car is traveling west be ma, the number of vehicles that overtake the
test car while it is traveling west be mo, and the number of vehicles that the test car
passes while it is traveling west from be mp. The volume (qw) in the westbound direction
X Y
West

East

X Y

Figure 7:1: Illustration of moving observer method

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Transportation Systems Engineering 7. Measurement along a Length of Road

can then be obtained from the expression and

ma + mo − mp
qw =
ta + tw
the average travel time in the westbound direction is obtained from
mo − mp
tw(avg) = tw −
qw

4. Maximum-car method: In this procedure, the driver is asked to drive as fast as is safely
practical in the traffic stream without ever exceeding the design speed of the facility.

5. Elevated Observer method: In urban areas, it is sometime possible to station observers

in high buildings or other elevated points from which a considerable length of route may
be observed. These investigator select vehicle at random and record; time, location and
causes-of-delay. The drawback is that it is sometime difficult to secure suitable points for
observation throughout the length of the route to be studied.

6. License Plate Method: when the amount of turning off and on the route is not great
and only over all speed value are to be secured, the license-plate method of speed study
may be satisfactorily employed. Investigator stationed at control point along the route
enters, on a time control basis, the license-plate numbers of passing vehicles. These
are compared from point to point along the route, and the difference in time values,
through use of synchronized watches, is computed. This method requires careful and
time-consuming office work and does not show locations, causes, frequency, or duration of
delay. Four basic methods of collecting and processing license plates normally considered
are:

(a) Manual: collecting license plates via pen and paper or audio tape recorders and
manually entering license plates and arrival times into a computer.
(b) Portable Computer: collecting license plates in the field using portable computers
that automatically provide an arrival time stamp.
(c) Video with Manual Transcription: collecting license plates in the field using
video cameras or camcorders and manually transcribing license plates using human
observers.
(d) Video with Character Recognition: collecting license plates in the field using
video, and then automatically transcribing license plates and arrival times into a
computer using computerized license plate character recognition.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 7. Measurement along a Length of Road

7. Photographic Method: This method is primarily a research tool, it is useful in studies of

interrelationship of several factors such as spacing, speeds, lane usage, acceleration rates,
merging and crossing maneuvers, and delays at intersections. This method is applicable
to a short test section only.

8. Interview Method: this method may be useful where a large amount of material is
needed in a minimum of time and at little expense for field observation. Usually the
employees of a farm or establishment are asked to record their travel time to and from
work on a particular day.

9. Highway Capacity Manual 2000 or (Cycle- based method): This method is ap-
plicable to all under saturated signalized intersections. For over-saturated conditions,
queue buildup normally makes the method impractical. The method described here is
applicable to situations in which the average maximum queue per cycle is no more than
about 20 to 25 veh/ln. When queues are long or the demand to capacity ratio is near
1.0, care must be taken to continue the vehicle-in-queue count past the end of the arrival
count period, vehicles that arrived during the survey period until all of them have exited
the intersection.as detailed below. This requirement is for consistency with the analytic
delay equation used in the chapter text.method does not directly measure delay during
deceleration and during a portion of acceleration, which are very difficult to measure with-
out sophisticated tracking equipment. However, this method has been shown to yield a
reasonable estimate of control delay.
The method includes an adjustment for errors that may occurred when this type of
sampling technique is used, as well as an acceleration-deceleration delay correction factor
Table 7:1. The acceleration-deceleration factor is a function of the typical number of
vehicles in queue during each cycle and the normal free-flow speed when vehicles are
unimpeded by the signal. Before beginning the detailed survey, the observers need to
make an estimate of the average free-flow speed during the study period. Free-flow speed
is the speed at which vehicles would pass unimpeded through the intersection if the signal
were green for an extended period.be obtained by driving through the intersection a few
times when the signal is green and there is no queue and recording the speed at a location
least affected by signal control. Typically, the recording location should be upstream
about mid-block. Table 7:2 is a worksheet that can be used for recording observations
and computation of average time-in-queue delay Steps for data reduction

(a) Sum each column of vehicle-in-queue counts, then sum the column totals for the
entire survey period.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 7. Measurement along a Length of Road

Free-Flow Speed ≤ 7 Vehicles 8-19 Vehicles 20-30 Vehicles

≤ 60km/h 5 2 1
60-71 km/h 7 4 2
≥ 71 km/h 9 7 5

Table 7:1: Acceleration-Deceleration Delay Correction Factor, CF (seconds)

(b) A vehicle recorded as part of a vehicle-in-queue count is in queue, on average, for the
time interval between counts. The average time-in-queue per vehicle arriving during
the survey period is estimated.
 
ΣViq
dvq = Is × 0.9
Vtot

where, Is = interval between vehicle-in-queue counts (s), ΣViq = sum of vehicle-in-

queue counts (veh), Vtot = total number of vehicles arriving during the survey period
(veh), and 0.9 = empirical adjustment factor. The 0.9 adjustment factor accounts
for the errors that may occur when this type of sampling technique is used to derive
actual delay values, normally resulting in an overestimate of delay.
(c) Compute the fraction of vehicles stopping and the average number of vehicles stop-
ping per lane in each signal cycle, as indicated on the worksheet.
(d) Using Table 7:1, look up a correction factor appropriate to the lane group free-flow
speed and the average number of vehicles stopping per lane in each cycle. This
factor adds an adjustment for deceleration and acceleration delay, which cannot be
measured directly with manual techniques.
(e) Multiply the correction factor by the fraction of vehicles stopping, and then add this
product to the time-in-queue value of Step 2 to obtain the final estimate of control
delay per vehicle.

Numerical Example

A test was conducted to determine the delay in an intersection. Table 7:3 presents a sample
computation on direct observation of vehicle-in-queue counts at the intersection. The traffic
signal at the intersection operates with a cycle time of 115 sec. The test was conducted on the
2 lane road over a 15-min period, which is almost thirteen cycles . Count interval was 15-s.
The total number of vehicle is 530 and the total number of stopped vehicle is 223. Assume the
free flow speed to be 65 km/h and the empirical adjustment factor 0.9

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Transportation Systems Engineering 7. Measurement along a Length of Road

INTERSECTION CONTROL DELAY WORKSHEET

General Information Site Information
Analyst Intersection
Agency or Company Area Type CAD Others
Date Performed Jurisdiction
Analysts Time Period Analysis Year
Input Initial Parameters
Number of lanes, N Total vehicle arriving,Varr
Free−flow speed,FFS (km/h) Stopped-vehicle count,Vstopped
Survey count interval,ls (s) Cycle length,C (s)
Input Field Data
Clock Cycle Number of vehicles in queue
Time Count interval
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Total
Computations

Total vehicles in queue,ΣVtvq = Number of cycles surveyed,N_{s}

Time−in−queue per vehicle,d_{vq} Fraction of vehicles stopping, FVS =
No.of vehicles stopping per lane each cycle = Accel/Decek correction delay,dacl = F V S × CF
Accel/Decel correction factor, CF(Ex.A1G−2) Control delay/vehicles,d = dvq + dacl

Figure 7:2: Intersection delay worksheet

General Information Site Information
Analyst Intersection Cicera&Beimanc
Agency or Company Area Type CBD Others
Date Performed Jurisdiction
Analysis time period 1999
Analysis Year
Input initial Parameters
Number of lanes, N 2 Total vehicle arriving,Vtot 530
65 Stopped vehicle count,Vstop
Free−flow speed,FFS (km/h) 223
Survey count interval,Is (s) 15 Cycle length, C (s)
Input Field Data
Number of vehicles in Queue
Clock Cycle
Count Interval
Time Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4:34 1 3 8 " 15 12 2 0 2

2 6 12 15 16 6 0 0 2

3 7 " 14 14 2 0 0
4 5 7 10 13 13 2 0 1
4:42 5 4 6 10 12 3 0 0 1

6 5 7 9 13 4 0 0
7 3 6 8 12 12 0 0 0
4:47 8 4 7 " 16 9 0

Total 37 64 88 ’" 61 4 0 6

Figure 7:3: Example of the intersection control delay worksheet

Solution:

1. Number of lane, N=2

2. Free-flow Speed, FFS =65 km/h

3. Survey count interval, Is =15 sec

4. Total vehicle in queue, ΣViq = 371

5. Total vehicles arriving, Vtot = 530

6. Stopped vehicles count, Vstop = 223

7. No of Cycle Surveyed, Nc=7.8

8. Acc./Dec. correction factor, CF=4 (from Table 7.1)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 7. Measurement along a Length of Road

9. No. Of Vehicles stopped per lane each cycle

223
Vstop Nc × N = 7.8×2
= 14

10. Fraction of vehicles stopping,

Vstop 223
FV S = Vtot
= 530
= 0.42

11. Time-in-queue per vehicle ,

ΣViq
dvq = (Is × Vtot
)0.9 = 9.5sec

12. Acc./Dec. correction delay,

dad = F V S × CF = 0.42 × 4 = 1.7sec

13. Control delay/vehicle,

d = dvq + dad = 11.2sec

7.7 Summary
The information assembled as part of this travel time and delay study forms a baseline for
future assessment. This study helps to determine the amount of time required to travel from
one point to another on a given route. Often, information may also be collected on the locations,
durations, and causes of delays. Good indication of the level of service and identifying problem
locations

7.8 References
1. Highway capacity manual, 2000. chapter-16.

2. Manual on uniform traffic studies, 2000. Topic No. 750-020-007 Travel Time and Delay
Study.

3. Travel Time Data Collection Handbook. 2019.

4. F D Hobbs. Traffic Planning and Engineering. Pergamon Press, 1979. 2nd Edition.

5. W S Hamburger J H Kell. Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering. 1989.

6. Theodore M Matson, Wilbure S smith, and Fredric W Hurd. Traffic engineering, 1955.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 7.8 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

Chapter 8

Automated Traffic Measurement

8.1 Introduction
This present paper offers a review on some of the latest automated traffic data collection tech-
nologies. This automated technology briefly summarizes as two methods. The first technology
is in-situ technology and second one is in vehicle technology. Broadly speaking, “in-situ” tech-
nologies refer to traffic data measured by the means of detectors located along the roadside.
Generally, traffic count technologies can be split into two categories: the intrusive and non-
intrusive methods. The intrusive methods basically consist of a data recorder and a sensor
placing on or in the road. Non-intrusive techniques are based on remote observations. Then
the next order automated traffic data technology is floating car data (FCD). FCD is an alter-
native or rather complement source of high quality data to existing technologies. They will
help improve safety, efficiency and reliability of the transportation system. They are becom-
ing crucial in the development of new Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). Then finally
discussed travel time prediction by these technologies.

8.1.1 General
The vehicular traffic is increasing tremendously in today’s/this world, simultaneously conges-
tion also increases. In order to prevent congestion, one option is to increase the capacity by
increasing the number of existing transportation system. A second option is to develop alterna-
tives that increase capacity by improving the efficiency of the existing transportation system.
The later focuses on building fewer lane-miles, while investing in Intelligent Transportation
Systems (ITS) infrastructure. The goals of ITS include the following:
1. Enhance public safety;

2. Reduce congestion;

3. Improved access to travel and transit information;

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

4. Generate cost savings to motor carriers, transit operators, toll authorities, and government
agencies; and

5. Reduce detrimental environmental impacts.

Intelligence requires information, and information requires data, which is generated by surveil-
lance. ITS include sensor, communication, and traffic control technologies. These technologies
assist states, cities, and towns nationwide, meeting the increasing demands on surface trans-
portation system. Vehicle detection and surveillance technologies are an integral part of ITS,
since they gather all or part of the data that is used in ITS. So a wide range of data is required
for ITS to manage:
1. Volume Count

2. Vehicle Classification

3. Vehicle Occupancy

4. Travel Time

5. Delay

8.1.2 Volume Count

Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number, movements, and classifications
of roadway vehicles at a given location. These data helps to identify critical flow time periods,
determining the influence of large vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular traffic flow. The length of
sampling period depends on the type of count being taken and the intended use of recorded data.
Two methods are available for conducting traffic volume counts: (1) manual and (2) automatic.
Manual counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle classification,
turning movements, direction of travel, and vehicle occupancy.

Manual Count Method

Most applications of manual counts require small samples of data at any given location. Manual
counts are rarely used when the effort and expense of automated equipment are not justified.
Manual counts are necessary when automated equipment is not available. Manual counts are
typically used for period of less than a day. Normal intervals for a manual count are 5, 10,
or 15 minutes. Traffic counts during a rush hour of Monday morning and Friday evening rush
hours shows exceptionally high volumes and is not normally used in analysis; therefore, counts
are usually conducted on Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

Automatic Count Method

The automatic count method provides a means for gathering large amounts of traffic data.
Automatic counts are usually taken in 1-hour interval for each 24-hour period. The counts
extend for a week, month, or year. When the counts are recorded for each 24-hour time period,
the peak flow period can be identified. Automatic counts are recorded using one of three
methods: portable counters, permanent counters, and videotape.

8.1.3 Vehicle Classification

Traffic volumes vary over time on all roads. Traffic volumes also vary dramatically from one
road to another. These variations in traffic volume are even more apparent when volumes
for specific vehicle types (classification) are analyzed. Consequently, the vehicle classification
data collection program must gather sufficient data on traffic patterns of important vehicle
types to accurately quantify the truck traffic stream to meet the needs of users. These include;
time of day, day of week, time of year, direction. Vehicle classification counts are used in
establishing structural and geometric design criteria, computing expected highway user revenue,
and computing capacity. If a high percentage of heavy trucks exist or if the vehicle mix at the
crash site is suspected as contributing to the crash problem, then classification counts should
be conducted. Typically cars, station wagons, pickup and panel trucks, and motorcycles are
classified as passenger cars. The observer records the classification of vehicles and its direction
of travel at the intersection.

Integration of Classification Count

The vehicle classification counts required should not be considered separate from the volume
counts traditionally performed. Instead, they should be integrated with the traditional volume
counts. Because classification counts provide both classification and total volume information,
they can replace traditional volume counts reducing duplication and error. Traffic surveillance
equipment is used as part of advanced traffic management systems (ATMS) or advanced traveler
information systems (ATIS) can be used to supply both total volume and vehicle classification
information. Intelligent transportation system (ITS) technology and its resulting data are
often present at high profile locations as part of safety enhancement systems. These systems
can supply useful, continuous traffic monitoring data. Coordinating these traffic monitoring
activities can lead to significant improvements in the amount of data available to users, while
at the same time reducing the cost of data collection.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

Uses of Classification Data

Vehicle classification data are of considerable use to agencies involved in almost all aspects of
transportation planning and engineering. The need for information on truck volumes and freight
movements is growing with the recognition of role that freight mobility plays in the economy,
and as highway engineers realize the importance of truck volume and operating characteristics
on the geometric and structural design of roadways and bridges.

1. pavement design

2. pavement management

3. scheduling the resurfacing, reconditioning, and reconstruction of highways

4. prediction and planning for commodity flows and freight movements

5. development of weight enforcement strategies

6. vehicle crash record analysis

7. environmental impact analysis

8. analysis of alternative highway regulatory and investment policies.

8.1.4 Vehicle Occupancy

Vehicle occupancy measurement is an important part of transportation congestion management
and it is used for evaluating the efficiency of road system, High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes
or particular congestion reduction programs. The measure occupancy is a function of speed
and length of individual vehicle and thus, it could consider the effects of varying vehicle length
and speed. Hence, it can be considered as a logical substitute of density. In other words,
occupancy, based on practical consideration, is defined as the percentage of time the detection
zone is occupied by the vehicles. Therefore, occupancy measured using detectors depends on the
length of detection zone, each detector type has a differing zone of influence (detector length)
and the zone of influence is effectively added to vehicle length. Hence, the measured occupancy
may be different for different detection zones even for the same site having identical traffic,
depending on the size and nature of the detectors. Development of intelligent systems that
extract traffic density and vehicle classification information from traffic surveillance systems is
crucial in traffic management. It is important to know the traffic density of the roads real time
especially in HOV lanes for effective traffic management. Time estimation of reaching from one

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

location to another and recommendation of different route alternatives using real time traffic
density information are very valuable for metropolitan city residents.

8.1.5 Travel Time

Travel time can be defined as the period of time to transverse a route between any two points
of interest. It is a fundamental measure in transportation. Travel time is also one of the most
readily understood and communicated measure indices used by a wide variety of users, includ-
ing transportation engineers, planners, and consumers. Travel time data is useful for a wide
range of transportation analyses including congestion management, transportation planning,
and traveler information. Congestion management systems commonly use travel time-based
performance measures to evaluate and monitor traffic congestion. In addition, some metropoli-
tan areas provide real-time travel time prediction as part of their advanced traveler information
systems (ATIS). Travel time data can be obtained through a number of methods. Some of the
methods involve direct measures of travel times along with test vehicles, license plate match-
ing technique, and ITS probe vehicles. Additionally, various sensors (e.g. inductance loop
detectors, acoustic sensors) in ITS deployment collect a large amount of traffic data every day,
especially in metropolitan areas. Such data can be used for travel time estimation for extensive
applications when direct measurements of travel times are not available.

8.1.6 Delay
The delay defines as “The additional travel time experienced by a driver, passenger, or pedes-
trian”. Delay is thus the difference between an “ideal” travel time and “actual” travel time.
Since the definition of delay depends on a hypothetical “ideal travel time”, delay is not always
directly measurable in the field. If the ideal travel time is defined as off-peak travel time, then
the measured delay is difference between the actual measured travel time during peak period,
and the actual measured travel time during off-peak period. If the ideal travel time is defined
as travel at the posted speed limit, then the delay cannot be directly measured in the field.
It is estimated by subtracting the hypothetical travel time at the posted speed limit from the
measured mean travel time in the field.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

8.2 Detector technology

8.2.1 General
In traffic detector information is derived from technologies divided into two main groups, in-
formation collected via in-situ detectors, deployed at location of interests, or information from
mobile technologies that are located within vehicles themselves. Over the last two decades,
there has been an increase in the provision of services that are specific to vehicle types, as well
as fleet or asset management and tracking, based on in-vehicle technologies. In-vehicle tech-
nologies have really come into realization through the advantage of satellite-based technologies,
and are perceived as playing an increasing role in the future.Such technologies not only improve
our ability to manage networks efficiently, but will also have a direct impact of the types of
policy instruments available to authorities, the operation of so-called ITS.

8.2.2 In-Situ Technologies

In-situ traffic detector technologies are further divided into two categories: Intrusive technolo-
gies that are physically mounted at, or below, the road surface, installation of which causes
potential disruption to traffic. Conversely, non-intrusive technologies are mounted at, or above
the road surface, and their installation causes little or no disruption to traffic. Detectors of
both types temporary or permanent nature, though sub-surface intrusive installations are, by
necessity, usually permanent. All in-situ detectors will provide some measure of the volume of
vehicle flow. Particular detector technologies will vary as to their reliability of the flow esti-
mate, and their ability to provide accurate additional information on vehicle category or speed.
A single sensor gives only flow or occupancy information. Two adjacent sensors are required
for speed or classification assessment. The time-lag and separation distance between the onset
of consecutive events at the sensors have been used to estimate vehicle speed. Classification
information is derived either from vehicle length or through examination of the form of the
profile generated as output from the sensor.

Intrusive Technologies

Typical examples of intrusive technologies, their sensor types and installation locations are
shown in Fig. 8:1. The first types of units (Fig. 8:1, Type 1) are passive magnetic or magneto-
meter sensors that are either permanently mounted within holes in the road, or affixed to the
road surface in some fashion. The unit communicates to a nearby base station processing unit
using either wires buried in the road, or wireless communications. The sensor has a circular or

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

2
3

1
1

Type:1. Embedded magnetometers

2. Pneumatic tube detectors
3. Inductive detector loops

Figure 8:1: Typical intrusive detector configurations, Source: IMAGINE- Collection Methods
for Additional Data

elliptically offset zone of detection (i.e., the blue area).

The second types of units (Fig. 8:1, Type 2) use pneumatic tubes that are stretched across
the carriageway and affixed at the kerb side at both ends. Such systems are only be deployed
on a temporary basis, due to the fragile nature of tubes, which are easily damaged or torn up
by heavy or fast moving vehicles.

The third type (Fig. 8:1, Type 3) are inductive detector loops (IDL), consisting of coated
wire coils buried in grooves cut in the road surface, sealed over with bituminous filler. A ca-
ble buried with the loop sends data to a roadside processing unit. The zone of detection for
inductive loop sensors depends on the cut shape of the loop slots. The zones depending on
the overall sensitivity of system not correspond precisely to the slot dimensions. IDLs are a
cheap and mature technology. They are installed on both major roads and within urban areas,
forming the backbone detector network for most traffic control systems.

The fourth type of intrusive system is Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) shown in Fig. 8:2, detectors
that consist of a piezoelectric sensor (e.g. ‘bending-plate’ or fiber-optic) system laid in a chan-
nel across the road. These systems are relatively rare and are used in specific locations for
enforcement or access control. They are usually coupled with other systems, either intrusive or
non-intrusive, to provide additional cross-checks on collected data.

1. Pneumatic Tube Detector

Pneumatic road tube sensors send a burst of air pressure along a rubber tube when a

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

Signal sent
to processor

Figure 8:2: Weigh-In-Motion Detector system, Source

vehicles tire passes over the tube. The pulse of air pressure closes an air switch, producing
an electrical signal that is transmitted to a counter or analysis software. The pneumatic
road tube sensor is portable, using lead-acid, gel, or other rechargeable batteries as a
power source. The road tube is installed perpendicular to the traffic flow direction and
is commonly used for short-term traffic counting, vehicle classification by axle count and
spacing. Some data to calculate vehicle gaps, intersection stop delay, stop sign delay, and
saturation flow rate, spot speed as a function of vehicle class, and travel time when the
counter is utilized in conjunction with a vehicle transmission sensor.

Advantages

(a) Cheap and self-contained, the easiest to deploy of all intrusive systems, recognized
technology with acceptable accuracy for strategic traffic modeling purposes, hence
very widely used.
(b) Axle-based classification appears attractive, given sub-vehicle categories are partially
axle based.

Disadvantages

(a) Some units are not counted or classify vehicles.

(b) Tube installations are not durable, the life of tubes are less than one month only.
(c) The tube detectors are not suitable for high flow and high speed roads.
(d) Units should not be positioned where there is the possibility of vehicles parking on
the tube.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

(e) It cant detect the two wheelers.

2. Inductive Detector Loop (IDL)

Oscillating electrical signal is applied to the loop. The metal content of a moving vehicle
chassis changes the electrical properties of circuit. Changes are detected at a roadside
unit, triggering a vehicle event. A single loop system collects flow and occupancy. The
speed can be calculated by the assumptions that are made for the mean length of vehicles.
Two-loop systems collect flow, occupancy, vehicle length, and speed.

Advantages

(a) It is a very cheap technology. Almost every dynamic traffic control system in this
world uses IDL data.

Disadvantages

(a) Loops are damaged by utility and street maintenance activities or penetration of
water.
(b) IDLs with low sensitivity fail to detect vehicles with speed below a certain threshold,
and miscount vehicles with complex or unusual chassis configurations, or vehicles
with relatively low metal content (e.g. motorcycles).
(c) IDL data supplied to traffic control systems have a very low sample rate.
(d) Not suitable for mounting on metallic bridge decks.
(e) Some radio interference occurs between loops in close proximity with each other.

3. Magneto-meters/Passive magnetic systems Magneto-meters monitor for fluctua-

tions in the relative strength of the Earths magnetic field, which is changed by the pres-
ence of a moving metal object i.e., a vehicle. A single passive magnetic system collects
flow and occupancy. Two magneto-meter systems collect flow, occupancy, vehicle length,
and speed.

Two types of magnetic field sensors are used for traffic flow parameter measurement.
The first type, the two-axis flux gate magneto-meter, detects changes in vertical and hor-
izontal components of the Earth s magnetic field produced by a ferrous metal vehicle.
The two-axis flux gate magneto-meter contains a primary winding and two secondary
sense winding on a coil surrounding high permeability soft magnetic material core. The
second type of magnetic field sensor is the magnetic detector, more properly referred to

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

Earth’s magnetic field Magnetic dipole Resultant magnetic

in the absence of produced by anomaly in Earth’s
metal vehicle ferrous materials magnetic field
(a) Magnetic anomaly induced in the Earth’s magnetic field by a magnetic dipole

N N N N N N
W E W E W E W E W E W E
COMPASS S S S S S S

VARIATION SENSOR SIGNAL

VARIATION
VEHICLE MAGNETIC INFLUENCE
TO THE EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD
(b) Perturbation of Earth’s magnetic field by a ferrous metal vehicle

Figure 8:3: Weigh-In-Motion Detector system (Source: FHWA vehicle detection manual)

as an induction or search coil magneto-meter shown in Fig. 8:3. It detects the vehicle
signature by measuring the change in the magnetic lines of flux caused by the change in
field values produced by a moving ferrous metal vehicle. These devices contain a single
coil winding around a permeable magnetic material rod core. However, most magnetic
detectors cannot detect stopped vehicles, since they require a vehicle to be moving or
otherwise changing its signature characteristics with respect to time.

Advantages

(a) More usually mounted in a small hole in road surface and hardwired to the processing
unit.
Suitable for deployment on bridges.

Disadvantages

(a) Possibly damaged by utility maintenance activities, as with IDLs.

4. Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) systems

(a) Bending Plate

Bending plate WIM systems utilize plates with strain gauges bonded to the un-
derside. The system records the strain measured by strain gauges and calculates

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

the dynamic load. Static load is estimated using the measured dynamic load and
calibration parameters. Calibration parameters account for factors, such as vehicle
speed and pavement or suspension dynamics that influence estimates of the static
weight. The accuracy of bending plate WIM systems can be expressed as a function
of the vehicle speed traversed over the plates, assuming the system is installed in a
sound road structure and subject to normal traffic conditions.

Advantages
Bending plate WIM systems is used for traffic data collection as well as for weight
enforcement purposes. The accuracy of these systems is higher than piezoelectric
systems and their cost is lower than load cell systems. Bending plate WIM systems
do not require complete replacement of the sensor.

Disadvantages
Bending plate WIM systems are not as accurate as load cell systems and are con-
siderably more expensive than piezoelectric systems.

(b) Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric WIM systems contain one or more piezoelectric sensors that detect a
change in voltage caused by pressure exerted on the sensor by an axle and thereby
measure the axle s weight. As a vehicle passes over the piezoelectric sensor, the
system records the sensor output voltage and calculates the dynamic load. With
bending plate systems, the dynamic load provides an estimate of static load when
the WIM system is properly calibrated.

The typical piezoelectric WIM system consists of at least one piezoelectric sensor
and two ILDs. The piezoelectric sensor is placed in the travel lane perpendicular to
the travel direction. The inductive loops are placed upstream and downstream of
the piezoelectric sensor. The upstream loop detects vehicles and alerts the system
to an approaching vehicle. The downstream loop provides data to determine vehicle
speed and axle spacing based on the time it takes the vehicle to traverse the dis-
tance between the loops. Fig. 8:4 shows a full-lane width piezoelectric WIM system
installation. In this example, two piezoelectric sensors are utilized on either side of
the downstream loop.

Advantages

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

Cabinet

Traffic flow
directions
er
uld
s ho
ad Inductive WIM strip,
Ro loops (2) full−length, PVC conduit
2 places below ground

Figure 8:4: WIM installation with full-length piezoelectric sensors Source: FHWA vehicle de-
tection manual

Typical piezoelectric WIM systems are among the least expensive systems in use
today in terms of initial capital costs and life cycle maintenance costs. Piezoelectric
WIM systems can be used at higher speed ranges (16 to 112 kmph) than other WIM
systems. Piezoelectric WIM systems can be used to monitor up to four lanes.

Disadvantages
Typical piezoelectric systems are less accurate than load cell and bending plate WIM
systems. Piezoelectric sensors for WIM systems must be replaced at least once every
3 years.

Non-Intrusive Technologies

Non-intrusive technologies include video data collection, passive or active infrared detectors,
microwave radar detectors, ultrasonic detectors, passive acoustic detectors, laser detectors and
aerial photography. All these technologies represent emergent fields that are expanding rapidly
with continuing advances in signal processing. At present time such technologies are used to
provide supplemental information for selected locations or for specific applications (e.g., queue
detection at traffic signals). Most non-intrusive systems are operationally and somewhat visu-
ally similar, consisting of small electronics unit mounted in a weatherproof housing placed in
various locations, as shown in Fig. 8:5.

The first type of non-invasive detectors are roadside mast-mounted. The detector possesses
a field-of-regard covering an oblique area upstream or downstream of the unit. There are also
multiple zones of detection defined within the overall field of regard, or the overall zone of
detection same as the field of regard, depending on the specific detector type and technology.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

2 2

3
1

Type 1. Roadside, Mast−mounted type

2. Gantry or bridge underside
3. Cross−fire

Figure 8:5: Typical non-intrusive technology configurations

Obscuration problems occur when high-sided vehicles screens lower vehicles from the detector
or the field-of-view being too large, leading to detection of vehicles outside the desired lane.
The second type of non-invasive detectors are mounted on gantries or bridge undersides, with
field of regard directly below, or at a slight oblique to the unit. Finally, some units, such as
open-path pollutant monitors are mounted road side at ground level, firing a beam across the
road. Such units are subject to side-by-side masking and hence most suitable for only single
lane, unidirectional flows.

1. Video image detection (VID) The traffic parameters are collected by frame-by-frame
analysis of video images captured by roadside cameras. The following parameters are
collected: Depending on the processing methodology almost all traffic parameters are
captured from video analysis. Simple video systems often collect flow volume and occu-
pancy. More complex systems allow the extraction of further parameters.

Advantages
Possibility to capture all desired traffic information, including some parameters that are
not readily obtainable using other types of detectors Possibility of a permanent visual
record of the traffic flow that reviewed and analyzed by a human operator.

Disadvantages
VID systems are susceptible to obscure issues, as with other non-intrusive detectors.
Performance of VID systems might be degraded in bad weather or low light conditions.

2. Infrared Sensors The sensors are mounted overhead to view approaching or departing
traffic or traffic from a side-looking configuration. Infrared sensors are used for signal

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement
Passive sensor

Receiving aperture
ET (1 − E)Tsky
(Emissive term) (Reflective term)
Tsky

θ
Road surface with emissivity and Vehicle with emissivity and
surface temperature surface temperature
ER and TR EV and TV

Figure 8:6: Emission and reflection of energy by vehicle and road surface. (Source: FHWA
vehicle detection manual)

control; volume, speed, and class measurement, as well as detecting pedestrians in cross-
walks. With infrared sensors, the word detector takes on another meaning, namely the
light-sensitive element that converts the reflected or emitted energy into electrical signals.
Real-time signal processing is used to analyze the received signals for the presence of a
vehicle.

(a) Passive Infrared (PIR)

Detection of vehicle based on emission or reflection of infrared (electromagnetic ra-
diation of frequency 1011 − 1014 Hz) radiation from vehicle surface, as compared to
ambient levels emitted or reflected from the road surface shown in Fig. 8:6. The PIR
system collected following parameters: Flow volume, Vehicle presence, and detection
zone occupancy. Speed with unit with multiple detection zones.

Advantages
i. Relatively long wavelength of light used in PIR systems makes them less sus-
ceptible to weather effects.
Disadvantages
i. Accuracy of speed information is poor with low resolution sensors. Vehicle length
determination is highly problematic for the same reason.
(b) Active Infrared (AIR)/Laser Low power LED or laser diode fires a pulsed or con-
tinuous beam down to road surface as shown in Fig. 8:7. Time for reflection to
return is measured. Presence of a vehicle lowers the time of reflection. High scan-
ning rates provides a detailed profile for classification determination. Use of Doppler
frequency shift from moving object allows for very accurate speed determination.
The AIR system collected following parameters flow volume, speed, classification,

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

Scanning beams

Figure 8:7: Laser radar beam geometry. (Source: FHWA vehicle detection manual)

vehicle presence, traffic density.

Advantages
i. Very accurate flow, speed and classifications possible.
ii. Laser systems work in day and night conditions.
Disadvantages
i. Active near-IR sensors adversely affected by weather conditions.
ii. Laser systems impeded by haze or smoke.
iii. Some problems with tracking small vehicles reported.
iv. Relatively high costs compared to other units. Precise, but limited zone of
detection require additional units over other systems.

3. Microwave - Doppler and Radar Low energy microwave radiation (2.5 to 24 GHz)
is transmitted into the detection zone. Objects within the zone reflect a portion of the
radiation back to a receiver. Doppler units use the frequency shift of the return to cal-
culate speed as shown in Fig. 8:8. It cant detect the stationary objects. The microwave
system collected following parameters.

Doppler - Flow volume and speed;

Frequency-Modulated, Continuous Wave (FMCW) - Flow volume, speed and presence;
Microwave - Flow volume, speed, presence, possibly classification;

Advantages

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement
Microwave
Radar
Antenna

Power and Path of transmitted and received

data cables Sign bridge,
overpass, pole,
or mast arm mounting
Reflected signal from vehicle
can be used to determine presence
(occupancy), passage (count), and
Controller and speed, depending on the waveform
Cabinet that is transmitted by the radar sensor Vehicle

Figure 8:8: Microwave radar operation. Source

(a) Very accurate. Easy to install, long ranged.

(b) Multiple detection zones possible.
(c) Day or night operation.

Disadvantages

(a) Possible sensitivity to spurious returns from adjacent objects

(b) Restrictions on use due to electromagnetic interference with other electronics.

4. Pulsed and Active Ultrasonic Ultrasonic sensors transmit pressure waves of sound
energy at a frequency between 25 and 50 KHz. Pulse waveforms measure distances to
the road surface and vehicle surface by detecting the portion of the transmitted energy
that is reflected towards the sensor from an area defined by the transmitters beam width.
When a distance other than that to the background road surface is measured, the sen-
sor interprets that measurement as the presence of a vehicle as shown in Fig. 8:9. The
received ultrasonic energy is converted into electrical energy that is analyzed by signal
processing electronics that is either collocated with the transducer or placed in a roadside
controller. Vehicles flow and vehicular speed can be calculated by recording the time at
which the vehicle crosses each beam.

Advantages

(a) Highly accurate.

Disadvantages

(a) Environmental effects affecting sound propagation degrade performance.

(b) Pulsed units with low sampling rate miscount or misclassify fast moving vehicles.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement
HORIZONTAL
MOUNT
OVERHEAD
MOUNT

00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11

Figure 8:9: Ultrasonic range-measuring sensors, source

5. Passive Acoustic Array Sensors

An array of microphones is used to detect the sound of an approaching vehicle above an
ambient threshold level. Time lags and signal variations between microphone positions
are used to determine vehicle location relative to the array as shown in Fig. 8:10. Further
processing of signal yield to speed information and possibly engine type classification. It
collected flow, speed, occupancy, possibly classification.

Advantages

(a) Completely passive system

(b) Direct speed measurement.

Disadvantages

(a) Environmental effects affecting sound propagation degrade performance

(b) Low accuracy in busy locations due to interference from adjacent sources.

8.2.3 In-Vehicle Technologies or Floating Car Data (FCD)

In addition to using in-situ technologies, many network management applications make use
of in-vehicle devices, generically termed Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) systems. AVL de-
vices either provide positional information whenever a suitably equipped vehicle passes a certain
point in the network, or continuous information as the vehicle travels through a network. The
former system typically relies on appropriate vehicles being equipped with transponders which
transmit and receive information from roadside units. The latter system uses vehicles equipped
with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

Figure 8:10: Acoustic array sensors, source

The principle of FCD is to collect real-time traffic data by locating the vehicle via mobile
phones or GPS over the entire road network as shown in Fig. 8:11. It represents that all vehi-
cles are equipped with mobile phone or GPS which will act as a sensor for the road network.
Data such as car location, speed and direction of travel are sent anonymously to a central pro-
cessing centre. After collecting and extracting, useful information such as status of traffic and
alternative routes it can be redistributed to the drivers on the road. FCD is an alternative or
rather complement source of high quality data to existing technologies. They will help improve
safety, efficiency and reliability of the transportation system. They are becoming crucial in the
development of ITS.

GPS-based FCD

GPS is becoming more and more useful and inexpensive; few cars had been equipped with GPS
system and were made to pass a certain point in the network. The vehicle location precision
was found to be relatively high, typically less than 30m. Generally, traffic data obtained from
private vehicles or trucks are more suitable for motorways and rural areas.
Currently, GPS probe data are widely used as a source of real-time information by many
service providers but it suffers from a limited number of vehicles equipped and high equipment
costs compared to floating cellular data.

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) or Transponder Systems

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method, relying on storing

and retrieving data from remote areas using devices called RFID tags or transponders. The
technology requires some extent of cooperation of an RFID reader and an RFID tag. An RFID

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

GPS
Satellites

Differential
Correction Station

Transmisson
Tower

Probe Vehicle Control Center/Dispatch

Figure 8:11: Communication from GPS, source

tag is an object that can be applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the
purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several
meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader.

A basic RFID system consists of three components

1. An antenna or coil

2. A transceiver (with decoder)

3. A transponder (RF tag)

An RFID tag is comprised of a microchip to collect information and an antenna that transmits
this data wireless to a reader. At its most basic, the chip will contain a serialized identifier,
or license plate number, that uniquely identifies that item. Typically, processed data would
be used to provide revised scheduling and arrival time information to the general public, via
variable information signs. Transponder systems are also used with Selective Vehicle Detection
(SVD) systems which are designed to allow priority at traffic signals or cordon points for public
transport or emergency service vehicles.

Typical Applications for RFID

1. Automatic Vehicle identification

2. Inventory Management

3. Work-in-Process

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

4. Container or Yard Management

5. Parking Management

Advantages

1. RFID tags can be read through materials without line of sight.

2. RFID tags can be read automatically when a tagged product comes past or near a reader.

Disadvantages

1. Reader collision occurs when the signals from two or more readers overlap.

2. The tag is unable to respond to simultaneous queries.

3. Tag collision occurs when many tags are present in a small are

8.3 Special applications

8.3.1 General
Travel time, or the time required to traverse a route between any two points of interest, is
a fundamental measure in transportation. Travel time is a simple concept understood and
communicated by a wide variety of applications for transportation engineers and planners.
Several data collection techniques can be used to collect travel times. These techniques are
designed to collect travel times and average speeds on designated roadway segments or links.

8.3.2 Travel Time Data collection Technique

Following are the different techniques available for the travel time data collection.

1. Test Vehicle Techniques

2. License Plate Matching Techniques

3. ITS Probe Vehicle Techniques

4. Emerging and Non-Traditional Techniques

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

Test Vehicle Techniques

Travel time data using active test vehicles in combination with varying levels of instrumenta-
tion: manual (clipboard and stopwatch), an electronic distance measuring instrument (DMI), or
a global positioning system (GPS) receiver. It involves the use of data collection vehicle within
which an observer records cumulative travel time at predefined checkpoints along a travel route.
Then this information converted to travel time, speed, and delay for each segment along the
survey route. There are several different methods for performing this type of data collection,
depending upon the instrumentation used in the vehicle. These vehicles are instrumented and
then sent into the field for travel time data collection, they are sometimes referred to as “active”
test vehicles.

Advantages
1. Advanced test vehicle techniques (e.g., DMI or GPS use) result in detailed data.

2. Low initial cost.

Disadvantages
1. Sources of possible error from either human or electric sources that require adequate
quality control,

2. Data storage difficulties.

License Plate Matching Techniques

Travel times by matching vehicle license plates between consecutive checkpoints with varying
levels of instrumentation: tape recorders, video cameras, portable computers, or automatic
license plate character recognition.

Advantages
1. Travel times from a large sample of motorists, very simple technique.

2. Provides a continuum of travel times during the data collection period.

Disadvantages
1. Travel time data limited to locations where observers or video cameras can be positioned;

2. Limited geographic coverage on a single day

3. Accuracy of license plate reading is an issue for manual and portable computer

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 8.21 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

ITS Probe Vehicle Techniques

Travel times using ITS components and passive probe vehicles in the traffic stream equipped
with signpost-based transponders, automatic vehicle identification (AVI) transponders, ground-
based radio navigation, cellular phones, or GPS receivers.

Some vehicles are equipped with dynamic route guidance (DRG) device which act as roving
traffic detectors, a non-infrastructure based traffic monitoring system. Such vehicles, which are
participating in the traffic flow and capable of determining experienced traffic conditions and
transmitting these to a traffic center, are called probe vehicles. To determine its position and
to register experienced traffic conditions, a probe vehicle is equipped with on-board electronics,
such as a location and a communication device. By means of the location device, the probe
vehicle keeps track of its own geographic position.

Through the communication device, the probe vehicle transmits its traffic experiences via a
mobile communication link to a traffic center. For instance, each probe can transmit traffic
messages once every time interval containing its location and its speed at the instant of trans-
mission. In this traffic center the traffic data received from probe vehicles is gathered, and
combined with data from the other monitoring sources, and processed into relevant traffic in-
formation. It is very useful for Advanced Traveler Information system (ATIS).

Advantages

1. Low cost per unit of data

2. Continuous data collection

3. Automated data collection

4. Data are in electronic format

5. No disruption of traffic

Disadvantages

1. High implementation cost

2. Fixed infrastructure constraints - Coverage area, including locations of antenna

3. Requires skilled software

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 8.22 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement
Location Antenna
Signalpost
I.D

Central Computer
Signalpost
Transmitter

Vehicle Location
Unit Radio Signal I.D, Bus I.D,
Antenna Odometer Reading
Signpost−Bus Communication Link Time/Date Stamp

Radio
Transmitter

Bus−Computer Center Communication Link

Figure 8:12: Signpost-Based AVL Communication Processes, Source: Travel Time Detection
Hand Book
Central Computer
Toll Plaza, Sign Bridge, Overpass, or Gantry
Tag I.D. #,
Time Stamp Antenna
Date Stamp, Transceiver
Antenna I.D. Reader
Unit AVI tag
Leased Phone Lines #
I.D.
Tag
Reader
Unit
Antenna Spacing
Varies, Typically
Tag I.D. # 2−5 km
Coaxial Cable,
Radio Wave, or
Microwave

Figure 8:13: AVI Vehicle-to-Roadside Communication Process, Source: Travel Time Detection
Hand Book

4. Not recommended for small scale data collection efforts

ITS probe vehicle data collection systems

1. Signpost-Based Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) - This technique has mostly

been used by transit agencies. Probe vehicles communicate with transmitters mounted
on existing signpost structures shown in Fig. 8:12.

2. Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI) - Probe vehicles are equipped with electronic
tags. These tags communicate with roadside transceivers to identify unique vehicles shown
in Fig. 8:13 and collect travel times between transceivers.

3. Ground-Based Radio Navigation - It is used for transit or commercial fleet manage-

ment, this system is similar to the global positioning system (GPS). Data are collected

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 8.23 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement
Central Computer
Vehicle Location Vehicle I.D.
Request Time Stamp

Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
Ground−Based
Radio Tower

Vehicle Location Unit

Figure 8:14: Ground-Based Radio Navigation Communication Process, Source: Travel Time
Detection Hand Book

by communication between probe vehicles and a radio tower infrastructure as shown in

Fig. 8:14.

4. Cellular Geo-location - This experimental technology can collect travel time data by
discretely tracking cellular telephone call transmissions. Cellular telephones are also useful
to collect travel time data. Two techniques have been applied using cellular technology:
cellular telephone reporting and cellular geolocating.

Cellular Telephone Reporting

An operator at the central control facility records each drivers identification, location,
and time, by monitoring the time between successive telephone calls, travel time or travel
speed between reporting locations are determined. It is useful for assessment of current
traffic conditions and for collecting travel time data during delays or accidents. The cellu-
lar telephone reporting method is recommended for short-term studies with low accuracy
requirements.

Cellular Geo-location
The cellular geolocating methodology discreetly tracks cellular telephone calls to collect
travel time data and monitor freeway conditions. This technique utilizes an existing cel-
lular telephone network, vehicle locating devices, and a central control facility to collect
travel time data. All vehicles equipped with cellular telephones are potential probe vehi-
cles. The system automatically detects cellular telephone call initiations and locates the

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 8.24 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

respective probe vehicle within a few seconds.

Advantages

(a) Driver recruitment not necessary

(b) No in-vehicle equipment to install
(c) Large potential sample

Disadvantages

(a) Low accuracy

(b) Privacy issues
(c) Infrastructure dependent

Numerical Example

1. If the vehicle 10% time occupied by loop M and 32% time occupied by loop N, the distance
between two loops are 4.22 m find the spot speed of the vehicle. Also find the length of
the vehicle if time occupancy for M - loop is 0.26sec and 0.32 for N-loop?

Solution: Length is 4.22 m and occupancy times are 0.32 and 0.1.Therefore,the spot
speed(v)is given by:

ldist
v = ,
t2 − t1
= (4.22)/(0.32 − 0.1) = 19.18 m/sec.

For length calculation, the speed is 19.18 m/sec and occupancy times are 0.26 and 0.32.

Speed(ot2 + ot1 )
Lvehicle = ,
2
19.18(0.26 + 0.32)
= = 5.56 m.
2

2. The average length of vehicle is 4.25 m and the length of loop detector zone is 1.85 m.
The time occupancy in the loop is 32 percentages, find the spot speed of the vehicle?

Solution: The average vehicle length is 4.25 and detector zone length is 1.85 m and

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 8.25 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

t0 is 0.32.The spot speed(s)is given by:

EV L
s = ,
to
4.25 + 1.85
= = 19.06 m/sec.
0.32
3. In freeway 1500 vehicles are observed during 120 sec interval. The lane occupancy is 65
percentage and the average length of vehicle observed as 6.55 m. Find the space mean
speed on the freeway section?

Solution: The number of vehicle N is 1500 vehicles; observation period is T= 120 sec.
The lane occupancy O is 0.65 and average length is 6.55, so g is (40.9/6.55).The space
mean speed(s) is given by:
N
s = ,
T ×O×g
1500 × 6.55
=
120 × 0.65 × (40.9)
= 3.08 m/sec.

8.4 Summary
ITS include sensor, communication, and traffic control technologies. Intelligence requires infor-
mation, and information requires data, which is generated by surveillance. Vehicle detection
and surveillance technologies are an integral part of ITS, since they gather all or part of the
data that is used in ITS. A detailed introduction and importance of ITS and different types
of data involved have been discussed in this chapter. Technology regarding the data collection
techniques on conventional and non conventional methods has been presented in the following
chapter.
A detailed different technology system, their principles, advantages, disadvantages and type of
data collected by each system have been discussed in this chapter. Application part of travel
time by probe vehicle and vehicle signature by some technologies has been presented.
Detailed travel time estimation by different techniques has been discussed in this chapter. Also
travel time estimation by vehicle technology and emerging techniques such as vehicle signature
have also been discussed in this chapter.

Each detector technology and particular device has its own limitations and individual capa-
bility. The successful application of detector technologies largely depends on proper device

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Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

selection. Many factors impact detector selection, such as data type, data accuracy, ease of
installation, cost and reliability. Vehicle technologies are well advanced compared to the in-situ
technology detectors for travel time. A non- Intrusive technology is very effective compared
to the Intrusive technologies. Pneumatic road tube sensors are more suitable for small sample
and short duration period but it cant detect two wheelers. ILDs are flexible to satisfy different
variety of applications, but installation requires pavement disturb. Magnetic sensors provide
traffic measurements more accurate and more informative than loop detector measurements,
but it cant detect the stopped vehicle.

8.5 References
1. Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A and M University System. Travel Time Data
Collection Handbook,Report FHWA-PL-98-035, 1998.

2. Traffic Detector Handbook. Third Edition Volume II, Publication No.FHWA-HRT-06-139

October 2006., 2006.

3. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Federal Highway Administration, U.S.

Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 2019.

4. B Coifman. Length based vehicle classification on freeways from single loop Detectors. al
University Transportation Center Final Report, 2009.

5. G C de Silva. Automation of Traffic Flow Measurement Using Video Images. Thesis

Report, University of Moratuwa, 2001.

6. S Ding. Freeway Travel Time Estimation using Limited Loop Data. Master Thesis, The
University of Akron, 2008.

7. M L Y Elena and L A Klein. Summary of vehicle detection and surveillance technologies

used in intelligent transportation systems. FHWA Report, New Mexico State University
and VDC Project Consultant, 2000.

8. A Faghri and K Hamad. Applications of GPS in Traffic Management. 2002.

9. L Guillaume. Road Traffic Data: Collection Methods and Applications. JRC Technical
note 47967, 2008.

10. U Leeds. Collection Methods for Additional Data, IMAGINE project no. 503549. Insti-
tute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, United Kingdom, 2006.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 8.27 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 8. Automated Traffic Measurement

11. P T Martin, Y Feng, and X Wang. Detector Technology Evaluation. Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Utah Traffic Lab, 2003.

12. S T Mohammad. Vehicle re-identification Based on Inductance Signature Matching.

Master thesis, University of Toronto, 2011.

13. N Nihan, X Zhang, and Y Wang. Improved System for Collecting Real-Time Truck Data
from Dual Loop Detectors. Transportation Northwest, 2005.

14. S G Ritchie S Park and O Cheol. Field Investigation of Advanced Vehicle Re-identification
Techniques and Detector. California PATH Research Report, 2002.

15. A Parsekar. Blind Deconvolution of Vehicle Inductive Signatures for Travel Time Estima-
tion. Master thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Minnesota Duluth,
Duluth, Minnesota -55812, 2004.

16. C Ulberg. Vehicle occupancy forecasting, Technical Report. Washington State De-
partment of Transportation Technical, Graduate School of Public Affairs University of
Washington Seattle, Washington 98105, 1994.

17. J Xia and M Chen. Freeway Travel Time Forecasting Under Incident. Final Report,
Southeastern Transportation Center, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, KY 40506, 2007.

18. B Young and M Saito. Automated Delay Estimation at Signalized Intersections. Research
Division, 2011.

19. Y Zhirui. Speed estimation using single loop detector outputs. Some studies, Ph.D thesis,
Department of CIVIL Engineering, Texas A and M University, 2007.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 8.28 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

Chapter 9

Intrusive Technologies

9.1 Introduction
Typical examples of intrusive technologies, their sensor types and installation locations are
shown in Fig. 9:1. The first types of units (Fig. 9:1, Type 1) are passive magnetic or magneto-
meter sensors that are either permanently mounted within holes in the road, or affixed to the
road surface in some fashion. The unit communicates to a nearby base station processing unit
using either wires buried in the road, or wireless communications. The sensor has a circular or
elliptically offset zone of detection (i.e., the blue area).

The second types of units (Fig. 9:1, Type 2) use pneumatic tubes that are stretched across
the carriageway and affixed at the kerb side at both ends. Such systems are only be deployed
on a temporary basis, due to the fragile nature of tubes, which are easily damaged or torn up
by heavy or fast moving vehicles.

The third type (Fig. 9:1, Type 3) are inductive detector loops (IDL), consisting of coated
wire coils buried in grooves cut in the road surface, sealed over with bituminous filler. A ca-
ble buried with the loop sends data to a roadside processing unit. The zone of detection for
inductive loop sensors depends on the cut shape of the loop slots. The zones depending on
the overall sensitivity of system not correspond precisely to the slot dimensions. IDLs are a
cheap and mature technology. They are installed on both major roads and within urban areas,
forming the backbone detector network for most traffic control systems.

The fourth type of intrusive system is Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) shown in Fig. 9:2, detectors
that consist of a piezoelectric sensor (e.g. ‘bending-plate’ or fiber-optic) system laid in a chan-
nel across the road. These systems are relatively rare and are used in specific locations for
enforcement or access control. They are usually coupled with other systems, either intrusive or

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

2
3

1
1

Type:1. Embedded magnetometers

2. Pneumatic tube detectors
3. Inductive detector loops

Figure 9:1: Typical intrusive detector configurations, Source: IMAGINE- Collection Methods
for Additional Data

Signal sent
to processor

Figure 9:2: Weigh-In-Motion Detector system, Source

non-intrusive, to provide additional cross-checks on collected data.

9.2 Pneumatic Tube Detector

Pneumatic road tube sensors send a burst of air pressure along a rubber tube when a vehicles
tire passes over the tube. The pulse of air pressure closes an air switch, producing an electrical
signal that is transmitted to a counter or analysis software. The pneumatic road tube sensor
is portable, using lead-acid, gel, or other rechargeable batteries as a power source. The road
tube is installed perpendicular to the traffic flow direction and is commonly used for short-term
traffic counting, vehicle classification by axle count and spacing. Some data to calculate vehicle

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

gaps, intersection stop delay, stop sign delay, and saturation flow rate, spot speed as a func-
tion of vehicle class, and travel time when the counter is utilized in conjunction with a vehicle
transmission sensor.

Advantages

1. Cheap and self-contained, the easiest to deploy of all intrusive systems, recognized tech-
nology with acceptable accuracy for strategic traffic modeling purposes, hence very widely
used.

2. Axle-based classification appears attractive, given sub-vehicle categories are partially axle
based.

Disadvantages

1. Some units are not counted or classify vehicles.

2. Tube installations are not durable, the life of tubes are less than one month only.

3. The tube detectors are not suitable for high flow and high speed roads.

4. Units should not be positioned where there is the possibility of vehicles parking on the
tube.

5. It cant detect the two wheelers.

9.3 Inductive Detector Loop (IDL)

Oscillating electrical signal is applied to the loop. The metal content of a moving vehicle chassis
changes the electrical properties of circuit. Changes are detected at a roadside unit, triggering
a vehicle event. A single loop system collects flow and occupancy. The speed can be calculated
by the assumptions that are made for the mean length of vehicles. Two-loop systems collect
flow, occupancy, vehicle length, and speed.

Advantages

1. It is a very cheap technology. Almost every dynamic traffic control system in this world
uses IDL data.

Disadvantages

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies
Electronics unit
Controller cabinet
12 ft
3 ft 6 ft 3 ft
Lead−in conduit

Roadway centerline
Pullbox

Curb line
Conduit−to−curb run

Loop sawcut plan

Shielded lead−in cable
Roadway section
3 turns

Splice in pullbox

Twisted wire to suppress

Loop wire plan electrical interference
1 ft = 0.305 m

Figure 9:3: Schematic diagram of single loop detectors, source

1. Loops are damaged by utility and street maintenance activities or penetration of water.

2. IDLs with low sensitivity fail to detect vehicles with speed below a certain threshold,
and miscount vehicles with complex or unusual chassis configurations, or vehicles with
relatively low metal content (e.g. motorcycles).

3. IDL data supplied to traffic control systems have a very low sample rate.

4. Not suitable for mounting on metallic bridge decks.

5. Some radio interference occurs between loops in close proximity with each other.

9.3.1 Single Loop Detectors

A typical single loop system is shown in Fig. 9:3. The system consists of three components: a
detector oscillator, a lead-in cable and a loop embedded in the pavement. The size and shape
of loops largely depend on the specific application. The most common loop size is 1.83 m by
1.83 m and shape is hexagonal as single turn or two or three turns as shown in Fig. 9:3. When
a vehicle stops or passes over the loop, the inductance of the loop is decreased.The decreased
inductance then increases the oscillation frequency and causes the electronics unit to send a
pulse to controller, indicating the presence or passage of a vehicle. Single loop detectors output
predicts occupancy and traffic count data within specific time intervals like 20 sec, 30 sec.

9.3.2 Dual-loop Detectors

Dual-loop detectors are also called speed traps, T loops, or double loop detectors. In a dual-loop
system, two consecutive single inductance loops, called “M loop” and “S loop”, are embedded

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

lloop ldist

T = t2 T = t1

Figure 9:4: Schematic diagram of dual loop detectors

a few distance apart as shown in Fig. 9:4. With such a design, when one of them detects a
vehicle, timer is automatically started in the dual-loop system and runs until the same vehicle
is detected by other loop.Thus, in addition to outputs of vehicle count and occupancy data,
individual vehicle speeds can be trapped through the dividend of the distance between those
two single loops ldist by the elapsed time. Speed trap is defined as the measurement of the
time that a vehicle requires to travel between two detection points. Spot speed is measured by
following Eqn. 9.1.
ldist
Speed = (9.1)
t2 t1
where,
ldist = Distance between two loops in meters
t1 = Vehicle entry time at first loop in sec
t2 = Vehicle entry time at second loop in sec
Dual-loop detectors can also be used to measure vehicle lengths with extra data extracted from
controllers records. The length of vehicle is measured by following Eqn. 9.2:

Speed|ot2 + 0t1 |
Lvehicle = (9.2)
2
where,
Lvehicle = Length of vehicle in meters.
oti = on-time for loop detector i; Speed in m/sec

Example-1

If the vehicle entering the freeway in loop M at time 8:32:22:00 am and leaving loop N at
time 8:32:22:15 am, the distance between two loops will be 3.66 m. Find the spot speed of the
vehicle. Also find the length of the vehicle if time occupancy for M - loop is 0.25sec and 0.29
for N - loop.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

lv ld

Single Loop
Vehicle Detector

Single Loop
Detector
Vehicle

Figure 9:5: Layout of a roadway segment with single loop detectors

Solution:

Step 1 Spot Speed calculated from the equation 1, where given that the distance between
two loops are 3.66m and entry, exit times are 8:32:22:00 and 8:32:22:15 substitute in Eqn. 9.1.
SpotSpeed = (3.66)/(15 − 0)/100 = 24.4 m/sec.

Step 2 The vehicle length can obtained by the spot speed of the vehicle, so substitute the
occupancy times at exit and entry in the Eqn. 9.2.

(52.7/3.6)|0.25 + 0.29|
Lvehicle = = 3.95 m. (9.3)
2

9.3.3 Speed Estimation by Single Loop

Fig. 9:5 shows a two-lane unidirectional roadway segment with single loop detectors installed.Assume
that the detection zone length is ld and is equal to the detector length, the length of the vehicle
is lv , the speed of the vehicle is S, then the actual time (the time period that the vehicle is over
the detector) can be calculated by:
EV L
S= (9.4)
to
where,
S = Spot speed in m/sec
EV L =vehicle length lv + detector length ld
to = Occupancy time
There are many algorithms for estimating speed by single loop. The most common method is
based on the relationship between fundamental traffic variables. It uses a constant or a function
to convert loop occupancy into density. The variables include inductive loop length, average

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

vehicle length, occupancy, and traffic volume.For the given number of vehicle and duration of
the observed data the specimen speed can find by following Eqn. 9.5 is shown below.
N
s= (9.5)
T ×O×g
where,
S = Space mean speed in m/sec
N = Number of vehicles in the observed interval
T = Observation interval in sec
O = occupancy time
g = speed correction factor; (based upon assumed vehicle length, detector configuration, and
traffic conditions) Most of the algorithms followed as (40.9/6.55) for average vehicle length
6.55m.

Example-2
The length of vehicle is 4 m and the length of loop detector zone is 1.83 m. The time occupancy
in the loop is 0.3 sec, find the spot speed of the vehicle?

Solution:
From the given data the average vehicle length is 4 m and the length of loop detector zone is
1.833 m, the time occupancy in loop is 0.3 sec substitute in Eqn. 9.1.
EV L
spotspeed =
to
4 + 1.83
s = = 19.4 m/sec.
0.3
Example-3
In freeway 2500 vehicles are observed during 300 sec interval. The loop occupancy is 75 per-
centages and the average length of vehicle observed as 6.55 m, find the space mean speed on
the freeway section?

Solution
Given data is number of vehicle is 2500, duration is 300 sec, loop occupancy is 75 percent-
age, the average length of vehicle is 6.55 so speed correction factor is 40.99/6.55 substitute in
Eqn. 9.5.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

N
specimenspeed =
T ×O×g
2500 × 6.55
s =
300 × 0.75 × 40.9
= 6.405 Kmph

9.3.4 Vehicle Signature

Loop detectors detect the frequency changes from zero to different level, the inductance changes
are computed by change in frequency. The change in inductance due to the presence of vehicle
is recorded at a small time interval. The waveform obtained by plotting the sampled inductance
changes is referred to as the vehicle inductive waveform or inductance signature.This waveform
depends on number of vehicle parameters such as vehicle length, speed, and metal surface of the
vehicle. Fig. 9:6 shows an inductive waveform of a typical passenger car.Horizontal axis records
data points at 10 milliseconds interval. This is the common shape of inductance waveform
that has one peak in the middle with monotonic decrease in both sides. Vehicle signatures are
functions of vehicle speed and vehicle type, so many features can be derived from the vehicle
signatures directly or indirectly. Volume and occupancy are directly derived from processing
raw vehicle signatures whereas speed is estimated based on the vehicle signature feature vectors.
Vehicle length is obtained based on vehicle speed. By combining vehicle length with existing
vehicle signature features, vehicle classification can be measured. It is easy to observe signature
differences arising from the vehicle speed. Duration or occupancy has an inverse proportional
relationship with speed while slew rate shows a proportional correspondence with speed.

A series of vehicle signature acquired by the Inductive Loop Detectors located at upstream
and downstream of a freeway and different distance measures to find the re identification accu-
racy level. Double-axle trucks produce a double picked vehicle signature when the resolution
of detector is adequate. Thus, it can be easily used for vehicle-type identification purposes.

9.4 Magneto-meters/Passive magnetic systems

Magneto-meters monitor for fluctuations in the relative strength of the Earths magnetic field,
which is changed by the presence of a moving metal object i.e., a vehicle. A single passive mag-
netic system collects flow and occupancy. Two magneto-meter systems collect flow, occupancy,
vehicle length, and speed.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies
Vehicle Signature
50

Inductance Change (nH)

0

−50

−100

−150

−200

−250

−300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (ms)

Figure 9:6: Inductive waveform of a typical passenger car, source

Two types of magnetic field sensors are used for traffic flow parameter measurement. The
first type, the two-axis flux-gate magneto-meter, detects changes in vertical and horizontal
components of the Earth s magnetic field produced by a ferrous metal vehicle. The two-axis
flux-gate magneto-meter contains a primary winding and two secondary sense winding on a
coil surrounding high permeability soft magnetic material core. The second type of magnetic
field sensor is the magnetic detector, more properly referred to as an induction or search coil
magneto-meter shown in Fig. 9:7. It detects the vehicle signature by measuring the change in
the magnetic lines of flux caused by the change in field values produced by a moving ferrous
metal vehicle. These devices contain a single coil winding around a permeable magnetic ma-
terial rod core. However, most magnetic detectors cannot detect stopped vehicles, since they
require a vehicle to be moving or otherwise changing its signature characteristics with respect
to time.

Advantages

1. More usually mounted in a small hole in road surface and hardwired to the processing
unit.
Suitable for deployment on bridges.

Disadvantages

1. Possibly damaged by utility maintenance activities, as with IDLs.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

Earth’s magnetic field Magnetic dipole Resultant magnetic

in the absence of produced by anomaly in Earth’s
metal vehicle ferrous materials magnetic field
(a) Magnetic anomaly induced in the Earth’s magnetic field by a magnetic dipole

N N N N N N
W E W E W E W E W E W E
COMPASS S S S S S S

VARIATION SENSOR SIGNAL

VARIATION
VEHICLE MAGNETIC INFLUENCE
TO THE EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD
(b) Perturbation of Earth’s magnetic field by a ferrous metal vehicle

Figure 9:7: Weigh-In-Motion Detector system (Source: FHWA vehicle detection manual)

9.5 Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) systems

9.5.1 Bending Plate
Bending plate WIM systems utilize plates with strain gauges bonded to the underside. The
system records the strain measured by strain gauges and calculates the dynamic load. Static
load is estimated using the measured dynamic load and calibration parameters. Calibration
parameters account for factors, such as vehicle speed and pavement or suspension dynamics
that influence estimates of the static weight. The accuracy of bending plate WIM systems can
be expressed as a function of the vehicle speed traversed over the plates, assuming the system
is installed in a sound road structure and subject to normal traffic conditions.

Advantages
Bending plate WIM systems is used for traffic data collection as well as for weight enforcement
purposes. The accuracy of these systems is higher than piezoelectric systems and their cost is
lower than load cell systems. Bending plate WIM systems do not require complete replacement
of the sensor.

Disadvantages
Bending plate WIM systems are not as accurate as load cell systems and are considerably more
expensive than piezoelectric systems.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

9.5.2 Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric WIM systems contain one or more piezoelectric sensors that detect a change in
voltage caused by pressure exerted on the sensor by an axle and thereby measure the axle s
weight. As a vehicle passes over the piezoelectric sensor, the system records the sensor output
voltage and calculates the dynamic load. With bending plate systems, the dynamic load pro-
vides an estimate of static load when the WIM system is properly calibrated.

The typical piezoelectric WIM system consists of at least one piezoelectric sensor and two
ILDs. The piezoelectric sensor is placed in the travel lane perpendicular to the travel direction.
The inductive loops are placed upstream and downstream of the piezoelectric sensor. The up-
stream loop detects vehicles and alerts the system to an approaching vehicle. The downstream
loop provides data to determine vehicle speed and axle spacing based on the time it takes the
vehicle to traverse the distance between the loops. Fig. 9:8 shows a full-lane width piezoelectric
WIM system installation. In this example, two piezoelectric sensors are utilized on either side
of the downstream loop.

Advantages
Typical piezoelectric WIM systems are among the least expensive systems in use today in terms
of initial capital costs and life cycle maintenance costs. Piezoelectric WIM systems can be used
at higher speed ranges (16 to 112 kmph) than other WIM systems. Piezoelectric WIM systems
can be used to monitor up to four lanes.

Disadvantages
Typical piezoelectric systems are less accurate than load cell and bending plate WIM systems.
Piezoelectric sensors for WIM systems must be replaced at least once every 3 years.

Problems:

1. If the vehicle 10% time occupied by loop M and 32% time occupied by loop N, the distance
between two loops are 4.22 m find the spot speed of the vehicle. Also find the length of
the vehicle if time occupancy for M - loop is 0.26sec and 0.32 for N-loop.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 9.11 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

Cabinet

Traffic flow
directions
er
uld
sho
d Inductive WIM strip,
a
Ro loops (2) full−length, PVC conduit
2 places below ground

Figure 9:8: WIM installation with full-length piezoelectric sensors Source: FHWA vehicle de-
tection manual

Solution: Length is 4.22 m and occupancy times are 0.32 and 0.1.The speed is given by:
ldist
Speed =
t2 − t1
= (4.22)/(0.32 − 0.1) = 19.18 m/sec.

For length calculation, the speed is 19.18 m/sec and occupancy times are 0.26 and 0.32.

Speed(ot2 + ot1 )
Lvehicle =
2
19.18(0.26 + 0.32)
= = 5.56 m.
2

2. The average length of vehicle is 4.25 m and the length of loop detector zone is 1.85 m.
The time occupancy in the loop is 32 percentages, find the spot speed of the vehicle?

Solution: The average vehicle length is 4.25 and detector zone length is 1.85 m and
t0 is 0.32.the spot speed(s) is given by:

EV L
s =
to
4.25 + 1.85
= = 19.06m/sec
0.32

3. In freeway 1500 vehicles are observed during 120 sec interval. The lane occupancy is 65
percentage and the average length of vehicle observed as 6.55 m. Find the space mean
speed on the freeway section?

Solution: The number of vehicle N is 1500 vehicles; observation period is T= 120 sec.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 9.12 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

The lane occupancy O is 0.65 and average length is 6.55, so g is (40.9/6.55) substitute

N
s =
T ×O×g
1500 × 6.55
=
120 × 0.65 × (40.9)
= 3.08 m/sec

9.6 Summary
Each detector technology and particular device has its own limitations and individual capability.
The successful application of detector technologies largely depends on proper device selection.
Many factors impact detector selection, such as data type, data accuracy, ease of installation,
cost and reliability. ILDs are flexible to satisfy different variety of applications, but installation
requires pavement disturb.

9.7 References
1. Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A and M University System. Travel Time Data
Collection Handbook,Report FHWA-PL-98-035, 1998.

2. Traffic Detector Handbook. Third Edition Volume II, Publication No.FHWA-HRT-06-139

October 2006., 2006.

3. Final Report of Evaluation of Freeway Travel Time Estimates. Castle Rock Consultants
Inc, Portland State University, 2019.

4. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Federal Highway Administration, U.S.

Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 2019.

5. B Coifman. Length based vehicle classification on freeways from single loop Detectors. al
University Transportation Center Final Report, 2009.

6. G C de Silva. Automation of Traffic Flow Measurement Using Video Images. Thesis

Report, University of Moratuwa, 2001.

7. S Ding. Freeway Travel Time Estimation using Limited Loop Data. Master Thesis, The
University of Akron, 2008.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 9.13 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 9. Intrusive Technologies

8. M L Y Elena and L A Klein. Summary of vehicle detection and surveillance technologies

used in intelligent transportation systems. FHWA Report, New Mexico State University
and VDC Project Consultant, 2000.

9. A Faghri and K Hamad. Applications of GPS in Traffic Management. 2002.

10. L Guillaume. Road Traffic Data: Collection Methods and Applications. JRC Technical
note 47967, 2008.

11. U Leeds. Collection Methods for Additional Data, IMAGINE project no. 503549. Insti-
tute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, United Kingdom, 2006.

12. P T Martin, Y Feng, and X Wang. Detector Technology Evaluation. Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Utah Traffic Lab, 2003.

13. S T Mohammad. Vehicle re-identification Based on Inductance Signature Matching.

Master thesis, University of Toronto, 2011.

14. N Nihan, X Zhang, and Y Wang. Improved System for Collecting Real-Time Truck Data
from Dual Loop Detectors. Transportation Northwest, 2005.

15. S G Ritchie S Park and O Cheol. Field Investigation of Advanced Vehicle Re-identification
Techniques and Detector. California PATH Research Report, 2002.

16. A Parsekar. Blind Deconvolution of Vehicle Inductive Signatures for Travel Time Estima-
tion. Master thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Minnesota Duluth,
Duluth, Minnesota -55812, 2004.

17. C Ulberg. Vehicle occupancy forecasting, Technical Report. Washington State De-
partment of Transportation Technical, Graduate School of Public Affairs University of
Washington Seattle, Washington 98105, 1994.

18. J Xia and M Chen. Freeway Travel Time Forecasting Under Incident. Final Report,
Southeastern Transportation Center, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, KY 40506, 2007.

19. B Young and M Saito. Automated Delay Estimation at Signalized Intersections. Research
Division, 2011.

20. Y Zhirui. Speed estimation using single loop detector outputs. Some studies, Ph.D thesis,
Department of CIVIL Engineering, Texas A and M University, 2007.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 9.14 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies

Chapter 10

Non-Intrusive Technologies

10.1 Introduction
Non-intrusive technologies include video data collection, passive or active infrared detectors,
microwave radar detectors, ultrasonic detectors, passive acoustic detectors, laser detectors and
aerial photography. All these technologies represent emergent fields that are expanding rapidly
with continuing advances in signal processing. At present time such technologies are used to
provide supplemental information for selected locations or for specific applications (e.g., queue
detection at traffic signals). Most non-intrusive systems are operationally and somewhat visu-
ally similar, consisting of small electronics unit mounted in a weatherproof housing placed in
various locations, as shown in Fig. 10:1.

The first type of non-invasive detectors are roadside mast-mounted. The detector possesses
a field-of-regard covering an oblique area upstream or downstream of the unit. There are also
multiple zones of detection defined within the overall field of regard, or the overall zone of
detection same as the field of regard, depending on the specific detector type and technology.
Obscuration problems occur when high-sided vehicles screens lower vehicles from the detector
or the field-of-view being too large, leading to detection of vehicles outside the desired lane.
The second type of non-invasive detectors are mounted on gantries or bridge undersides, with
field of regard directly below, or at a slight oblique to the unit. Finally, some units, such as
open-path pollutant monitors are mounted road side at ground level, firing a beam across the
road. Such units are subject to side-by-side masking and hence most suitable for only single
lane, unidirectional flows.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.1 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies

2 2

3
1

Type 1. Roadside, Mast−mounted type

2. Gantry or bridge underside
3. Cross−fire

Figure 10:1: Typical non-intrusive technology configurations

10.2 Video image detection (VID)

The traffic parameters are collected by frame-by-frame analysis of video images captured
by roadside cameras. The following parameters are collected: Depending on the processing
methodology almost all traffic parameters are captured from video analysis. Simple video sys-
tems often collect flow volume and occupancy. More complex systems allow the extraction of
further parameters.

Advantages
Possibility to capture all desired traffic information, including some parameters that are not
readily obtainable using other types of detectors Possibility of a permanent visual record of the
traffic flow that reviewed and analyzed by a human operator.

Disadvantages
VID systems are susceptible to obscure issues, as with other non-intrusive detectors. Perfor-
mance of VID systems might be degraded in bad weather or low light conditions.

1. Video Image Processor

A video image processor (VIP) system typically consists of one or more cameras, a
microprocessor-based computer for digitizing and processing the imagery, and software
for interpreting the images and converting them into traffic flow data.

2. Principles of Operation
Video image processor systems detect vehicles by analyzing the imagery from a traffic
scene to determine changes between successive frames. VIP system typically consists of

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Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies

one or more cameras, a microprocessor-based computer for digitizing and processing the
imagery, and software for interpreting the images and converting them into traffic flow
data.

The algorithms are designed to remove gray level variations in the image background
caused by weather conditions, shadows, and daytime or night time artifacts and retain
objects identified as automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, and bicycles. Traffic flow param-
eters are calculated by analyzing successive video frames. Color imagery can also be
exploited to obtain traffic flow data. However, somewhat reduced dynamic range and
sensitivity have so far inhibited this approach. Traffic flow parameters are calculated by
analyzing successive video frames. Color imagery can also be exploited to obtain traffic
flow data.

Three different types of VIP systems are available; they are tripline, closed-loop tracking,
and data association tracking. Fig. 10:2 shows tripline systems which operate by allowing
the user to define a limited number of detection zones in the field of view of the video
camera. When a vehicle crosses one of these zones, it is identified by noting changes in the
pixels caused by the vehicle relative to roadway in the absence of a vehicle. Surface-based
and grid-based analyses are utilized to detect vehicles in tripline VIPs. Tripline systems
estimate vehicle speed by measuring the time it takes for an identified vehicle to travel a
detection zone of known length. The speed is found as the length divided by the travel
time.

Closed-loop tracking systems are an extension of the tripline approach that permits ve-
hicle detection along larger roadway sections. The closed-loop systems track vehicles
continuously through the field of view of camera. Multiple detections of the vehicle along
a track are used to validate the detection. These tracking systems provide additional
traffic flow data such as lane-to-lane vehicle movements. These have the potential to
transmit information to roadside displays and radios to alert drivers to erratic behavior
that can lead to an incident. Data association tracking systems identify and track a
particular vehicle or groups of vehicles as they pass through the field of view of camera.
The computer identifies vehicles by searching for unique connected areas of pixels. These
areas are then tracked frame-to-frame to produce tracking data for the selected vehicle
or vehicle groups.

3. System Design

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.3 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies

06
DETECTION
ZONE
02

02

05

02

02
04

Figure 10:2: Video Image processing by tripline detector system, source

System design consist of following four stages, construction of background image, detec-
tion of frame features, matching of detected frame features and refining matched vehicle
features. Creating a background image (an image representing the scene without mov-
ing vehicles) using a computer is a difficult task. The reason is that a computer, unlike
humans, is unable to distinguish background and vehicles by considering a single image.
The number of frames improves the quality of background images, it increases the time
consumed in creating them. This is caused by the large number of mathematical instruc-
tions required to construct a background image.

In the second stage it analyzes each frame in the sequence and detects features that
correspond to moving vehicles in the scene. Depending on the method used, several types
of features can be highlighted to represent moving vehicles. In the second stage apply
background subtraction on each frame to remove the static background of the scene. The
resulting image consists of blobs (collections of pixels with non-zero values) corresponding
to moving vehicles. These blobs are enhanced by processing further and detected as the
main feature. Several attributes about the blobs are recorded in memory for processing
in the coming stages.

Also, there are false blobs, not corresponding to any moving object. Such blobs are
present because of excessive noise in the image or poor quality of the background image.
Such features need not be processed further for estimating traffic flow. Therefore, these
features are identified from the input features and discarded. Now, the remaining features
can be considered as vehicle features. In third stage by matching the features detected in

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.4 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies
Passive sensor

Receiving aperture
ET (1 − E)Tsky
(Emissive term) (Reflective term)
Tsky

θ
Road surface with emissivity and Vehicle with emissivity and
surface temperature surface temperature
ER and TR EV and TV

Figure 10:3: Emission and reflection of energy by vehicle and road surface. (Source: FHWA
vehicle detection manual)

previous frames with those from the current frame, vehicles can be tracked. In the final
stage matched vehicle features can be refined to correct features in the frames. However,
this is a complex task, as most of the information in the image has been lost after labeling.
Therefore, it is necessary to extract information from original frames to perform this task.
All these system design process are done by different algorithms.

10.3 Infrared Sensors

The sensors are mounted overhead to view approaching or departing traffic or traffic from a
side-looking configuration. Infrared sensors are used for signal control; volume, speed, and
class measurement, as well as detecting pedestrians in crosswalks. With infrared sensors, the
word detector takes on another meaning, namely the light-sensitive element that converts the
reflected or emitted energy into electrical signals. Real-time signal processing is used to analyze
the received signals for the presence of a vehicle.

1. Passive Infrared (PIR)

Detection of vehicle based on emission or reflection of infrared (electromagnetic radia-
tion of frequency 1011 − 1014 Hz) radiation from vehicle surface, as compared to ambient
levels emitted or reflected from the road surface shown in Fig. 10:3. The PIR system
collected following parameters: Flow volume, Vehicle presence, and detection zone occu-
pancy. Speed with unit with multiple detection zones.

Advantages

(a) Relatively long wavelength of light used in PIR systems makes them less susceptible
to weather effects.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.5 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies

Disadvantages

(a) Accuracy of speed information is poor with low resolution sensors. Vehicle length
determination is highly problematic for the same reason.

2. Active Infrared (AIR)/Laser

Low power LED or laser diode fires a pulsed or continuous beam down to road surface as
shown in Fig. 10:4. Time for reflection to return is measured. Presence of a vehicle lowers
the time of reflection. High scanning rates provides a detailed profile for classification
determination. Use of Doppler frequency shift from moving object allows for very accu-
rate speed determination. The AIR system collected following parameters flow volume,
speed, classification, vehicle presence, traffic density.

Advantages

(a) Very accurate flow, speed and classifications possible.

(b) Laser systems work in day and night conditions.

Disadvantages

(a) Active near-IR sensors adversely affected by weather conditions.

(b) Laser systems impeded by haze or smoke.
(c) Some problems with tracking small vehicles reported.
(d) Relatively high costs compared to other units. Precise, but limited zone of detection
require additional units over other systems.

10.4 Microwave - Doppler and Radar

Low energy microwave radiation (2.5 to 24 GHz) is transmitted into the detection zone. Ob-
jects within the zone reflect a portion of the radiation back to a receiver. Doppler units use
the frequency shift of the return to calculate speed as shown in Fig. 10:5. It cant detect the
stationary objects. The microwave system collected following parameters.

Doppler - Flow volume and speed;

Frequency-Modulated, Continuous Wave (FMCW) - Flow volume, speed and presence;
Microwave - Flow volume, speed, presence, possibly classification;

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.6 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies

Scanning beams

Figure 10:4: Laser radar beam geometry. (Source: FHWA vehicle detection manual)
Microwave
Radar
Antenna

Power and Path of transmitted and received

data cables Sign bridge,
overpass, pole,
or mast arm mounting
Reflected signal from vehicle
can be used to determine presence
(occupancy), passage (count), and
Controller and speed, depending on the waveform
Cabinet that is transmitted by the radar sensor Vehicle

Figure 10:5: Microwave radar operation. Source

Advantages

1. Very accurate. Easy to install, long ranged.

2. Multiple detection zones possible.

3. Day or night operation.

Disadvantages

1. Possible sensitivity to spurious returns from adjacent objects

2. Restrictions on use due to electromagnetic interference with other electronics.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.7 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies
HORIZONTAL
MOUNT
OVERHEAD
MOUNT

00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11

Figure 10:6: Ultrasonic range-measuring sensors, source

10.5 Pulsed and Active Ultrasonic

Ultrasonic sensors transmit pressure waves of sound energy at a frequency between 25 and 50
KHz. Pulse waveforms measure distances to the road surface and vehicle surface by detecting
the portion of the transmitted energy that is reflected towards the sensor from an area defined
by the transmitters beam width. When a distance other than that to the background road
surface is measured, the sensor interprets that measurement as the presence of a vehicle as
shown in Fig. 10:6. The received ultrasonic energy is converted into electrical energy that is
analyzed by signal processing electronics that is either collocated with the transducer or placed
in a roadside controller. Vehicles flow and vehicular speed can be calculated by recording the
time at which the vehicle crosses each beam.

Advantages

1. Highly accurate.

Disadvantages

1. Environmental effects affecting sound propagation degrade performance.

2. Pulsed units with low sampling rate miscount or misclassify fast moving vehicles.

10.6 Passive Acoustic Array Sensors

An array of microphones is used to detect the sound of an approaching vehicle above an am-
bient threshold level. Time lags and signal variations between microphone positions are used
to determine vehicle location relative to the array as shown in Fig. 10:7. Further processing

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.8 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies

Figure 10:7: Acoustic array sensors, source

of signal yield to speed information and possibly engine type classification. It collected flow,
speed, occupancy, possibly classification.

Advantages

1. Completely passive system

2. Direct speed measurement.

Disadvantages

1. Environmental effects affecting sound propagation degrade performance

2. Low accuracy in busy locations due to interference from adjacent sources.

10.7 Summary
A non- Intrusive technology is very effective compared to the Intrusive technologies.

10.8 References
1. Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A and M University System. Travel Time Data
Collection Handbook,Report FHWA-PL-98-035, 1998.

2. Traffic Detector Handbook. Third Edition Volume II, Publication No.FHWA-HRT-06-139

October 2006., 2006.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.9 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies

3. Final Report of Evaluation of Freeway Travel Time Estimates. Castle Rock Consultants
Inc, Portland State University, 2019.

4. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Federal Highway Administration, U.S.

Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 2019.

5. B Coifman. Length based vehicle classification on freeways from single loop Detectors. al
University Transportation Center Final Report, 2009.

6. G C de Silva. Automation of Traffic Flow Measurement Using Video Images. Thesis

Report, University of Moratuwa, 2001.

7. S Ding. Freeway Travel Time Estimation using Limited Loop Data. Master Thesis, The
University of Akron, 2008.

8. M L Y Elena and L A Klein. Summary of vehicle detection and surveillance technologies

used in intelligent transportation systems. FHWA Report, New Mexico State University
and VDC Project Consultant, 2000.

9. A Faghri and K Hamad. Applications of GPS in Traffic Management. 2002.

10. L Guillaume. Road Traffic Data: Collection Methods and Applications. JRC Technical
note 47967, 2008.

11. U Leeds. Collection Methods for Additional Data, IMAGINE project no. 503549. Insti-
tute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, United Kingdom, 2006.

12. P T Martin, Y Feng, and X Wang. Detector Technology Evaluation. Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Utah Traffic Lab, 2003.

13. S T Mohammad. Vehicle re-identification Based on Inductance Signature Matching.

Master thesis, University of Toronto, 2011.

14. N Nihan, X Zhang, and Y Wang. Improved System for Collecting Real-Time Truck Data
from Dual Loop Detectors. Transportation Northwest, 2005.

15. S G Ritchie S Park and O Cheol. Field Investigation of Advanced Vehicle Re-identification
Techniques and Detector. California PATH Research Report, 2002.

16. A Parsekar. Blind Deconvolution of Vehicle Inductive Signatures for Travel Time Estima-
tion. Master thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Minnesota Duluth,
Duluth, Minnesota -55812, 2004.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.10 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 10. Non-Intrusive Technologies

17. C Ulberg. Vehicle occupancy forecasting, Technical Report. Washington State De-
partment of Transportation Technical, Graduate School of Public Affairs University of
Washington Seattle, Washington 98105, 1994.

18. J Xia and M Chen. Freeway Travel Time Forecasting Under Incident. Final Report,
Southeastern Transportation Center, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, KY 40506, 2007.

19. B Young and M Saito. Automated Delay Estimation at Signalized Intersections. Research
Division, 2011.

20. Y Zhirui. Speed estimation using single loop detector outputs. Some studies, Ph.D thesis,
Department of CIVIL Engineering, Texas A and M University, 2007.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 10.11 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 11. Travel Time Data Collection

Chapter 11

Travel Time Data Collection

11.1 Introduction
Travel time can be defined as the period of time to transverse a route between any two points
of interest. It is a fundamental measure in transportation. Travel time is also one of the most
readily understood and communicated measure indices used by a wide variety of users, includ-
ing transportation engineers, planners, and consumers. Travel time data is useful for a wide
range of transportation analyses including congestion management, transportation planning,
and traveler information. Congestion management systems commonly use travel time-based
performance measures to evaluate and monitor traffic congestion. In addition, some metropoli-
tan areas provide real-time travel time prediction as part of their advanced traveler information
systems (ATIS). Travel time data can be obtained through a number of methods. Some of the
methods involve direct measures of travel times along with test vehicles, license plate match-
ing technique, and ITS probe vehicles. Additionally, various sensors (e.g. inductance loop
detectors, acoustic sensors) in ITS deployment collect a large amount of traffic data every day,
especially in metropolitan areas. Such data can be used for travel time estimation for extensive
applications when direct measurements of travel times are not available [19].
Travel time, or the time required to traverse a route between any two points of interest,
is a fundamental measure in transportation. Travel time is a simple concept understood and
communicated by a wide variety of applications for transportation engineers and planners.
Several data collection techniques can be used to collect travel times. These techniques are
designed to collect travel times and average speeds on designated roadway segments or links.
Following are the different techniques available for the travel time data collection.

• Test Vehicle Techniques

• License Plate Matching Techniques

• ITS Probe Vehicle Techniques

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 11.1 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 11. Travel Time Data Collection

• Emerging and Non-Traditional Techniques

11.2 Test Vehicle Techniques

Travel time data using active test vehicles in combination with varying levels of instrumenta-
tion: manual (clipboard and stopwatch), an electronic distance measuring instrument (DMI), or
a global positioning system (GPS) receiver. It involves the use of data collection vehicle within
which an observer records cumulative travel time at predefined checkpoints along a travel route.
Then this information converted to travel time, speed, and delay for each segment along the
survey route. There are several different methods for performing this type of data collection,
depending upon the instrumentation used in the vehicle. These vehicles are instrumented and
then sent into the field for travel time data collection, they are sometimes referred to as “active”
test vehicles [16].

Advantages

• Advanced test vehicle techniques (e.g., DMI or GPS use) result in detailed data.

• Low initial cost.

Disadvantages

• Sources of possible error from either human or electric sources that require adequate
quality control,

• Data storage difficulties.

11.3 License Plate Matching Techniques

Travel times by matching vehicle license plates between consecutive checkpoints with varying
levels of instrumentation: tape recorders, video cameras, portable computers, or automatic
license plate character recognition [16].

Advantages

• Travel times from a large sample of motorists, very simple technique.

• Provides a continuum of travel times during the data collection period.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 11. Travel Time Data Collection

Disadvantages

• Travel time data limited to locations where observers or video cameras can be positioned;

• Limited geographic coverage on a single day

• Accuracy of license plate reading is an issue for manual and portable computer

11.4 ITS Probe Vehicle Techniques

Travel times using ITS components and passive probe vehicles in the traffic stream equipped
with signpost-based transponders, automatic vehicle identification (AVI) transponders, ground-
based radio navigation, cellular phones, or GPS receivers [16].

Some vehicles are equipped with dynamic route guidance (DRG) device which act as roving
traffic detectors, a non-infrastructure based traffic monitoring system. Such vehicles, which are
participating in the traffic flow and capable of determining experienced traffic conditions and
transmitting these to a traffic center, are called probe vehicles. To determine its position and
to register experienced traffic conditions, a probe vehicle is equipped with on-board electronics,
such as a location and a communication device. By means of the location device, the probe
vehicle keeps track of its own geographic position [16].

Through the communication device, the probe vehicle transmits its traffic experiences via a
mobile communication link to a traffic center. For instance, each probe can transmit traffic
messages once every time interval containing its location and its speed at the instant of trans-
mission. In this traffic center the traffic data received from probe vehicles is gathered, and
combined with data from the other monitoring sources, and processed into relevant traffic in-
formation. It is very useful for Advanced Traveler Information system (ATIS).

Advantages

• Low cost per unit of data

• Continuous data collection

• Automated data collection

• Data are in electronic format

• No disruption of traffic

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Transportation Systems Engineering 11. Travel Time Data Collection
Location Antenna
Signalpost
I.D

Central Computer
Signalpost
Transmitter

Vehicle Location
Unit Radio Signal I.D, Bus I.D,
Antenna Odometer Reading
Signpost−Bus Communication Link Time/Date Stamp

Radio
Transmitter

Bus−Computer Center Communication Link

Figure 11:1: Signpost-Based AVL Communication Processes, Source: Travel Time Detection
Hand Book, [16]

Disadvantages

• High implementation cost

• Fixed infrastructure constraints - Coverage area, including locations of antenna

• Requires skilled software

• Not recommended for small scale data collection efforts

ITS probe vehicle data collection systems

1. Signpost-Based Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) - This technique has mostly

been used by transit agencies. Probe vehicles communicate with transmitters mounted
on existing signpost structures shown in Fig. 11:1 [16].

2. Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI) - Probe vehicles are equipped with electronic
tags. These tags communicate with roadside transceivers to identify unique vehicles shown
in Fig. 11:2 and collect travel times between transceivers [16].

3. Ground-Based Radio Navigation - It is used for transit or commercial fleet manage-

ment, this system is similar to the global positioning system (GPS). Data are collected
by communication between probe vehicles and a radio tower infrastructure as shown in
Fig. 11:3 [16].

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 11.4 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 11. Travel Time Data Collection

Central Computer
Toll Plaza, Sign Bridge, Overpass, or Gantry
Tag I.D. #,
Time Stamp Antenna
Date Stamp, Transceiver
Antenna I.D. Reader
Unit AVI tag
Leased Phone Lines #
I.D.
Tag
Reader
Unit
Antenna Spacing
Varies, Typically
Tag I.D. # 2−5 km
Coaxial Cable,
Radio Wave, or
Microwave

Figure 11:2: AVI Vehicle-to-Roadside Communication Process, Source: Travel Time Detection
Hand Book, [16]

Central Computer
Vehicle Location Vehicle I.D.
Request Time Stamp

Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
Ground−Based
Radio Tower

Vehicle Location Unit

Figure 11:3: Ground-Based Radio Navigation Communication Process, Source: Travel Time
Detection Hand Book, [16]

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Transportation Systems Engineering 11. Travel Time Data Collection

11.5 Cellular Geo-location

This experimental technology can collect travel time data by discretely tracking cellular tele-
phone call transmissions. Cellular telephones are also useful to collect travel time data. Two
techniques have been applied using cellular technology: cellular telephone reporting and cellular
geolocating [16].

11.5.1 Cellular Telephone Reporting

An operator at the central control facility records each driver’s identification, location, and time,
by monitoring the time between successive telephone calls, travel time or travel speed between
reporting locations are determined. It is useful for assessment of current traffic conditions and
for collecting travel time data during delays or accidents. The cellular telephone reporting
method is recommended for short-term studies with low accuracy requirements.

11.5.2 Cellular Geolocation

The cellular geolocating methodology discreetly tracks cellular telephone calls to collect travel
time data and monitor freeway conditions. This technique utilizes an existing cellular telephone
network, vehicle locating devices, and a central control facility to collect travel time data. All
vehicles equipped with cellular telephones are potential probe vehicles. The system automati-
cally detects cellular telephone call initiations and locates the respective probe vehicle within
a few seconds.

Advantages

• Driver recruitment not necessary

• No in-vehicle equipment to install

• Large potential sample

Disadvantages

• Low accuracy

• Privacy issues

• Infrastructure dependent

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 11.6 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 11. Travel Time Data Collection

11.6 Emerging and Non-Traditional Techniques

Emerging or non-traditional techniques are based on using “point” vehicle detection equipment,
such as inductance loop detectors or video cameras. Travel time estimation algorithms have
been developed based upon measurable point parameters such as volume, lane occupancy, or
vehicle headways. Image matching algorithms are used to match vehicle images or signatures
captured at two consecutive observation points. Following are some of the methods used in
emerging techniques [16].

11.6.1 Extrapolation Method

Estimates average travel time by spot speeds, applied for short roadway segments between de-
tection devices. It is more suitable for low accuracy application. The most accurate method to
measure vehicle speed with loop detectors is to place two detectors in series, which is referred to
as “speed trap” or “loop trap”. The accuracy of inductance loop speed traps is dependent upon
the trap length, inductance loop wire type, and consistency in design. Many inductance loop
detectors are single loops; primary application is to collect vehicle counts and lane occupancy.
Many research attempts have been made to utilize speed-flow relationships to estimate vehicle
speeds from single loop detectors. The following 11.1 and 11.2 equations have been used to
estimate spot speeds from single loop detectors [16].

volume
Spotspeed = (11.1)
laneoccupancy × g
where,
g = speed correction factor (based upon assumed vehicle length, detector configuration, and
traffic conditions).
LinkLengthinkm sec
T raveltime = km
× 3600 (11.2)
Spotspeedin hr hr

11.6.2 Vehicle Signature Matching

Calculates travel time by matching unique vehicle signatures between sequential observation
points. These methods can utilize a number of point detectors such as inductance loop detec-
tors, weigh-in motion sensors, video cameras, and laser scanning detectors. Vehicle signatures
between two consecutive locations to provide a link based travel time and speed. It provides
alternative to ITS probe vehicle based on travel time measurement, in which a probe vehicle is
identified and matched between two locations using a unique identification number.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 11.7 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 11. Travel Time Data Collection

Vehicle signature matching had been investigated using a number of different point detection
devices, mostly with inductance loop detectors. Several algorithms are available to capture
vehicle signatures from a loop detector frequency detuning curve. Different types and classes of
vehicles provide different types of signatures. The unique features of a vehicle signature are then
compared to signatures within a given time frame at a downstream location. The signature is
matched when a large number of feature correlations have been found within vehicle signatures
at the downstream location. The vehicle signature matching technique does not match every
vehicle signature captured, but potentially match a large enough percentage as to be significant
[16].

11.7 Summary
Detailed travel time estimation by different techniques has been discussed in this chapter. Also
travel time estimation by vehicle technology and emerging techniques such as vehicle signature
have also been discussed in this chapter.

11.8 References
1. Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A and M University System. Travel Time Data
Collection Handbook,Report FHWA-PL-98-035, 1998.

2. Traffic Detector Handbook. Third Edition Volume II, Publication No.FHWA-HRT-06-139

October 2006., 2006.

3. Final Report of Evaluation of Freeway Travel Time Estimates. Castle Rock Consultants
Inc, Portland State University, 2019.

4. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Federal Highway Administration, U.S.

Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 2019.

5. B Coifman. Length based vehicle classification on freeways from single loop Detectors. al
University Transportation Center Final Report, 2009.

6. G C de Silva. Automation of Traffic Flow Measurement Using Video Images. Thesis

Report, University of Moratuwa, 2001.

7. S Ding. Freeway Travel Time Estimation using Limited Loop Data. Master Thesis, The
University of Akron, 2008.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 11.8 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 11. Travel Time Data Collection

8. M L Y Elena and L A Klein. Summary of vehicle detection and surveillance technologies

used in intelligent transportation systems. FHWA Report, New Mexico State University
and VDC Project Consultant, 2000.

9. A Faghri and K Hamad. Applications of GPS in Traffic Management. 2002.

10. L Guillaume. Road Traffic Data: Collection Methods and Applications. JRC Technical
note 47967, 2008.

11. U Leeds. Collection Methods for Additional Data, IMAGINE project no. 503549. Insti-
tute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, United Kingdom, 2006.

12. P T Martin, Y Feng, and X Wang. Detector Technology Evaluation. Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Utah Traffic Lab, 2003.

13. S T Mohammad. Vehicle re-identification Based on Inductance Signature Matching.

Master thesis, University of Toronto, 2011.

14. N Nihan, X Zhang, and Y Wang. Improved System for Collecting Real-Time Truck Data
from Dual Loop Detectors. Transportation Northwest, 2005.

15. S G Ritchie S Park and O Cheol. Field Investigation of Advanced Vehicle Re-identification
Techniques and Detector. California PATH Research Report, 2002.

16. A Parsekar. Blind Deconvolution of Vehicle Inductive Signatures for Travel Time Estima-
tion. Master thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Minnesota Duluth,
Duluth, Minnesota -55812, 2004.

17. C Ulberg. Vehicle occupancy forecasting, Technical Report. Washington State De-
partment of Transportation Technical, Graduate School of Public Affairs University of
Washington Seattle, Washington 98105, 1994.

18. J Xia and M Chen. Freeway Travel Time Forecasting Under Incident. Final Report,
Southeastern Transportation Center, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, KY 40506, 2007.

19. B Young and M Saito. Automated Delay Estimation at Signalized Intersections. Research
Division, 2011.

20. Y Zhirui. Speed estimation using single loop detector outputs. Some studies, Ph.D thesis,
Department of CIVIL Engineering, Texas A and M University, 2007.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 11.9 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 21. Capacity and Level of Service LOS

Chapter 21

Capacity and Level of Service LOS

21.1 Introduction
Often it is required to ascertain how much a transport facility can accommodate. Such in-
formation is useful in the design of traffic facility. Capacity analysis helps in answering the
question. It is a quantitative assessment of the ability of a traffic facility to handle vehicles or
people for which it is designed.
A related question is, what is the performance level of the system at various operating
conditions. Or in other words, how good is the operation of the traffic facility. Level of Service
analysis tries to answer this question which is essentially a qualitative analysis. Capacities and
Level of Services are therefore closely related analysis of a traffic facility.

21.2 Concepts
21.2.1 Capacity
Capacity of a transport facility is defined as the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or
the like, per unit time which can be accommodated under given conditions with a reasonable
expectation of occurrence. The Highway Capacity Manual(2010) defines the capacity as the
maximum howdy rate at which persons or vehicles can be reasonably expected to traverse a
point or a uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a given time period, under prevailing
roadway, traffic and control conditions. Several observations can be made from the above defi-
nition. Although capacity is the maximum howdy rate, in many situations the break 15 minute
flow rate is expressed as the capacity. The above definition also contains the term “reasonably
expected” to account for the variation in traffic and driving habit at various location. However,
it can be termed as a probabilistic measure. Further, analytical derivations are possible for
getting the maximum flow rate, seldom it is achieved in the field. However, capacity measures

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 21.1 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 21. Capacity and Level of Service LOS

are often empirically derived. Capacity is usually defined for a point or a uniform segment
where operating conditions do not vary.
The capacity measure depends on these operating conditions. The first is the traffic condi-
tions and the factors that influence the capacity includes vehicle composition, turning, move-
ments, etc. The second factor is the roadway conditions and it includes geometrical character-
istics such as lane width, shoulder width, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment. The third
factor is the control conditions such as the traffic signal timings, round-about characteristics.
It is also to be noted that the above capacity definition holds good for a point or at a section
of the road having uniform control conditions. Another aspect of the above capacity definition
is the expression that the maximum flow rate which accounts for the worst 15 minutes traffic
within the peak hour traffic. Lastly the term reasonable expectancy indicates that the capac-
ity measure is probabilistic and not an analytically derived deterministic value. The capacity
measure is probabilistic, for it accounts for the unexplainable variation in traffic and diverse
driving characteristics.

21.2.2 Level of service

Level-of-Service(LOS) of a traffic facility is a concept introduced to relate the quality of traffic
service to a given flow rate. Level-of-Service is introduced by HCM to denote the level of quality
one can derive from a local under different operation characteristics and traffic volume. HCM
proposes LOS as a letter that designate a range of operating conditions on a particular type of
facility. Six LOS letters are defined by HCM, namely A, B, C, D, E, and F, where A denote
the best quality of service and F denote the worst. These definitions are based on Measures of
Effectiveness(MoE) of that facility. Typical measure of effectiveness include speed, travel-time,
density, delay etc. There will be an associated service volume for each of the LOS levels. A
service volume or service flow rate is the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like,
which can be accommodated by a given facility or system under given conditions at a given
LOS.

21.2.3 Type of Facilities

HCM has developed the capacities standard and LOS measure for various facilities. Each traffic
facility has its own unit for the capacity and measure of effectiveness for each item will also vary.
The traffic facilities can be divided into three, namely: the uninterrupted facilities, interrupted
facilities, and others. Interrupted facilities include freeway (basic freeway, weaving sections,
and ramps), multi-lane highways (unidirectional), two-lane highways(bidirectional). Freeways
normally have density as the measure of effectiveness, while multi-lane and two-lane highways

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 21.2 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 21. Capacity and Level of Service LOS

have delay/speed as the MoE. Interrupted facilities include un-signalized intersection, signalized
intersection, and arterials or corridors. They have respectively control delay, total delay and
average travel speed as the measure of effectiveness. Other facilities may include pedestrian
pathways, bicycle tracks, bus-transit system, rail-transit system and air-transportation system.
Each of them have facility specific measure of effectiveness.

21.3 Illustrations
For a typical freeway mid block section the capacity and LOS can be defined for an ideal section.
An ideal section has uninterrupted flow from both sides and has only passenger cars and the
drivers are regular travelers who are familiar with the facility. The lane width is 3.65m wide
with proper shoulder and 1.8m lateral clearance is available from the edge of the pavement.
The free flow speed of 115kmph is achievable on the multi-lane and 100kmph on the two-lane
highway.

21.3.1 Capacity
Such a facility is considered as an ideal facility and for such facilities the following values can
be taken as capacity.

1. A capacity of 2000 vehicle per hour per lane for a speed of 115kmph

2. A capacity of 1900 vehicles per hour per lane for a speed of 80kmph

3. A capacity of 2800 vehicle per hour for both direction at 100kmph

Note that the above values are not analytical or experimentally derived, but, statistically de-
rived from the observed field values from large number of such sections. Needly to say that it
is possible to have a flow higher than this capacity measure, but not necessary.

21.3.2 Level of service

The above capacity value drop due to various ‘non-ideal condition’ which includes changes in
speed or travel time, traffic interruptions or restriction etc. Accordingly HCM has defined
various levels of services for the traffic facility. Assigning quality value is based on several user
surveys capturing the perception of drivers on the quality of the traffic under various operating
condition. The Fig. 21:1 illustrate the quality of services or Level-of-Services (A to F) and the
various operating conditions. The same can be shown in the form of a table ??.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 21.3 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 21. Capacity and Level of Service LOS

Operating Speed
A
B
C
D
E
F

1.0
V/C Ratio

Figure 21:1: The LOS of a Mid Block Section

Table 21:1: The LOS of a Mid Block Section

LOS Quality Speed V/C Description
(kmph)
A Free-flow 80 0.6 High level of physical
and psychological comfort
B Reasonable 70 0.7 Reasonable level of
free-flow physical and psychological comfort
C Near 60 0.8 Local deterioration
free-flow possible with blockages
D Medium 50 0.85 Non-recoverable
flow local disruptions
E At capacity 40 0.9 Minor disturbances
flow resulting breakdown
F Congested 15 1.0 Break down of flow
flow capacity drops

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 21.4 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 21. Capacity and Level of Service LOS

21.4 Conclusion
In this lecture the concepts of capacity and LOS is presented. Capacity is a quantitative
measure, whereas LOS is a qualitative measure. Capacity defined for various traffic facilities
considering the traffic, geometric and control condition and obtained from field observation.
LOS on the other side is assigning quality levels of traffic based on performance measure like
speed, density, etc. Together, the concepts gave planner a valuable tool in designing and
evaluating various traffic facilities.

21.5 References
1. James H Banks. Introduction to transportation engineering. Tata Mc-Graw Hill, 2004.

2. W R McShane and P R Roger. Traffic Engineering. Prentice Hall Publication, 1990.

3. C. S Papacostas. Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering. Prentice-Hall, New

Delhi, 1987.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 21.5 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Chapter 22

Urban Streets

22.1 Introduction
Cities and traffic have developed hand-in-hand since the earliest large human settlements and
forcing inhabitants to congregate in large urban areas and in turn enforcing need of urban
transportation. To develop efficient street transportation, to serve effectively various land use
in an urban area, and ensure community development, it is desirable to establish a network of
streets divided into systems, each system serving a particular function or particular purpose.
Accordingly, a community should develop an ultimate street-classification in which each system
has a specific transportation service function to perform. There are several operational perfor-
mance measures and level of services (LOS) which have to be taken into account to evaluate
the system of streets. Increasing population of urban areas due to shifting of people from rural
to urban areas and thus certainly increasing vehicular population on urban streets, have caused
problems of congestion in urban areas. Road traffic congestion poses a challenge for all large
and growing urban areas. This document provides a summary of urban street with respect
to their classification, related operational performance measures and level of services (LOS)
involved in each class of urban street and it also provides strategies necessary for any effective
congestion management policy to curb the congestion.

22.2 Classification of urban streets

There are three ways of classifying urban streets

• Functional based

• Design based

• Combination of functional and design based

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 22.1 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Arterials
Mobility

Collectors

Land access Locals

Figure 22:1: Relationship of functionally classified systems in service traffic mobility and land
access

22.2.1 Function based

Functional classification is the process by which streets and highways are grouped into classes,
or systems, according to the character of service they are intended to provide. Basic to this
process is the recognition that individual roads and streets do not serve travel independently in
any major way. Rather, most travel involves movement through a network of roads. It becomes
necessary then to determine how this travel can be channelized within the network in a logical
and efficient manner. Functional classification defines the nature of this channelization process
by defining the part that any particular road or street should play in serving the flow of trips
through a highway network. The four functional systems for urbanized areas are:

1. Principal Arterial streets

2. Minor Arterial streets

3. Collector street

4. Local roads

General idea of various streets as per their mobility and land use is shown in the Fig. 22:1.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 22.2 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Principal arterial system

Arterial streets are basically meant to carry longer and through traffic. Function of arterial
is to provide access to commercial and residential land uses. A downtown street not only
carries through traffic but also turning traffics and it resembles arterials. As shown in Fig. ??
mobility of principal arterials is high but land access is very low. Major arterial serves as
principal network for through traffic flow. This should be connected with principal traffic
generations, important rural highways entering the city. It should be well coordinated with
existing and proposed expressway system for good distribution and circulation of through traffic
and continuity of routes should be maintained. In every urban environment there exists a
system of streets and highways which can be identified as unusually significant to the area
in which it lies in terms of the nature and composition of travel it serves. In smaller urban
areas (population under 50,000) these facilities may be very limited in number and extent and
their importance may be primarily derived from the service provided to travel passing through
the area. In larger urban areas their importance also derives from service to rural oriented
traffic, but equally or even more important, from service for major movements within these
urbanized areas. The principal arterial system should carry the major portion of trips entering
and leaving the urban area, as well as the majority of through movements desiring to bypass
the central city. In addition, significant intra-area travels, such as between central business
districts and outlying residential areas between major inner city communities or between major
suburban centers should be served by this system. Frequently the principal arterial system will
carry important intra urban as well as intercity bus routes. Finally, this system in small urban
and urbanized areas should provide continuity for all rural arterials which intercept the urban
boundary.

Minor arterials

The minor arterial street system should interconnect with and augment the urban principal
arterial system and provide service to trips of moderate length at a somewhat lower level of
travel mobility than principal arterials. This system also distributes travel to geographic areas
smaller than those identified with the higher system. The minor arterial street system includes
all arterials not classified as a principal and contains facilities that place more emphasis on
land access than the higher system, and offer a lower level of traffic mobility. Such facilities
may carry local bus routes and provide intra-community continuity, but ideally should not
penetrate identifiable neighborhoods. This system should include urban connections to rural
collector roads where such connections have not been classified as urban principal arterials.
The spacing of minor arterial streets may vary from half to one km in the central business

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

City
Town
Village
Arterials
Collector
Streets
Local
Streets

Figure 22:2: Schematic illustration of functional classification of rural highway network

Legend
Arterial street Collector street
Commercial Public

Figure 22:3: Schematic illustration of a portion of urban street network

district to 4 to 5 km in the suburban fringes, but should normally be not more than 2 km in
fully developed areas.

Collector streets

This system of streets includes all distributer and collector streets. Function of this system
is serving between major arterials and local streets to connect adjacent neighborhood areas
placed approximately at half miles intervals to accommodate local through traffic movements
and interconnect local streets with the major arterial street system. Unlike arterials their
operation is not always dominated by traffic signals.

Local Street

Local streets are primarily meant for direct access to residential commercial, industrial or other
abutting property. All through traffics should be discouraged on local streets. Land access is
very high but mobility is very low for local streets.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

22.2.2 Design based Classification

This classification basically depends upon speed limits, signal density, driveways / access point
density etc.

1. High speed

2. Suburban

3. Intermediate

4. Urban

High speed streets

These are the streets with very low driveway or access point density. These are provided with
separate right turn lanes and; no parking is permitted on street. Streets may be multilane
divided or undivided or two lane facility with shoulders. Signals are infrequent and spaced at
long distances. Road side development is very low. A speed limit on these roads is 75 to 90
kmph.

Sub-urban streets

They represent streets with a low driveway/access-point density,separate or continuous right

turn lane and some portions where parking is permitted. These roads possess comparatively
higher density of roadside development than that on high speed streets. It has about three
signals per Km. and speed limit on these roads is 65 to 75 kmph.

Intermediate design streets

They represent urban streets with moderate driveway/access point density. Like sub-urban
streets they also have some separate or continuous right turn lane and some portions where
parking is permitted. These roads possess comparatively higher roadside development than
that on sub-urban streets. It has about two to six signals per Km. and speed limit on these
roads is 50 to 60 Kmph.

Urban streets

They represent urban streets with high driveway/access point density. These are usually pro-
vided with road side parking. It has highest road side development density among all above
stated four classes. Signal density is about four to eight per Km. Speed limit is 40 to 55 Kmph.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Table 22:1: Combined classification of urban streets

Design category Functional category
Principal arterial Minor arterial
High speed I NA
Suburban II II
Intermediate II III or IV
Urban III or IV IV

Table 22:2: Specifications of street classes

Urban Street Class Signal density Free flow
(signals/km) speed(kmph)
I 0.2 80
II 2 65
III 4 55
IV 6 45

22.2.3 Combination of functional and design based

This type of classification considers for combination of functional and design classes divided
into four classes viz. I, II, III, IV which reflects a unique combination for of street function and
Design, as shown in table 1 and related signal densities are shown in table 2.

22.3 Operational performance measures

Engineer has to quantify how well the ’system’ or ’facility is working’. The facilities will usually
assembled by specific qualitative and quantitative index of flow characteristics termed as Level
of Service (LOS), in this regard engineer has to do following works.

1. Assessing the existing condition

2. Evaluating alternative improvements

3. Quantifying associated cost and benefits

4. Communicating results to both technical and non technical people

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

As far as operational performance of urban streets is considered we are interested in determining

arterial level of service which is discussed in succeeding section.

22.3.1 Arterial LOS

Urban streets LOS is mainly based on average travel speed for the segment or for the entire
street under consideration. The average travel speed is computed from the running times
on the urban street and the control delay of through movements at signalized intersections.
The control delay is the portion of the total delay for a vehicle approaching and entering a
signalized intersection. Control delay includes the delays of initial deceleration, move-up time
in the queue, stops, and re-acceleration, these delays are also known as intersection approach
delays.
The LOS for urban streets is influenced both by the number of signals per kilometer and
by the intersection control delay. Inappropriate signal timing, poor progression, and increasing
traffic flow can degrade the LOS substantially. Streets with medium-to-high signal densities
(i.e., more than one signal per kilometer) are more susceptible to these factors, and poor LOS
might be observed even before significant problems occur. On the other hand, longer urban
street segments comprising heavily loaded intersections can provide reasonably good LOS,
although an individual signalized intersection might be operating at a lower level. The term
through vehicle refers to all vehicles passing directly through a street segment and not turning.
Considering all the above aspects, HCM provides a seven step methodology to determine the
level of service of an arterial which will be discussed in following section.

22.3.2 HCM Method of performance measurement

HCM method of arterial performance measurement involves seven steps which aim to compute
’average travel speed’ of arterial to measure the Level of Service. These seven steps are as
follows,

1. Establish arterial to be considered

2. Determine arterial class by free flow speed

3. Define arterial section

4. Compute running time

5. Compute intersection approach delay

6. Compute average travel speed

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Table 22:3: Range and typical values of FFS for different arterial classes
Free flow Arterial Class
speed (kmph) I II III IV
Speed range 90 to 70 70 to 55 55 to 50 55 to 40
Typical value 80 65 55 45

7. Estimate the LOS.

The above flow chart shows the steps to determine LOS in a schematic form. Further in this
section we are going to discuss these seven steps in detail.

22.3.3 Step 1: Establish arterial to be considered

Establishing the arterial is the very first step in the process of determining the LOS. In this
step, an engineer has to define arterial segment or entire arterial whose LOS is to be determined.
Arterial may be established by arterial class, its flow characteristics and signal density. Arterial
class may be defined as per its free flow speed as explained in step 2 as follows.

22.3.4 Step 2: Determine arterial class by free flow speed

Free flow speed is the speed on the arterial which most of the drivers choose if they had green
indication and they are alone in the direction of movement are not the part of platoon) but
have to be conscious about all other prevailing conditions. (e.g. Block spacing, contiguous
land use, right of way, characteristic, pedestrian activity, parking, etc.) Free flow speed should
be measured at just the time when the entire factors are present except for the prevailing
traffic levels and red indication. An arterial can be classified on the basis of its free flow speed
as explained under the section design based classification and combined classification . The
following table 3 can be used to determine the arterial class.

22.3.5 Step 3: Define arterial section

After determining the arterial class it is required to be more specific about the particular section
of an arterial for which LOS is to be determined. The arterial section may be mid block or
intersection. Generally signalized intersection is taken into account to determine intersection
approach delays which are further required to determine level of service.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

22.3.6 Step 4: Arterial running time

There are two principal components for the total time that a vehicle spends on a segment of an
urban street. These are running time and control delay at signalized intersections. To compute
the running time for a segment, the analyst must know the street’s classification, its segment
length, and it’s free flow speed. Arterial running time can be obtained by Travel time studies,
information of running times from local data and intersection delays etc.

22.3.7 Step 5: Intersection Approach Delay

Intersection approach delay is the correct delay which is to be used in arterial evaluation. It
gives consideration not only for absolute stopped delay but also for the delay in retarding the
vehicle approaching at signal for stopping and re-accelerating on starting of green. It is longer
than the stopped delay. This can be related to intersection stopped delay and is computed by,

D = 1.3 d (22.1)

where, D = intersection approach delay (sec/veh), and d = intersection stopped delay (sec/veh).
Delay at intersection approach is of special interest because it is a Measure of Effectiveness
(MOE) used to quantify LOS. To determine intersection approach (or control) delay it is nec-
essary to calculate stopped delay which is discussed below.

Stopped Delays

Stopped vehicles on intersection are counted for intervals of 10 to 20 seconds. It is assumed

that vehicles counted as ’stopped’ during one of these intervals will be stopped for the length
of the interval. Measuring the stopped delays involves following steps.

1. Maximum extent of queue length on intersection approach during the study period must
be observed in advance (observer must be able to count all stopped vehicles in the longest
possible queue).

2. Count intervals are set at 10, 15, or 20 seconds stopped vehicles within the queuing area
observed and recorded at each interval.

3. Discharge volumes are separately counted for the study period.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Table 22:4: Data observed at an intersection for stopping vehicles

Seconds into minute
Minute 0 sec 15 sec 30 sec 45 sec
5.00 pm 2 4 1 3
5.01 pm 4 5 3 0
5.02 pm 6 3 2 1
5.03 pm 2 5 4 3
5.04 pm 4 2 6 4
5.05 pm 5 4 1 1
5.06 pm 1 2 5 5
5.07 pm 4 3 3 3
5.08 pm 2 5 2 2
5.09 pm 3 1 4 2
Total 33 34 31 24

Numerical example

In an intersection the following data was observed for stopping times for vehicles as tabulated
in table 4. Calculate intersection approach delay for the given data set. Total exiting vehicles:
100.

Solution: Total of stopped-vehicle counts (density counts) for study sample is: 33+34+31+24=122
veh. Each of the vehicle interval is 15 seconds. Aggregate delay for the 10 minutes study period
is, 122× 15 sec=1830 veh-sec. Average stopped delay per vehicle for study period of 10 minutes
is, 1830/100 =18.3 sec per vehicle. That is, d=18.3 sec per vehicle. We use this in the first
equation. So, intersection approach (or control) delay D

D = 1.3 × d = 1.3 × 18.3 = 23.79 sec/veh.

22.3.8 Step 6: Average travel speed

Arterial LOS is based on the ’average travel speed’ for segment, section or entire arterial under
consideration. Arterial average travel speed is given by
3600L
vavg = (22.2)
Tr × L + D

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Table 22:5: Urban Street LOS by Class and Average Travel Speed
LOS Average Travel Speed (km/h)
I II III IV
A > 72 > 59 > 50 > 41
B > 56 > 46 > 39 > 32
C > 40 > 33 > 28 > 23
D > 32 > 26 > 22 > 18
E > 26 > 21 > 17 > 14
F > 26 < 21 < 17 < 14

where, vavg = arterial or segmental average travel speed (Kmph), L = arterial or segmental
length (Km), Tr = total of the running time per kilometer on all segments in the arterial or
section (seconds), D = total of the approach delay at all intersections within the defined arterial
(seconds). It is the actual speed in consideration with the additional effect of control and all
stop delays. It is the measure by which LOS is defined.

22.3.9 Step 7: Estimate the LOS

This is the last step of determination of LOS. After calculation of average travel speed we can
determine the level of service of an arterial by using Table 22:5.

Numerical example

Consider an arterial which has free flow speed of 65 kmph and average running time of vehicles
is 145 sec/km determine LOS for this arterial.

Solution: From Table 22:5 we can find LOS of an arterial. As free flow speed is 65 kmph
by using table 3 we can classify this as Arterial Class II, Now we should know average travel
speed, to find out LOS. Delay is determined in problem 1. Hence D=23.79sec/veh.

3600L 3600 × 1
vavg = = = 21.32 km/hr
Tr × L + D 145 + 23.79
As average travel speed is 21.32 kmph we can have LOS as ’E’ from Table 22:5.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 22.11 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

22.4 Congestion Management

When demand on a facility exceeds the capacity Congestion takes place. The travel time or
delay is in excess of that normally incurred under light or free flow traffic condition. The
travel time or delay is in excess of agreed upon norm which may vary by type of transport
facility, travel mode, geographical location, and time of day. In the procedure for congestion
management initially we have to find out the root cause of congestion and finding out the
remedies for managing the congestion, updating the signalization if it is needed. It is always
better to use good signalization for minimizing impact of congestion. We can provide more
space by making use of ’turn bays’ if geometry permits. Parking restrictions also help in
congestion management on urban streets. Now we will discuss some important strategies to
manage the congestion on urban streets.

22.4.1 Managing surface street congestion

Basically at street level congestion can be encountered by following ways,

1. Signal based

2. Non-signal based

22.4.2 Signal based remedies

Signal based remedies for congestion management can be achieved by implementing following
two strategies,

1. Metering plans

2. Reasonably shorter cycle lengths

Metering plans

It is the congestion management policy for street congestion to limit the volumes arriving at
critical locations. It uses some control strategies within the congestion networks by storing
vehicles at links defined to be part of system under control. It should be noted that metering
concept does not explicitly minimize delays and stops but manages queue formation. There are
three types of metering strategies,

1. Internal metering: It is the management policy which makes use of control strategies
within the congested network by influencing the distribution of vehicles arriving at and

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Figure 22:4: g/C is reduced to limit discharge

departing from critical locations as shown in Fig. 22:4 Limit the upstream or downstream
blockage by limiting the turn in flows as shown in Fig. 22:5. It deals with upstream
control by creating moving storage situation on upstream link. It manages congestion by
limiting turn-in flows from cross streets and preserving arterials for their through flow by
metering from face of back up from outside as shown in Fig. 22:6

2. External metering: Control of major access points shown in Fig. 22:7 (e.g. river crossing,
downtown surrounded by water from three sides, a system that receives limited no. of
arterials etc.) so as to limit inflow rates. It is conceptually convenient because the storage
of problem vehicles belongs to somebody else outside the system. But while metering it
should be noted that metering should not be upto such extent that other areas.

3. Release metering: It uses policy of controlling the release of vehicles from the places
where vehicles are stored such as parking, garages etc. they are stored off-street so as to
reduce their spill-back potential. This type of metering can be used in shopping centers,
mega center, etc. by lowering the discharge rates of vehicles.

Shorter cycle length

If on any intersection higher cycle time is provided then it will certainly create problems like
increase in queue length and platoon length discharged and it will lead to increase in blockage

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 22.13 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Figure 22:5: g/C is reduced to preserve through flow

critical intersection
undersaturated
internally metered

Figure 22:6: Internal metering

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 22.14 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

external metering plans

innerbound routes that are metered

Figure 22:7: External metering

of intersection, with substantial adverse impact on system capacity. This is particularly when
short link lengths are involved. Length of downstream space should be greater than queue
length to store the vehicles. Note that a critical lane flow of Vi nominally discharges Vi*C/3600
vehicles in a cycle. If each vehicle requires D meters of storage space, the downstream link would
be  
Vi C
D≤L (22.3)
3600
Vi C
where, 3600 = no. of vehicles per cycle, D= storage space required for each vehicle, L= available
downstream space in m. (This may be set by some lower value to keep the queue away from
the discharging intersection, or to allow for turn-ins.) Equation may be re-arranged as,
  
L 3600
C≤ (22.4)
D Vi

Note that Vi in this case is the discharge volume per downstream lane, which may differ from
the demand volume, particularly at the fringes of the system being considered. Note that only
rather high flows (maximum f > 800 veh per hour per lane (vphpl)) and short blocks will create
very severe limits on the cycle length. However, these are just the situations of at most interest
for extreme congestion situations. An illustrative example to show the requirement of shorter
cycle length is given below.

Numerical example

Flow on an critical lane is 300 veh/h, cycle time is 80 seconds, suppose storage space required
per lane vehicle is 6m as an average and space available on downstream is 30 m, find whether
the space is sufficient and comment on the result and suggest some remedy if required.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Solution: Given: Vi = 300 veh/h, C = 80 sec, and L = 30 m. Vehicles discharged by a

Vi C
critical lane per cycle to be found out and which is given by, ( 3600 ) = 300 * 80/3600 = 60/9
=6.6 veh/cycle. Therefore, space required for storing these vehicles for cycle time is, = 6.6 *
D, = 6.6 * 6, = 39.6 m. ≈ 40 m. So, 40 m > 30 m (length of downstream storage i.e. space
available), So length is inadequate. As the length is fixed the only possible variable is ’cycle
time’ so we will reduce the cycle time, let the new cycle time be, 40 seconds instead of 80
seconds. Space required will be get reduced to half i.e. 20m which is lesser than the available
space i.e. 30m so it is feasible to reduce the cycle length to manage the congestion.

22.4.3 Non-signal based remedies

If the problem of congestion does not get resolved by signalization the next set of actions are
summarized in two words more space means there is need of provision of additional lanes or
some other facility. It can be achieved by adding left turn bays / right turn bays, removing
obstructions to through flows by adding more space and free movements Some non-signal based
remedies are given below,

1. Two way turn lanes

2. Reversible lanes

3. Kerb parking prohibition

4. Lane marking

Two way turn lanes

On suburban and urban arterials dedication of a central lanes shown in Fig. 22:8 for turns in
either direction is provided. This also allows for storage and vehicles to make their maneuvers
in two distinct steps. Leaving the arterial and entering it is separated into two distinct
steps. Vehicles leaving (Fig. 22:9) the arterial do not have to block a moving lane while waiting
for a gap in the opposing flow. Entering vehicles (Fig. 22:10) do not have to wait for a gap
simultaneously in both directions. The Figure 22:8 shown above is the road sign for two way left
turn lane which indicates that the center lane is provided exclusively for two way left turning
traffic.

Reversible lane

Reversible lanes shown in Figure 8 have great advantage of matching lane availability to the
peak demand. Lanes are reversible means can be split into various combinations for different

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

2 way sign

Figure 22:8: Two way left-turn lane on arterial

2
Vehicle

Figure 22:9: A vehicle leaving arterial in two steps

1
Vehicle

Figure 22:10: A vehicle entering arterial in two steps

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 22.17 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Reversible lane

Figure 22:11: Lane marking and associated signal /signs for reversible lane

times of day to match the demand. E.g. eight lanes can be split into 6:2 or 5:3 and so forth
if required to match up for the demand. It should be noted that some jurisdictions have
combined two-way lanes and reversible lanes on same arterial ’because combination of peak-
period congestion and increased road side development’. The concerns with reversible lanes
and relates to the misuse and lanes by the driver (particularly the unfamiliar driver), despite
the signalization over the lanes.

HOV lanes

High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes are designed to help move more people through congested
areas. HOV lanes offer users a faster, more reliable commute, while also easing congestion in
regular lanes - by moving more people in fewer vehicles. HOV lanes on provincial highways are
reserved for any of the following passenger vehicles carrying at least two people (often referred
to as 2+):

1. Car

2. Commercial truck less than 6.5 meters long

3. Minivan

4. Motorcycle

5. Taxi or limousine

In addition, vehicles with a special green licence plate (plug-in hybrid electric or battery electric
vehicle) A bus of any type can use an HOV lane, even without passengers. This helps buses
keep to their schedules and provide reliable, efficient service. Emergency vehicles are permitted
to use the HOV lanes at all times.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

Kerb Parking Prohibition

Congestion can be managed by prohibiting the kerb parking. Kerb parking means on street
parallel parking. If such parking is avoided it implies oblique and right angled parking is also
prohibited and hence provides more space for traffic flow so congestion is minimized.

Lane marking

Longitudinal lane markings such solid white lines and broken white lines restricts overtak-
ing maneuver of vehicles which encourages mix through traffic flow unobstructed resulting in
reducing the congestion.

Equity offsets

This topic can be read in reference to congestion management by signal based remedies. Offset
on an arterial are usually set to move vehicles smoothly along the arterial, as is logical. Equity
offset allows the congested arterial to have its green at upstream intersection until the vehicle
just begin to move , then switch the signal, so that these vehicles flush out the intersection,
but no new vehicles continue to enter.

Imbalanced split

This topic can be referred under signal based congestion management remedies. It is the pro-
cedure of allocating the ’available green’ in proportion to the relative demands. It is sometimes
desirable to split green as per demand of various routes to meet peak hour demands of respective
routes.

HOV Lanes

This topic can be referred as non signal based remedies On provincial highways HOV lanes are
developed by adding a new inside (leftmost) lane to existing corridors. Where the HOV lane
begins, signs on the left side of the highway inform carpools and buses to move left into the
new lane. An overhead sign indicates the beginning of the HOV lane. In some locations, where
a highway on-ramp used to end, the on-ramp lane has been extended as the new HOV lane.
In this situation, motorists not permitted to use the HOV lane have to exit that lane before
the start of the HOV lane designation. Overhead signs at 1 kilometre and again at 500 metres
before the start of the HOV lane designation advise drivers to exit the lane. Overhead signing
and closely spaced white broken lines and diamond symbol pavement markings indicate the
beginning of the HOV lane (Figure 22:12).

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Transportation Systems Engineering 22. Urban Streets

111111111111111
000000000000000
000000000000000
111111111111111

Figure 22:12: High Occupancy Vehicle Lane

22.5 Conclusion
It can be understood that urban streets are integral part of transportation system. Urban
streets plays vital role in development of country. These are classified on their function, design
for various considerations taking into account. Performance measures are to be worked out
to determine LOS. Congestion is a huge problem which can be curbed by some preventive
measures and design strategies. Signalized remedies are more efficient than any other measures
of street congestion management. Non signalized remedies can be used to manage congestion
by providing more space in terms of extra lanes.

22.6 References
1. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 2000.

2. L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers,

New Delhi, 1987.

3. W R McShane and P R Roger. Traffic Engineering. Prentice Hall Publication, 1990.

4. C D Papacostas and P D Prevedouros. Transportation Engineering and Planning. 2002.

5. B K Woods. Highway Engineering Handbook. McGraw Hill Company. 1960.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 22.20 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Chapter 23

Multilane Highways

23.1 Introduction
Increasing traffic flow has forced engineers to increase the number of lanes of highways in order
to provide good manoeuvring facilities to the users. The main objectives of this lecture is to
analyze LOS which is very important factor for a traffic engineer because it describes the traffic
operational conditions within a traffic stream. Also we are going to study the characteristics
and capacity for multilane highways. Free-flow speed is an important parameter that is being
used extensively for capacity and level-of- service analysis of various types of highway facilities.

23.2 Multilane Highways

A highway is a public road especially a major road connecting two or more destinations. A
highway with at least two lanes for the exclusive use of traffic in each direction, with no control
or partial control of access, but that may have periodic interruptions to flow at signalized
intersections not closer than 3.0 km is called as multilane highway. They are typically located
in suburban areas leading to central cities or along high-volume rural corridors that connect
two cities or important activity centers that generate a considerable number of daily trips.

23.2.1 Highway Classification

There are various ways of classification of highways; we will see classification of highways
according to number of lanes.

• Two lane highways.

• Multilane highways

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111

Figure 23:1: Divided multilane highway in a rural/suburban environment

Figure 23:2: Undivided multilane highway in a rural/suburban environment

23.2.2 Highway Characteristics

Multilane highways generally have posted speed limits between 60 km/h and 90 km/h. They
usually have four or six lanes, often with physical medians or two-way right turn lanes (TWRTL),
although they may also be undivided. The traffic volumes generally varies from 15,000 - 40,000
vehicles per day. It may also go up to 100,000 vehicles per day with grade separations and no
cross-median access. Traffic signals at major intersections are possible for multilane highways
which facilitate partial control of access. Typical illustrations of multilane highway configura-
tions are provided in Fig. 23:1 and 23:2

23.3 Highway Capacity

An important operation characteristic of any transport facility including the multi lane highways
is the concept of capacity. Capacity may be defined as the maximum sustainable flow rate at
which vehicles or persons reasonably can be expected to traverse a point or uniform segment of

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Table 23:1: Free flow speed and capacity for Multilane highway

Types of facility Free flow Capacity

speed(kmph) (pcphpl)
Multilane 100 2200
90 2100
80 2000
70 1900

a lane or roadway during a specified time period under given roadway, traffic, environmental,
and control conditions; usually expressed as vehicles per hour, passenger cars per hour, or
persons per hour. There are two types of capacity, possible capacity and practical capacity.
Possible capacity is defined as the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point in one
hour under prevailing roadway and traffic condition. Practical capacity on the other hand is
the maximum number that can pass the point without unreasonable delay restriction to the
average driver’s freedom to pass other vehicles. Procedure for computing practical capacity for
the uninterrupted flow condition is as follows:

1. Select an operating speed which is acceptable for the class of highways the terrain and
the driver.

2. Determine the appropriate capacity for ideal conditions from table 1.

3. Determine the reduction factor for conditions which reduce capacity (such as width of
road, alignment, sight distance, heavy vehicle adjustment factor).

4. Multiply these factors by ideal capacity value obtained from step 2.

23.4 Level of Service

Level of service (LOS) is a qualitative term describing the operational performance of any
transportation facility. The qualitative performance measure can be defined using various
quantitative terms like:

1. Volume to capacity ratio,

2. Mean passenger car speed,( in km/h)

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 23.3 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Figure 23:3: LOS A

3. Density, (in p/kmln).

Basically any two of the following three performance characteristics can describe the LOS for a
multilane highway. Each of these measures can indicate how well the highway accommodates
the traffic demand since speed does not vary over a wide range of flows, it is not a good indicator
of service quality. Density which is a measure of proximity of other vehicles in the traffic stream
and is directly perceived by drivers and does not vary with all flow levels and therefore density
is the most important performance measure for estimating LOS. Based on the quantitative
parameter, the LOS of a facility can be divided into six qualitative categories, designated as
LOS A,B,C,D,E,F The definition of each level of service, is given below:

23.4.1 Level of Service A

Travel conditions are completely free flow. The only constraint on the operation of vehicles
lies in the geometric features of the roadway and individual driver preferences. Lane changing,
merging and diverging manoeuvre within the traffic stream is good, and minor disruptions to
traffic are easily absorbed without an effect on travel speed. Average spacing between vehicles
is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car lengths. Fig. 23:3 shows LOS A.

23.4.2 Level of Service B

Travel conditions are at free flow. The presence of other vehicles is noticed but it is not a con-
straint on the operation of vehicles as are the geometric features of the roadway and individual
driver preferences. Minor disruptions are easily absorbed, although localized reduction in LOS
are noted. Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car lengths. Fig. 23:4
below shows LOS B.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 23.4 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Figure 23:4: LOS B

Figure 23:5: LOS C

23.4.3 Level of Service C

Traffic density begins to influence operations. The ability to manoeuvre within the traffic
stream is affected by other vehicles. Travel speeds show some reduction when free-flow speeds
exceed 80 km/h. Minor disruptions may be expected to cause serious local deterioration in
service, and queues may begin to form. Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150
m or 24 car length. Fig. 23:5 shows LOS C.

23.4.4 Level of Service D

The ability to manoeuvre is severely restricted due to congestion. Travel speeds are reduced
as volumes increase. Minor disruptions maybe expected to cause serious local deterioration in
service, and queues may begin to form. Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150
m or 24 car length. Fig. 23:6 shows LOS D.

Figure 23:6: LOS D

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Figure 23:7: LOS E

Figure 23:8: LOS F

23.4.5 Level of Service E

Operations are unstable at or near capacity. Densities vary, depending on the free-flow speed.
Vehicles operate at the minimum spacing for which uniform flow can be maintained. Disruptions
cannot be easily dissipated and usually result in the formation of queues and the deterioration
of service to LOS F. For the majority of multilane highways with free-flow speed between 70
and 100km/h, passenger-car mean speeds at capacity range from 68 to 88 km/h but are highly
variable and unpredictable. Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car
length. Fig. 23:7 shows LOS E.

23.4.6 Level of Service F

A forced breakdown of flow occurs at the point where the numbers of vehicles that arrive at
a point exceed the number of vehicles discharged or when forecast demand exceeds capacity.
Queues form at the breakdown point, while at sections downstream they may appear to be at
capacity. Operations are highly unstable, with vehicles experiencing brief periods of movement
followed by stoppages. Travel speeds within queues are generally less than 48 km/h. Note
that the term LOS F may be used to characterize both the point of the breakdown and the
operating condition within the queue. Fig. 23:8 shows LOS F.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

23.5 Determination of Level of Service

The determination of level of service for a multilane highway involves three steps:

1. Determination of free-flow speed

2. Determination of flow rate

3. Determination of level of service

23.5.1 Free-flow speed

Free-flow speed is the theoretical speed of traffic density, when density approaches zero. It is
the speed at which drivers feel comfortable travelling under the physical, environmental and
traffic conditions existing on an uncongested section of multilane highway. In practice, free-flow
speed is determined by performing travel-time studies during periods of low-to-moderate flow
conditions. The upper limit for low to moderate flow conditions is considered 1400 passenger
cars per hour per lane(pc/h/ln) for the analyses. Speed-flow and density flow relationships are
shown in Fig. 23:9 and Fig. 23:10. These relationships hold for a typical uninterrupted-flow
segment on a multilane highway under either base or no base conditions in which free-flow
speed is known. Fig. 23:9 indicates that the speed of traffic volume up to a flow rate of 1400
pc/h/ln. It also shows that the capacity of a multilane highway under base conditions is 2200
pc/h/ln for highways with a 90 km/h free-flow speed. At flow rates between 1400 and 2200
pc/h/ln, the speed on a multilane highway drops; for example, by 8 km/h for a highways with
a free-flow speed of 90 km/h. Fig. 23:10 shows that density varies continuously throughout the
full range of flow rates. The capacity value of 2200 pc/h/ln is representative of the maximum
15-min flow rate that can be accommodated under base conditions for highways with 90 km/h
free-flow speed. From various studies of the flow characteristics, base conditions for multilane
highways are defined as follows:

1. Lane widths are 3.6 m.

2. Lateral clearance is 1.8 m.

3. A minimum of 3.6 m of total lateral clearance in the direction of travel. Clearances

are measured from the edge of the outer travelled lanes (shoulders included) and lateral
clearance of 1.8 m or greater are considered to be equal to 1.8 m.

4. No direct access points along the highway.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

110
100

Speed (km/hr)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Flow (pc/h/ln)

Figure 23:9: Speed-flow relationship on multilane highways

50
Density (pc/h/ln)

45
40
35
30
25
20
Free flow speed = 70 km/hr
15
Free flow speed = 80 km/hr
10
1
Free flow speed = 90 km/hr
5 Free flow speed = 100 km/hr
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Flow (pc/h/ln)

Figure 23:10: Density-flow relationships on multilane highways

110
Free−Flow Speed, FFS = 100 km/h
Average Passenger−Car Speed (km/h)

100

90 km/h
90

80 km/h
80

70 km/h
70
LOS A B C D
E
60
/ln
/km

/ln
/km
pc

50
/ln
/ln
/ln
=7

pc

m
m
/km

16

/k
ity

/k

40
pc
pc
pc
ns

28
22
11
De

30

20

10

0
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400

Flow Rate (pc/h/ln)

Figure 23:11: Speed-flow curves with LOS criteria for multilane highways

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways
110
100

Speed (km/hr)
90
80
70
60
50 Density = 7 pc/km/ln
40 Density = 11 pc/km/ln
30 Density = 16 pc/km/ln
20 Density = 22 pc/km/ln
Density = 25 pc/km/ln
10
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Flow (pc/h/ln)

Figure 23:12: Flowchart showing step by step procedure to find density and LOS

5. A divided highway.

6. Only passenger cars in the traffic stream.

7. A free-flow speed of 90 km/h or more.

The average of all passenger-car speeds measured in the field under low volume conditions can
be used directly as the free-flow speed if such measurements were taken at flow rates at or below
1400 pc/h/ln. No adjustments are necessary as this speed reflects the net effect of all conditions
at the site that influence speed, including lane width, lateral clearance, type of median, access
points, posted speed limits, and horizontal and vertical alignment. Free-flow speed also can be
estimated from 85th-percentile speed or posted speed limits, research suggests that free-flow
speed under base conditions is 11 km/h higher than the speed limit for 65 km/h to 70 km/h
speed limits and 8 km/h higher for 80 km/h to 90 km/h speed limits. Fig. 23:12 shows speed-
flow curves with LOS criteria for multilane highways, here LOS is easily determined for any
value of speed simply by plotting the point which is a intersection of flow and corresponding
speed. Note that density is the primary determinant of LOS. LOS F is characterized by highly
unstable and variable traffic flow. Prediction of accurate flow rate, density, and speed at LOS
F is difficult.

23.5.2 Determination of free-flow speed

When field data are not available, the free-flow speed can be estimated indirectly as follows:

F F S = BF F S − fLW − fLC − fM − fA (23.1)

where, F F S is the estimated FFS (km/h), BF F S= base FFS (km/h), fLW = adjustment for
lane width, from Table 3 (km/h), fLC = adjustment for lateral clearance, from Table 4 (km/h),

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Table 23:2: Level of Service criteria for a typical free flow speed of 100 kmph proposed in HCM
2000

Free-Flow Criteria (LOS) (LOS) (LOS) (LOS) (LOS)

Speed A B C D E
100 km/h Max. density 7 11 16 22 25
(pc/km/ln)
Average speed 100 100 98.4 91.5 88
(kmph)
Max. volume 0.32 0.50 0.72 0.92 1.00
capacity ratio
Max. service 700 1100 1575 2015 2200
flow rate
(pc/h/ln)

fM = adjustment for median type, from Table 5 (km/h), and fA = adjustment for access points,
from Table 6 (km/h). FFS on multilane highways under base conditions is approximately 11
km/h higher than the speed limit for 65 and 70 km/h speed limits, and it is 8 km/h higher for
80 and 90 km/h speed limits. BFFS is approximately equal to 62.4 km/h ( i.e decrease in 1.6
km/h) when the 85 th percentile speed is 64 km/h, and it is 91.2 km/h ( i.e decrease in 4.8
km/h) when the 85 th percentile speed is 96 km/h and the in between speed values is found
out by interpolation. According to Table 3, the adjustment in km/h increase as the lane width
decreases from a base lane width of 3.6 m. No data exist for lane widths less than 3.0m.
The adjustment for lateral clearance (TLC ) is given as:

TLC = LCL + LCR (23.2)

where, TLC = Total lateral clearance (m), LCL = Lateral clearance (m), from the right edge of
the travel lanes to roadside obstructions (if greater than 1.8 m, use 1.8 m), and LCR = Lateral
clearance (m), from the left edge of the travel lanes to obstructions in the roadway median
(if the lateral clearance is greater than 1.8 m, use 1.8 m). Once the total lateral clearance is
computed, the adjustment factor is obtained from Table 4. For undivided highways, there is
no adjustment for the right-side lateral clearance as this is already accounted for in the median
type. Therefore, in order to use Table 5 for undivided highways, the lateral clearance on the
left edge is always 1.8 m, as it for roadways with TWRTLs. The access-point density, which
is use in Table 6, for a divided roadway is found by dividing the total number of access points

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Table 23:3: Adjustment for lane width (Source: HCM, 2000)

Lane Width (m) Reduction in FFS(km/h)

3.6 0.0
3.5 1.0
3.4 2.1
3.3 3.1
3.2 5.6
3.1 8.1
3.0 10.6

Table 23:4: Adjustment for lateral clearance(Source: HCM, 2000)

Four-Lane Highways Six-Lane Highways

Total Lateral Reduction in FFS Total Lateral Reduction in FFS
Clearance a (m) (km/h) Clearance a (m) (km/h)
3.6 0.0 3.6 0.0
3.0 0.6 3.0 0.6
2.4 1.5 2.4 1.5
1.8 2.1 1.8 2.1
1.2 3.0 1.2 2.7
0.6 5.8 0.6 4.5
0.0 8.7 0.0 6.3

Table 23:5: Adjustment to free flow speed for median type(Source: HCM, 2000)

Median Type Reduction in FFS (km/h)

Undivided highways 2.6
Divided highways 0.0

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Table 23:6: Adjustment to free flow speed for Access-point density(Source: HCM, 2000)

Access Points/Kilometer Reduction in FFS (km/h)

0 0.0
6 4.0
12 8.0
18 12.0
≥ 24 16.0

(intersections and driveways) on the right side of the roadway in the direction of travel being
studied by the length of the segment in kilometers. The adjustment factor for access-point
density is given in Table 6. Thus the free flow speed can be computed using equation 1 and
applying all the adjustment factors.

23.5.3 Determination of Flow Rate

The next step in the determination of the LOS is the computation of the peak hour factor. The
fifteen minute passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln), is determined by using following
formula:
V
vp = (23.3)
(P HF × N × fHV × fp )
where, vp is the 15-min passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln), V is the hourly volume
(veh/h), P HF is the peak-hour factor, N is the number of lanes, fHV is the heavy-vehicle
adjustment factor, and fp is the driver population factor. PHF represents the variation in
traffic flow within an hour. Observations of traffic flow consistently indicate that the flow rates
found in the peak 15-min period within an hour are not sustained throughout the entire hour.
The PHFs for multilane highways have been observed to be in the range of 0.75 to 0.95. Lower
values are typical of rural or off-peak conditions, whereas higher factors are typical of urban
and suburban peak-hour conditions. Where local data are not available, 0.88 is a reasonable
estimate of the PHF for rural multilane highways and 0.92 for suburban facilities. Besides that,
the presence of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream decreases the FFS because base conditions
allow a traffic stream of passenger cars only. Therefore, traffic volumes must be adjusted to
reflect an equivalent flow rate expressed in passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/ln). This
is accomplished by applying the heavy-vehicle factor (fHV ). Once values for ET and ER have

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Table 23:7: Passenger-car equivalent on extended general highway segments(Source: HCM,

2000)

Factor Type of Terrain

Level Rolling Mountainous
ET (Trucks and Buses) 1.5 2.5 4.5
ER (RVs) 1.2 2.0 4.0

been determined, the adjustment factors for heavy vehicles are applied as follows:
1
fHV = (23.4)
(1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1)

where, ET and ER are the equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational vehicles (RVs),
respectively, PT and PR are the proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs, respectively, in the
traffic stream (expressed as a decimal fraction), fH V is the adjustment factor for heavy vehicles.
Adjustment for the presence of heavy vehicles in traffic stream applies for three types of vehicles:
trucks, buses and recreational vehicles (RVs). Trucks cover a wide range of vehicles, from lightly
loaded vans and panel trucks to the most heavily loaded coal, timber, and gravel haulers. An
individual truck’s operational characteristics vary based on the weight of its load and its engine
performance. RVs also include a broad range: campers, self-propelled and towed; motor homes;
and passenger cars or small trucks towing a variety of recreational equipment, such as boats,
snowmobiles, and motorcycle trailers. There is no evidence to indicate any distinct differences
between buses and trucks on multilane highways, and thus the total population is combined.

23.5.4 Determination of Level of Service

The level of service on a multilane highway can be determined directly from Fig. 23:12 or Table-
2 based on the free-flow speed (FFS) and the service flow rate (vp) in pc/h/ln. The procedure
as follows:

1. Define a segment on the highway as appropriate. The following conditions help to define
the segmenting of the highway,

• Change in median treatment

• Change in grade of 2% or more or a constant upgrade over 1220 m
• Change in the number of travel lanes

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

• The presence of a traffic signal

• A significant change in the density of access points
• Different speed limits
• The presence of bottleneck condition

In general, the minimum length of study section should be 760 m, and the limits should
be no closer than 0.4 km from a signalized intersection.

2. On the basis of the measured or estimated free-flow speed on a highway segment, an

appropriate speed-flow curve of the same as the typical curves is drawn.

3. Locate the point on the horizontal axis corresponding to the appropriate flow rate (vp)
in pc/hr/ln and draw a vertical line.

4. Read up the FFS curve identified in step 2 and determine the average travel speed at the
point of intersection.

5. Determine the level of service on the basis of density region in which this point is located.
Density of flow can be computed as
vp
D= (23.5)
S
where, D is the density (pc/km/ln), vp is the flow rate (pc/h/ln), and S is the aver-
age passenger-car travel speed (km/h). The level of service can also be determined by
comparing the computed density with the density ranges shown in table given by HCM.
To use the procedures for a design, a forecast of future traffic volumes has to be made
and the general geometric and traffic control conditions, such as speed limits, must be
estimated. With these data and a threshold level of service, an estimate of the number
of lanes required for each direction of travel can be determined.

Numerical example 1

A segment of undivided four-lane highway on level terrain has field-measured FFS 74.0-km/h,
lane width 3.4-m, peak-hour volume 1,900-veh/h, 13 percent trucks and buses, 2 percent RVs,
and 0.90 PHF. What is the peak-hour LOS, speed, and density for the level terrain portion of
the highway?

Solution The solution steps are given below:

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

1. Data given: Level terrain, field measured FFS = 74 km/h, lane width is 3.4 m, peak-
hour volume = 1900 veh/h, percent trucks and buses pt = 0.13, percent RVs PR = 0.02,
and PHF=0.90.

2. Determination of flow rate(Vp): LOS can be calculated by knowing flow rate and
free flow speed. Flow rate (Vp) is calculated from the equation
V
Vp =
(P HF × N × f HV × f p)
Since fHV is unknown it is calculated from the equation
1
fHV =
(1 + P T (ET − 1) + P R(ER − 1)
where, ET and ER are passenger-car equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational
vehicles (RVs) respectively PT and PR are proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs,
respectively, in the traffic stream (expressed as a decimal fraction)
1
fHV =
1 + 0.13(1.5 − 1) + 0.02(1.2 − 1)
= 0.935.

Assume no RVs, since none is indicated.

1900
Vp =
(0.90 × 2 × 0.935 × 1)
= 1129 pc/h/ln.

3. Determination of free flow speed(S): In this example the free flow speed (FFS)
measured at the field is given and hence no need to compute free flow speed by indirect
method. Therefore, F F S = S = 74.0km/h.

4. Determination of density(D): The density of flow is computed from the equation

D = V p/S = 15.3

5. Determination of LOS: LOS determined from the speed-flow diagram. LOS = C.

Numerical example 2

A segment of an east-west five-lane highway with two travel lanes in each direction separated
by a two-way left-turn lane (TWLTL) on a level terrain has- 83.0-km/h 85th-percentile speed
,3.6-m lane width, 1,500-veh/h peak-hour volume, 6 % trucks and buses, 8 access points/km
(WB), 6 access points/km (EB), 0.90 PHF, 3.6-m and greater lateral clearance for westbound
and eastbound. What is the LOS of the highway on level terrain during the peak hour?

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

Solution The solution steps are enumerate below:

1. Data given: Level terrain, 85th-percentile speed is 83.0 km/h , lane width is 3.6 m, peak-
hour volume, v=1500 veh/h percent of trucks and buses PT=0.06, 8 access points/km
in WB, 6 access points/km in EB, PHF = 0.90, and lateral clearance for westbound and
eastbound is more than 3.6 m.

2. Determination of flow rate(VP): LOS can be calculated by knowing flow rate and
free flow speed. Flow rate (Vp) is calculated from the equation
V
Vp =
(P HF × N × f HV × f p)
where, Vp = 15-min passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln), V = hourly volume
(veh/h), PHF = peak-hour factor, N = number of lanes, fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment
factor, and fp = driver population factor Since fHV is unknown it is calculated from the
equation
1
fHV =
(1 + P T (ET − 1) + P R(ER − 1)
where, ET and ER = passenger-car equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational
vehicles (RVs), respectively PT and PR = proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs,
respectively, in the traffic stream (expressed as a decimal fraction) Assume no RVs, since
none is indicated.
1
fHV =
1 + 0.06(1.5 − 1) + 0
= 0.970.
1500
Vp =
(0.90 × 2 × 0.970 × 1)
= 858 pc/h/lane

3. Determination of free flow speed(S): BFFS is approximately equal to 62.4 km/h

when the 85 th percentile speed is 64 km/h, and it is 91.2 km/h when the 85 th percentile
speed is 96 km/h and the in between speed values is found out by interpolation. Hence,
BFFS = 80 km/h. Now, compute east bound and west bound free-flow speeds
F F S = BF F S − fLW − fLC − fA − fM
= 80 − 0 − 0 − 4 − 0
= 76 kmph (WB)
= 80 − 0 − 0 − 5.3 − 0
= 74.7 kmph (EB)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

4. Determination of LOS: LOS determined from the speed-flow diagram. LOS = C (for
EB) LOS = C (for WB)

Numerical example 3

A 10 km long 4 lane undivided multilane highway in a suburban area has a segment 1 km

long with a 3% upgrade and a segment 1 km long with a 3% downgrade. The section has a
volume of 1900 vehicles/hr in each direction with 13% trucks and buses and 2% recreational
vehicles. The 85 th percentile speed of passenger car is 80 km/hr on upgrade and 86km/hr on
downgrade. There are total of 12 access points on both sides of the roadway. The lane width
is 3.6 m, PHF is 0.90 and having a 3m lateral clearance. Determine the LOS of the highway
section (upgrade and downgrade) during the peak hour? From HCM, For a 3% upgrade and 1
km length( ET=1.5 , ER=3) For a 3% downgrade and 1 km length( ET=1.5 , ER=1.2 )

Solution

1. Data given: 3%upgrade and 3%downgrade No of lanes = 4, N = 4, 80.0 km/h 85th-

percentile speed for upgrade, 86 km/h 85t h-percentile speed for downgrade, 3.6-m lane
width, 1,900-veh/h peak-hour volume, (V =1900 veh/h) 13 % trucks and buses, (PT
=0.13) 2 % Recreational vehicles, ( Pr=0.02 ) 12 access points/km, PHF = 0.90 lateral
clearance = 3 m

2. Determination of flow rate(VP): LOS can be calculated by knowing flow rate and
free flow speed.
For upgrade: Flow rate is calculated from the equation
V
Vp=
(P HF × N × f HV × f p)

where, Vp = 15-min passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln), V = hourly volume

(veh/h), PHF = peak-hour factor, N = number of lanes, fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment
factor, and fp = driver population factor Since fHV is unknown it is calculated from the
equation
1
fHV =
(1 + P T (ET − 1) + P R(ER − 1)

where, ET and ER = passenger-car equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational
vehicles (RVs), respectively PT and PR = proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs,

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

respectively, in the traffic stream (expressed as a decimal fraction) Assume no RVs, since
none is indicated.
1
fHV =
1 + 0.13(1.5 − 1) + 0.02(3 − 1)
= 0.905.
1900
Vp =
(0.90 × 2 × 0.905 ∗ 1)
= 1166 pc/h/ln

For downgrade:
1
fHV =
1 + 0.13(1.5 − 1) + 0.02(1.2 − 1)
= 0.935
1900
Vp =
(0.90 × 2 × 0.935 × 1)
= 1128 pc/h/ln

3. Determination of free flow speed(S): For upgrade: BFFS is approximately equal

to 62.4 km/h when the 85 th percentile speed is 64 km/h, and it is 91.2 km/h when
the 85 th percentile speed is 96 km/h and the in between speed values is found out by
interpolation. Hence for 86 km/hr 85th percentile speed from interpolation we get, BFFS
= 77.0 km/h Now, Compute east bound and west bound free-flow speeds

F F S = BF F S − fLW − fLC − fA − fM
= 77 − 0 − 0.6 − 8.0 − 2.6
= 65.8 km/h

For downgrade: BFFS is approximately equal to 62.4 km/h when the 85 th percentile
speed is 64 km/h, and it is 91.2 km/h when the 85 th percentile speed is 96 km/h and the
in between speed values is found out by interpolation. Hence for 86 km/hr 85th percentile
speed from interpolation we get, BFFS= 82.0 km/h Now, Compute the free-flow speed

F F S = BF F S − fLW − fLC − fA − fM
= 82 − 0 − 0.6 − 8.0 − 2.6
= 71 km/h

4. Determination of LOS LOS determined from the speed-flow diagram. LOS = D (for
upgrade) LOS = D (for downgrade)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 23. Multilane Highways

23.6 Conclusion
This chapter helps to determine the level of service and capacity for a given road segment. In
the first part we studied highways in general there classification and characteristics which gives
the overall idea of multilane highways. Then we studied determination of capacity for multilane
highway which is again a very important parameter used to determine the level of service, then
we studied the concept of level of service and procedure to determine level of service. Also by
using its applications, number of lanes required (N), and flow rate achievable (vp), Performance
measures related to density (D) and speed (S) can also be determined.

23.7 References
1. R Asworth. Highway Engineering. Heinemann Education books limited, London, 1966.

2. Nicholas J Garber and Lester A Hoel. Traffic and Highway Engineering. Cengage
Learning, 2009.

3. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,

Washington, D.C., 2000.

4. R W McShane and R P Roess. Highway Engineering. McGraw Hill Company, 1984.

5. P Y TSENG and F B LIN. Journal of the eastern asia society for transportation studies,
2005.

6. B K Woods. Highway Engineering Handbook. McGraw Hill Company. 1960.

7. H R Wright. Highway Engineering. Library Of Congress Catlaloging-in-Publication

Data, 1996.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Chapter 24

Freeway Operations

24.1 Introduction
A freeway is defined as a divided highway with full control of access and two lanes for the
exclusive use of traffic in each direction. Freeways were originally intended to serve longer trips
of generally regional and interurban character. Traffic on freeways differs from that on city
streets and rural roads in that it moves at higher speeds (depending on traffic conditions, design
standards, etc.), more smoothly, and at much larger rates of flow. Speed limits are generally
higher on freeways, and are occasionally non-existent. Because higher speeds reduce decision
time, freeways are usually equipped with a larger number of guide signs than other roads, and
the signs themselves are physically larger. Guide signs are often mounted on overpasses or
overhead gantries so that drivers can see where each lane goes. Access to freeways is typically
provided only at grade-separated interchanges, though lower-standard right-in/right-out access
can be used for direct connections to side roads. This chapter basically describes the capacity
and level of service. Later weaving phenomenon in has been described.

24.2 Basic features of freeway

Freeway provides uninterrupted traffic flow on a freeway. Traffic on freeway is free-flowing. All
cross-traffic (and left-turning traffic) is relegated to overpasses or underpasses, so that there are
no traffic conflicts on the main line of the highway which must be regulated by traffic lights,
stop signs, or other traffic control devices. Specific features are:

1. There are no signalized or stop-controlled at-grade intersections.

2. Direct access to and from adjacent property is not permitted.

3. Access to and from the freeway is limited to ramp locations.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Not to scale

Basic Freeway Segment

Basic Freeway Segment

Figure 24:1: Basic freeway segment

4. Opposing directions of flow are continuously separated by a raised barrier, an at-grade

median, or a continuous raised median.

5. The advantage of grade-separated interchanges is that freeway drivers can almost always
maintain their speed at junctions since they do not need to yield to vehicles crossing
perpendicular to mainline traffic.

A freeway is composed of following three components

1. Basic freeway segment

2. Ramp junction

3. Weaving areas

24.2.1 Basic freeway segment

Basic freeway are that part of segment of freeway which are outside of the influence area of
ramps or weaving areas of freeway. We can see in Fig.24:1 that a basic freeway segment is
independent of the ramps and weaving areas and the flow in such section occurs smoothly at
the much larger rates. Merging and diverging of traffic occurs where on-or-off ramps join the
basic freeway segment. Weaving occurs when vehicles cross each other’s path while travelling
on freeway lanes. The exact point at which basic freeway segment begins or ends- that is, where
the influence of weaving areas and ramp junctions has dissipated- depends on local conditions,
particularly the level of service operating at the time. If traffic flow is light, the influence may
be negligible, whereas under congested conditions, queues may be extensive.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Base condition of basic freeway segment

The base conditions under which the full capacity of a basic freeway segment is achieved are
good weather, good visibility, and no incidents or accidents. For the analysis procedures in this
chapter, these base conditions are assumed to exist. A set of base conditions for basic freeway
segments has been established. These conditions serve as a starting point for the

1. Lane widths of 3.6 m,

2. Clearance of 1.8 m between the edge of the travel lanes and the nearest obstructions or
objects at the roadside and in the median,

3. Free-flow speed of 120 km/h for freeways,

4. Only passenger cars in the traffic stream (no heavy vehicles),

5. Level terrain,

6. No no-passing zones on two-lane highways, and

7. No impediments to through traffic due to traffic control or turning vehicles.

Base conditions for intersection approaches include the following:

1. Lane widths of 3.6 m,

2. Level grade,

3. No curb parking on the approaches,

4. Only passenger cars in the traffic stream,

5. No local transit buses stopping in the travel lanes,

6. Intersection located in a non central business district area, and

7. No pedestrians

24.3 Capacity of a freeway segment

Freeway capacity is defined as:

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

the maximum sustained 15-min flow rate, expressed in passenger cars per hour per
lane, that can be accommodated by a uniform freeway segment under prevailing
traffic and roadway conditions in one direction of flow.

Capacity analysis is based on freeway segments with uniform traffic and roadway conditions.
If any of the prevailing conditions change significantly, the capacity of the segment and its
operating conditions change as well. Therefore, each uniform segment should be analysed
separately.

24.3.1 Factors affecting Capacity

Roadway conditions

Roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. In some cases, these influence the
capacity of a road; in others, they can affect a performance measure such as speed, but not the
capacity or maximum flow rate of the facility. Roadway factors include the following:

1. Number of lanes, Number of lanes decided for basic freeway is five or more than five but
if number of lanes is less than five then capacity of freeway is reduced.

2. Lane widths, If the lane width is less than the specified lane width for basic freeway
segment, i.e 3.6m then capacity is reduced because traffic flow tends to be restricted.

3. Shoulder widths and lateral clearances, shoulder width and lateral clearance influences
the capacity of freeway. When lane widths are less than 3.65 m, drivers are forced to
travel closer to one another laterally than they would normally desire. Drivers tend
to compensate for this by reducing their travel speed. The effect of restricted lateral
clearance is similar. When objects are located too close to the edge of the median and
roadside lanes, drivers in these lanes will shy away from them, positioning themselves
further from the lane edge hence capacity is reduced.

4. Design speed, freeway is designed for free flow speed around 120 km per hour ,if some
vehicle is moving less than the design speed then capacity of freeway.

5. Grades: Effect of grade depends on both the length and slope of the grade.Traffic opera-
tions significantly affected when grades of 3% or more are longer than one quarter miles
and when grades are less than 3% and longer than mile.The effect of heavy vehicles on
such grades is much greater.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Traffic conditions

Traffic conditions that influence capacities and service levels include vehicle type and lane or
directional distribution.

Vehicle type The entry of heavy vehicles - that is, vehicles other than passenger cars (a
category that includes small trucks and vans) - into the traffic stream affects the number of
vehicles that can be served. Heavy vehicles are vehicles that have more than four tires touching
the pavement. Trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles (RVs) are the three groups of heavy
vehicles.

1. They are larger than passenger cars and occupy more roadway space; and

2. They have poorer operating capabilities than passenger cars, particularly with respect to
acceleration, deceleration, and the ability to maintain speed on upgrades.

Directional and Lane Distribution In addition to the distribution of vehicle types, two
other traffic characteristics affect capacity and level of service: directional distribution and lane
distribution. Each direction of the facility usually is designed to accommodate the peak flow
rate in the peak direction. Typically, morning peak traffic occurs in one direction and evening
peak traffic occurs in the opposite direction. Lane distribution also is a factor on multi lane
facilities. Typically, the shoulder lane carries less traffic than other lanes.

Control conditions

For interrupted-flow facilities, the control of the time for movement of specific traffic flows
is critical to capacity and level of service. The most critical type of control is the traffic
signal. The type of control in use, signal phasing, allocation of green time, cycle length,
and the relationship with adjacent control measures affect operations. Stop signs and yield
signs also affect capacity, but in a less deterministic way. A Impact of control conditions
traffic signal designates times when each movement is permitted; however, a stop sign at a
two-way stop-controlled intersection only designates the right-of-way to the major street. The
capacity of minor approaches depends on traffic conditions on the major street. An all-way stop
control forces drivers to stop and enter the intersection in rotation. Capacity and operational
characteristics can vary widely, depending on the traffic demands on the various approaches.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

24.4 Level of service (LOS) of a basic freeway segment

Level of service is defined as:

qualitatively measures both the operating conditions within a traffic system and
how these conditions are perceived by drivers and passengers.

These operational conditions within a traffic stream are generally described in terms of service
measures as speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, and comfort
and convenience. The three measures of speed, density and flow are interrelated. If values
of two are known, the third can be computed. Six LOS are defined for each type of facility
that has analysis procedures available. Letters designate each level, from A to F, with LOS A
representing the best operating conditions and LOS F the worst. Each level of service represents
a range of operating conditions and the driver’s perception of those conditions. Safety is not
included in the measures that establish service levels.

1. LOS A describes free-flow operations. Free-flow speeds prevail. Vehicles are almost
completely unimpeded in their ability to maneuver within the traffic stream. The effects
of incidents or point breakdowns are easily absorbed at this level.

2. LOS B represents reasonably free flow, and free-flow speeds are maintained. The ability
to maneuver within the traffic stream is only slightly restricted, and the general level of
physical and psychological comfort provided to drivers is still high. The effects of minor
incidents and point breakdowns are still easily absorbed.

3. LOS C provides for flow with speeds at or near the FFS of the freeway. Freedom to
maneuver within the traffic stream is noticeably restricted, and lane changes require
more care and vigilance on the part of the driver. Minor incidents may still be absorbed,
but the local deterioration in service will be substantial. Queues may be expected to form
behind any significant blockage.

4. LOS D is the level at which speeds begin to decline slightly with increasing flows and
density begins to increase somewhat more quickly. Freedom to maneuver within the
traffic stream is more noticeably limited, and the driver experiences reduced physical and
psychological comfort levels. Even minor incidents can be expected to create queuing,
because the traffic stream has little space to absorb disruptions.

5. LOS E describes operation at capacity. Operations at this level are volatile, because there
are virtually no usable gaps in the traffic stream. Vehicles are closely spaced leaving

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Figure 24:2: LOS A

little room to maneuver within the traffic stream at speeds that still exceed 80 km/h.
Any disruption of the traffic stream, such as vehicles entering from a ramp or a vehicle
changing lanes, can establish a disruption wave that propagates throughout the upstream
traffic flow. At capacity, the traffic stream has no ability to dissipate even the most
minor disruption, and any incident can be expected to produce a serious breakdown with
extensive queuing. Maneuverability within the traffic stream is extremely limited, and
the level of physical and psychological comfort afforded the driver is poor.

6. LOS F describes breakdowns in vehicular flow. Such conditions generally exist within
queues forming behind breakdown points. Breakdowns occur for a number of reasons:

(a) Traffic incidents can cause a temporary reduction in the capacity of a short segment,
so that the number of vehicles arriving at the point is greater than the number of
vehicles that can move through it.
(b) Points of recurring congestion, such as merge or weaving segments and lane drops,
experience very high demand in which the number of vehicles arriving is greater than
the number of vehicles discharged.

In all cases, breakdown occurs when the ratio of existing demand to actual capacity
forecast demand to estimated capacity exceeds 1.00. The figures 24:2-24:7 given below
gives a better idea of the LOS classification done on the basis of density of the traffic
stream.

24.5 Determination of LOS

A basic freeway segment can be characterized by three performance measures: density in terms
of passenger cars per kilometer per lane, speed in terms of mean passenger-car speed, and
volume-to-capacity (v/c) ratio. Each of these measures is an indication of how well traffic flow
is being accommodated by the freeway. The measure used to provide an estimate of level of

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Figure 24:3: LOS B

Figure 24:4: LOS C

Figure 24:5: LOS D

Figure 24:6: LOS E

Figure 24:7: LOS F

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

service is density. The three measures of speed, density, and flow or volume are interrelated. If
values for two of these measures are known, the third can be computed.

24.5.1 Methodology
Level of service of an existing freeway is determined considering it as a stretch of basic freeway
segment. It means that we have to take all the base conditions decided for basic freeway
segment as a standard or initial input. The following steps are followed to determine the level
of service of a freeway.

1. The very first step of methodology is to collect all the input data like geometric data,
measured FFS or BFFS, volume.

2. volume adjustment: The hourly volume is converted into flow rate of passenger cars i.e
pc/hr/ln.

3. Computation of FFS: If BFFS is the input, then for getting the value of FFS ,we have
to adjust the BFFS for the lane width,number of lanes,interchange density and lateral
clearance.

4. computation of S(average passenger car speed): S is calculated from the FFS. If FFS is
measured directly in field, then FFS can be taken as S.

5. Speed-flow curve is designed and speed is determined using this curve.

6. Density is determined from the flow rate and speed taken from the speed-flow curve.

7. Based on the density, the corresponding level of service(LOS) can be determined .

The steps involved in calculation of LOS are-

1. Calculation of flow rate (Vp )

2. Calculation of average passenger car (S)

3. Calculation of density (D) and determining LOS

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

24.5.2 Calculating Flow rate (Vp )

The hourly flow rate must reflect the influence of heavy vehicles, the temporal variation of traffic
flow over an hour, and the characteristics of the driver population. These effects are reflected
by adjusting hourly volumes or estimates, typically reported in vehicles per hour (veh/h), to
arrive at an equivalent passenger-car flow rate in passenger cars per hour (pc/h). The equivalent
passenger-car flow rate is calculated using the heavy-vehicle and peak-hour adjustment factors
and is reported on a per lane basis (pc/h/ln). The flow rate can be given as-

V
Vp = (24.1)
P HF × N × fHV × fP

where, V = hourly volume, P HF = peak hour factor (0.80-0.95), N = no. of lanes, fHV =
heavy vehicle adjustment factor, fP = driver population factor

Peak hour factor (PHF) The peak-hour factor (PHF) represents the variation in traffic
flow within an hour. Observations of traffic flow consistently indicate that the flow rates found
in the peak 15-min period within an hour are not sustained throughout the entire hour.
V
P HF = (24.2)
V15×4

Where, V = hourly volume in veh/hr for hour of analysis, V1 5 = Maximum 15-min flow rate
within peak hour, 4 = number of 15-min period per hour.
On freeways, typical PHFs range from 0.80 to 0.95. Lower PHFs are characteristic of rural
freeways or off-peak conditions. Higher factors are typical of urban and suburban peak-hour
conditions. Field data should be used, if possible, to develop PHFs representative of local
conditions.

Heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV ) Freeway traffic volumes that include a mix of
vehicle types must be adjusted to an equivalent flow rate expressed in passenger cars per hour
per lane. This adjustment is made using the factor fHV . Once the values of ET and ER are
found, the adjustment factor, fHV , is determined by using equation given below -

fHV = 11 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1) (24.3)

where, ET , ER = passenger car equivalents for truck buses and recreational vehicles (RV’s)
in traffic stream respectively, PT , PR = proportion of truck/buses and recreational vehicles in
traffic stream. Adjustments for heavy vehicles in the traffic stream apply for three vehicle types:
trucks, buses, and RVs. There is no evidence to indicate distinct differences in performance

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

between trucks and buses on freeways, and therefore trucks and buses are treated identically.
The factor fHV is found using a two-step process. First, the passenger-car equivalent for
each truck/bus and RV is found for the traffic and roadway conditions under study. These
equivalence values, ET and ER , represent the number of passenger cars that would use the same
amount of freeway capacity as one truck/bus or RV, respectively, under prevailing roadway and
traffic conditions. Second, using the values of ET and ER and the proportion of each type of
vehicle in the traffic stream (PT and PR ), the adjustment factor fHV is computed.

Driver population factor: Under base conditions, the traffic stream is assumed to consist of
regular weekday drivers and commuters.Such drivers have a high familiarity with the roadway
and generally maneuver and respond to the maneuvers of other drivers in a safe and predictable
fashion. But weekend drivers or recreational drivers are a problem. Such drivers can cause a
significant reduction in roadway capacity relative to the base condition of having only familiar
drivers. To account for the composition of the driver population, the fp adjustment factor is
used and its recommended range is 0.85 1.00.

24.5.3 Calculating average passenger car speed (S)

The average passenger car speed depends on the free flow speed (FFS) and flow rate as calcu-
lated earlier and can be given as - For, 90 ≤ F F S ≤ 120 and Vp ≤ (3100 − 15F F S),

S = FFS (24.4)

For, 90 ≤ F F S ≤ 120 and (3100 − 15F F S) ≤ vP ≤ (1800 + 5F F S)

   
Vp + 15F F S − 3100
S = F F S − 1/28(23F F S − 1800 26 (24.5)
20F F S − 1300

The average of all passenger-car speeds measured in the field under low- to moderate- volume
conditions can be used directly as the FFS of the freeway segment.

Concept of free flow speed (FFS) Free flow speed can be defined as:

the mean speed of passenger cars that can be accommodated under low to moder-
ate flow rates on a uniform freeway segment under prevailing roadway and traffic
conditions.

FFS is the mean speed of passenger cars measured during low to moderate flows (up to
1,300 pc/h/ln). For a specific segment of freeway, speeds are virtually constant in this range of

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Table 24:1: Adjustment for Lane Width (reduction in free-flow speed for various widths of lane
Lane Width (m) fLW (km/h)
3.6 0.0
3.5 1.0
3.4 2.1
3.3 3.1
3.2 5.6
3.1 8.1
3.0 10.6

flow rates. Two methods can be used to determine the FFS of a basic freeway segment: field
measurement and estimation with guidelines provided in this section. The field-measurement
procedure is provided for users who prefer to gather these data directly. If field measurement of
FFS is not possible, FFS can be estimated indirectly on the measurement is not possible basis of
the physical characteristics of the freeway segment being studied. The physical characteristics
include lane width, number of lanes, right-shoulder lateral clearance, and interchange density.
Equation given below is used to estimate the free-flow speed of a basic freeway segment:

F F S = BF F S − fLW − fLC − f N − fID (24.6)

where, F F S = free flow speed (km/h), BF F S = base free flow speed (km/h), fLW = adjustment
for lane width (km/h), fLC = adjustment for right shoulder clearance (km/h),fN = adjustment
for no. of lanes (km/h), fID = adjustment for interchange density (km/h) Estimation of FFS
for an existing or future freeway segment is accomplished adjusting a base free-flow speed
downward to reflect the influence of four factors: lane width, lateral clearance, number of
lanes, and interchange density. Thus, the analyst is required to select an appropriate BFFS as
a starting point.

Adjustment for Lane Width The base condition for lane width is 3.6 m or greater. When
the average lane width across all lanes is less than 3.6 m, the base free-flow speed (e.g., 120
km/h) is reduced. Adjustments to reflect the effect of narrower average lane width are given
in Table 24:1.

Adjustment for Lateral Clearance Base lateral clearance is 1.8 m or greater on the right
side and 0.6 m or greater on the median or left side, measured from the edge of the paved
shoulder to the nearest edge of the travelled lane. When the right-shoulder lateral clearance

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Table 24:2: Adjustment for Lateral Clearance (reduction in free-flow speed for various values
of lateral clearance)
Right Shoulder fLC (km/h)
Lateral Lanes in One Direction
Clearance (m) 2 3 4 ≥5
≥1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.5 1.0 0.7 0.3 0.2
1.2 1.9 1.3 0.7 0.4
0.9 2.9 1.9 1.0 0.6
0.6 3.9 2.6 1.3 0.8
0.3 4.8 3.2 1.6 1.1
0.0 5.8 3.9 1.9 1.3

Table 24:3: Adjustment for number of lanes (reduction in free-flow speed for number of lanes
in one direction)
Number of Lanes fN (km/h)
≥5 0.0
4 2.4
3 4.8
2 7.3

is less than 1.8 m, the BFFS is reduced. Adjustments to reflect the effect of narrower right-
shoulder lateral clearance are given in Table 24:2.

Adjustment for Number of Lanes Freeway segments with five or more lanes (in one
direction) are considered as having base conditions with respect to number of lanes. When
fewer lanes are present, the BFFS is reduced. Table 24:3 provides adjustments to reflect the
effect of number of lanes on BFFS. In determining number of lanes, only mainline lanes, both
basic and auxiliary, should be considered.

Adjustment for Interchange Density The base interchange density is 0.3 interchanges
per kilometer, or 3.3-km interchange spacing. Base free-flow speed is reduced when interchange
density becomes greater. Adjustments to reflect the effect of interchange density are provided in
Table 24:4. Interchange density is determined over a 10-km segment of freeway (5 km upstream

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Table 24:4: Adjustment for Interchange Density (Reduction in Free-Flow Speed for various
values of interchange density)
Interchanges per km fID (km/h)
≤ 0.3 0.0
0.4 1.1
0.5 2.1
0.6 3.9
0.7 5.0
0.8 6.0
0.9 8.1
1.0 9.2
1.1 10.2
1.2 12.1

and 5 km downstream) in which the freeway segment is located. An interchange is defined as

having at least one on-ramp. Therefore, interchanges that have only off-ramps would not be
considered in determining interchange density. Interchanges considered should include typical
interchanges with arterial or highways and major freeway-to-freeway interchanges.

24.5.4 Calculation of Density and determining LOS

Level of service on the basis of density can be calculated using the equation 24.7
Vp
D= (24.7)
S
Where, D = density (pc/km/ln), Vp = flow rate (pc/h/ln), S = average passenger car speed
(km/h). The density of the traffic stream can be used to determine the level of service of a
freeway segment. Level-of-service thresholds based on density for a basic freeway segment are
summarized in the Table 24:5 shown below.

Numerical example 1

Consider an existing four lane freeway in rural area, having very restricted geometry with
rolling terrain. Peak hour volume is 2000 veh/h with 5% trucks. The traffic is commuter type
with peak hour factor 0.92 and interchange density as 0.6 interchanges per kilometer. Freeway
consists of two lanes in each direction of 3.3 m width with lateral clearance of 0.6 m. Find the
LOS of freeway during peak hour.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Table 24:5: LOS for a freeway segment

LOS Density Range (pc/km/ln)
A 0-7
B >7 - 11
C >11 - 16
D >16 - 22
E >22 - 28
F >28

Solution Assumptions: Assume 0 percent buses and RVs since none are indicated. Assume
BFFS of 120 km/h for rural areas. Since the freeway is in a rural area assume that the number
of lanes does not affect free-flow speed. Assume fp = 1.00 for commuter traffic. We can get the
corresponding values of adjustment factors from the tables as - fLW =3.1, fLC =3.9, fID =3.9
and fN =0.

Step 1 Find fHV using equation 24.3 as given below -

1
fHV =
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1)
1
=
1 + 0.05(2.5 − 1) + 0
= 0.930

Step 2 Convert volume (veh/h) to flow rate (pc/h/ln) using equation as given below

V
Vp =
P HF × N × fHV × fP
2000
=
0.92 × 2 × 0.930 × 1.00
= 1, 169 pc/h/ln

Step 3 Compute free-flow speed from equation 24.6 as given below and putting the respective
values of adjustment factors we get F F S as

F F S = BF F S − fLW − fLC − fN − fID

= 120 − 3.1 − 3.9 − 0.0 − 3.9
= 109.1 kmph.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Step 4 Determine the density using the equation 24.7 as -

Vp
D =
S
Since, 90 ≤ F F S ≤ 120 and Vp ≤ (3100 − 15F F S) we can take S = F F S (from equation 24.4).
Keeping values of Vp and S we can get the value of density as -
1169
D = = 10.7 pc/km/ln
109.1

Step 5 Find Level of service, for the calculated value of density we can get the level of service
from the LOS table. i.e for D = 10.7 pc/km/ln we get LOS = B

Numerical example 2

A new suburban freeway is designed in the level terrain. Peak hour volume is 4,000 veh/h and
the flow consists of 15% trucks and 3% recreational vehicles (RV’s). The traffic is commuter
type with peak hour factor 0.85 and interchange density as 0.9 interchanges per kilometer. Lane
width is proposed to be 3.6 m with lateral clearance of 1.8 m. How many lanes are needed to
provide LOS C during the peak hour?

Solution Assumptions: Assume BF F S of 120 km/h. Since the freeway is being designed in
a suburban area assume that the number of lanes affects free-flow speed. For commuter traffic
we can take fp = 1.00. We can get the corresponding values of adjustment factors from the
tables as - fLW = 0, fLC = 0, fID = 8.1 and fN = 4.8.

Step 1 Find fHV using equation 24.3 as given below:

1
fHV =
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1)
1
=
1 + 0.15(1.5 − 1) + 0.03(1.2 − 1)
= 0.925

Step 2 Convert volume (veh/h) to flow rate (pc/h/ln) using equation 24.2. Consider a four
lane option, for four lane N = 2, keeping value of fHV and N in equation 24.2 we get Vp as:
V
Vp =
P HF × N × fHV × fP
4000
=
0.85 × 2 × 0.925 × 1.00
= 2, 544 pc/h/ln.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

Four lane option is not acceptable as 2544 pc/h/ln exceeds capacity of 2400 pc/h/ln. Here
2400 pc/h/ln is the capacity of a single lane under standard conditions.

Step 4 Consider a six lane option

4000
Vp =
(.85 × 3 × 0.925 × 1.00
= 1, 696 pc/h/ln.

Step 5 Compute FFS for a six-lane freeway from equation 24.6 and putting the respective
values of adjustment factors we get F F S as:

F F S = BF F S − fLW − fLC − fN − fID

= 120 − 0 − 0 − 4.8 − 8.1
= 107.1. km/h.

Step 6 Determine density from equation 24.7

Vp
D =
S
Since, 90 ≤ F F S ≤ 120 and v−p ≤ (3100−15F F S) we can take S = F F S (from equation 24.4)
Putting values of Vp and S we get density as
1696
D = = 15.8 pc/km/ln
107.1

Step 7 Check the LOS, for the calculated value of density we can get the level of service
from the LOS table; i.e for D = 15.8 pc/km/ln we get LOS = C. Hence number of lanes to be
provided to satisfy LOS C during peak hour = 6.

24.6 Weaving in freeways

Weaving is defined as the crossing of two or more traffic streams travelling in the same general
direction along a significant length of highway without the aid of traffic control devices (with the
exception of guide signs). Weaving segments are formed when a merge area is closely followed
by a diverge area, or when an on-ramp is closely followed by an off-ramp and the two are joined
by an auxiliary lane.
Weaving segments require intense lane-changing maneuvers as drivers must access lanes
appropriate to their desired exit points. Thus, traffic in a weaving segment is subject to

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations
A C

B D

Figure 24:8: Simple weaving segment

turbulence in excess of that normally present on basic freeway segments. The turbulence
presents special operational problems and design requirements. Fig. 24:8 shows the simple
weaving segment formed by a single merge point followed by a single diverge point. Multiple
weaving segments may be formed where one merge is followed by two diverge points or where
two merge points are followed by one diverge point.

24.6.1 Weaving configurations

The most critical aspect of operations within a weaving segment is lane changing. Weaving
vehicles, which must cross a roadway to enter on the right and leave on the left, or vice versa,
accomplish these maneuvers by making the appropriate lane changes. The configuration of the
weaving segment (i.e., the relative placement of entry and exit lanes) has a major effect on the
number of lane changes required of weaving vehicles to successfully complete their maneuver.
There is also a distinction between lane changes that must be made to weave successfully and
additional lane changes that are discretionary (i.e., are not necessary to complete the weaving
maneuver). The former must take place within the confined length of the weaving segment,
whereas the latter are not restricted to the weaving segment itself. There are three major
categories of weaving configurations: Type A, Type B, and Type C.

Type A weaving configuration

The identifying characteristic of a Type A weaving segment is that all weaving vehicles must
make one lane change to complete their maneuver successfully. All of these lane changes occur
across a lane line that connects from the entrance gore area directly to the exit gore area. Such
a line is referred to as a crown line. Type A weaving segments are the only such segments to
have a crown line.
The most common form of Type A weaving segment is shown in Fig. 24:9. The segment is
formed by a one-lane on-ramp followed by a one-lane off-ramp, with the two connected by a
continuous auxiliary lane. The lane line between the auxiliary lane and the right-hand freeway
lane is the crown line for the weaving segment. All on-ramp vehicles entering the freeway must

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

A C

B D

Figure 24:9: Ramp Weave

A C

B D

Figure 24:10: Major Weave

make a lane change from the auxiliary lane to the shoulder lane of the freeway. All freeway
vehicles exiting at the off-ramp must make a lane change from the shoulder lane of the freeway
to the auxiliary lane. This type of configuration is also referred to as a ramp-weave. Fig. 24:10
illustrates a major weaving segment that also has a crown line. A major weaving segment is
formed when three or four of the entry and exit legs have multiple lanes. As in the case of a
ramp-weave, all weaving vehicles, regardless of the direction of the weave, must execute one
lane change across the crown line of the segment.

Type B weaving configuration

Type B weaving segments are shown in Figs. 24:11 to 24:13. All Type B weaving segments
fall into the general category of major weaving segments in that such segments always have
at least three entry and exit legs with multiple lanes (except for some collector distributor
configurations). It is the lane changing required of weaving vehicles that characterizes for the
Type B configuration:

1. One weaving movement can be made without making any lane changes, and

2. The other weaving movement requires at most one lane change.

Figs. 24:11 to 24:13 show two Type B weaving segments. In both cases, Lane balance defined
Movement B-C (entry on the right, departure on the left) may be made without executing any
lane changes, whereas Movement A-D (entry on the left, departure on the right) requires only
one lane change. Essentially, there is a continuous lane that allows for entry on the right and
departure on the left.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations
A
C

B
D

Figure 24:11: Major Weave with Lane Balance at Exit Gore

A C

B D

Figure 24:12: Major Weave with Merge at Entry Gore

In Fig. 24:11 this is accomplished by providing a diverging lane at the exit gore. From this
lane, a vehicle may proceed down either exit leg without executing a lane change. This type
of design is also referred to as lane balanced, that is, the number of lanes leaving the diverge
is one more than the number of lanes approaching it. In Fig. 24:12 the same lane-changing
scenario is provided by having a lane from Leg A merge with a lane from Leg B at the entrance
gore. This is slightly less efficient than providing lane balance at the exit gore but produces
similar numbers of lane changes by weaving vehicles. The configuration shown in Fig. 24:13
is unique, having both a merge of two lanes at the entrance gore and lane balance at the exit
gore. In this case, both weaving movements can take place without making a lane change. Such
configurations are most often found on collector-distributor roadways as part of an interchange.

A C

D
B

Figure 24:13: Major Weave with Merge at Entry Gore and Lane Balance at Exit Gore

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

B D

Figure 24:14: Major Weave without Lane Balance or Merging

A D

Figure 24:15: Two-Sided Weave

Type C weaving configuration

Type C weaving segments are similar to those of Type B in that one or more through lanes
are provided for one of the weaving movements. The distinguishing characteristic of a Type C
weaving segment is that the other weaving movement requires a minimum of two lane changes
for successful completion of a weaving maneuver. Thus, a Type C weaving segment is charac-
terized by the following:

1. One weaving movement may be made without making a lane change, and

2. The other weaving movement requires two or more lane changes.

Figs. 24:14 to 24:15 shows two types of Type C weaving segments. In Fig. 24:14 Movement
B-C does not require a lane change, whereas Movement A-D requires two lane changes. This
type of segment is formed when there is neither merging of lanes at the entrance gore nor lane
balance at the exit gore, and no crown line exists. Although such a segment is relatively efficient
for weaving movements in the direction of the freeway flow, it cannot efficiently handle large
weaving flows in the other direction.
Fig. 24:15 shows a two-sided weaving segment. It is formed when a right-hand on-ramp is
followed by a left-hand off-ramp, or vice versa. In such cases, the through freeway flow operates
functionally as a weaving flow. Ramp-to-ramp vehicles must cross all lanes of the freeway to
execute their desired maneuver. Freeway lanes are, in effect, through weaving lanes, and ramp-
to-ramp vehicles must make multiple lane changes as they cross from one side of the freeway
to the other.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

24.6.2 Effect of weaving configuration

The configuration of the weaving segment has a marked effect on operations because of its
influence on lane-changing behavior. A weaving segment with 1,000 veh/h weaving across
1,000 veh/h in the other direction requires at least 2,000 lane changes per hour in a Type A
segment, since each vehicle makes one lane change. In a Type B segment, only one movement
must change lanes, reducing the number of required lane changes per hour to 1,000. In a Type
C segment, one weaving flow would not have to change lanes, while the other would have to
make at least two lane changes, for a total of 2,000 lane changes per hour.
Configuration has a further effect on the proportional use of lanes by weaving and lanes non
weaving vehicles. Since weaving vehicles must occupy specific lanes to efficiently complete their
maneuvers, the configuration can limit the ability of weaving vehicles to use outer lanes of
the segment. This effect is most pronounced for Type A segments, because weaving vehicles
must primarily occupy the two lanes adjacent to the crown line. It is least severe for Type
B segments, since these segments require the fewest lane changes for weaving vehicles, thus
allowing more flexibility in lane use.

24.7 Conclusion
Freeways are most efficient type of highway. Level of service (LOS) is a quality measure
describing operational conditions within a traffic stream of freeways. Prevailing roadway, traffic
and control conditions define capacity; these conditions should be reasonably uniform for any
section of freeway analysed. Freeway management system works for smooth operations of
freeway.

24.8 References
1. Traffic operations, traffic signal systems and freeway operations, 1995.

2. Freeway operations, 2019. Highway Research Board, bulletin 324; 1962 ; pageno. 46-73.

3. James H Banks. Introduction to transportation engineering. Tata Mc-Graw Hill, 2004.

4. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,

Washington, D.C., 2000.

5. C S Papacostas. Transportation engineering and planning by Papacostas. C. S, 3rd

edition, Prentice-Hall of India in 2001. Prentice-Hall of India, 2001.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 24.22 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 24. Freeway Operations

6. Roess P Roger and Jose M Ulerio. Level of Service Analysis of Freeway Weaving Segments.
Transportation Research Record:2130, 2009.

7. S Wolfgang, Homburger, and James H Kell. Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering 12th

Edition. San Francisco, 1997.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 24.23 February 19, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

Chapter 25

Ramp Metering

25.1 Introduction
Ramp metering can be defined as a method by which traffic seeking to gain access to a busy
highway is controlled at the access point via traffic signals. This control aims at maximize the
capacity of the highway and prevent traffic flow breakdown and the onset of congestion. Ramp
metering is the use of traffic signals to control the flow of traffic entering a freeway facility.
Ramp metering, when properly applied, is a valuable tool for efficient traffic management on
freeways and freeway networks.

25.1.1 Objectives
The objectives of ramp metering includes:

1. Controlling the number of vehicles that are allowed to enter the freeway,

2. Reducing freeway demand, and

3. Breaking up of the platoon of vehicles released from an upstream traffic signal.

Figure 25:1 given below is a typical example of ramp metering. The signal placed at the ramp,
controls the traffic flow which can enter the freeway through merge lane. Vehicle detectors are
also shown at the downstream end of the freeway.

25.1.2 Benefits
Ramp metering has many positive benefits in freeway management with in measurable param-
eters such as reduced delay, reduced travel time, reduced accident risk and increased operating
speed. The typical advantages are:

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering
Traffic signal
on merge
ramp
Vehicle detectors monitoring
Merge lane traffic density through lane
occupancy

Direction of travel

Figure 25:1: Schematic diagram of ramp metering

1. Improved System Operation: Ramp metering essentially aims to control the access to
a freeway to reduce congestion, freeway delay and ultimately overall delay. Although
several ramp metering strategies are available with individual pros and cons, overall,
ramp metering helps to break up platoons of vehicles from entering a freeway and causing
turbulence, reduces delay due to random access and defers if not eliminates the onset of
congestion.

2. Improved Safety: Ramp areas are accident prone areas due to unmanaged merging and
diverging. Ramp metering makes merging and diverging operation to a freeway smooth
and controlled, reducing the risk of accidents arising out of sudden driver decisions. Ran-
dom entry of platoons is also prevented which decreases the risk of accidents at merge or
diverge areas.

3. Reduced vehicle operating expense and emission: Ramp metering essentially reduces the
number of stops and delays for the freeway as well as the ramps. This in turn reduces
the fuel consumption and emission for a vehicle.

25.2 Metering strategies

Metering strategies can be defined as the approach used to control the traffic the flow on the
ramps. Three Ramp metering strategies are available to control the flow on the ramps which
can enter the busy freeway. Capacity of an uncontrolled single-lane freeway entrance ramp
is 1800 to 2200 vehicles per hour (VPH). Since Ramp metering is a traffic flow controlling
approach it decreases the capacity of the ramps. Three ramp-metering strategies are as follows:

25.2.1 Single-lane one car per green

Single-lane one car per green ramp metering strategy allows only one car to enter the freeway
during each signal cycle. The salient features of this strategy are:

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

1. The length of green plus yellow indications is set to ensure sufficient time for one vehicle
to cross the stop line. The length of red interval should be sufficient to ensure that the
following vehicle completely stops before proceeding.

2. A typical cycle length is taken as, the smallest possible cycle is 4 seconds with 1 second
green, 1 second yellow, and 2 seconds red. This produces a meter capacity of 900 VPH.

3. A more reasonable cycle is around 4.5 seconds, obtained by increasing the red time to 2.5
seconds. This increase in red would result in a lower meter capacity of 800 VPH.

25.2.2 Single-lane multiple cars per Green

Single-Lane Multiple Cars per Green is also known as Platoon metering, or bulk metering. This
approach allows two or more vehicles to enter the freeway during each green indication. The
most common form of this strategy is to allow two cars per green. The salient features of this
type of ramp metering are:

1. Three or more cars can be allowed; however, this will sacrifice the third objective(breaking
up large platoons).

2. Furthermore, contrary to what one might think, bulk metering does not produce a drastic
increase in capacity over a single-lane one car per green operation. This is because this
strategy requires longer green and yellow times as ramp speed increases, resulting in a
longer cycle length. Consequently, there are fewer cycles in one hour.

3. Two cars per green strategy requires cycle lengths between 6 and 6.5 seconds and results
in metering capacity of 1100 to 1200 VPH. This analysis illustrates that bulk metering
does not double capacity and this finding should be noted.

25.2.3 Dual-lane metering

In dual lane metering two lanes are required to be provided on the ramp in the vicinity of the
meter which necks down to one lane at the merge. The salient features of this type of ramp
metering are:

1. In this strategy, the controller displays the green-yellow-red cycle for each lane.

2. Synchronized cycles are used such that the green indications never occur simultaneously
in both lanes.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering
Metering quality
100

Good
90
80
Dual lane,
70 single entry

Fair
1 car/green
60
50 2 cars/green
40
30
3 cars/green
Fail

20
10
0
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800

Ramp demand volume (vph)

Figure 25:2: Comparison of metering quality of different approaches with Ramp demand volume

3. The green indications are timed to allow a constant headway between vehicles from both
lanes. Dual-lane metering can provide metering capacity of 1600 to 1700 VPH.

4. In addition, dual-lane ramps provide more storage space for queued vehicles.

25.2.4 Quality of metering

The quality of ramp metering essentially implies the efficiency of handling the flow and reducing
unnecessary delays through metering strategies. For a ramp meter to produce the desired
benefits, the engineer should select a metering strategy appropriate for the current or projected
ramp demand. The ramp width will depend on this selection. The following fig. 25:2 shows the
metering availability (percent of time the signal is metering) of the three metering strategies
for a range of ramp demand volumes. In Figure 25:2, if the flow on a single lane ramp which
has Single-Lane One Car per Green approach is 1000 vph, then the metering availability is
only 80 percent since the metering approach installed has the capacity of 800 vph. Therefore
metering availability decreases as the traffic flow increases. If the flow is around 1600 vph then
Dual-Lane Metering gives 100 percent metering availability. Thus it is imperative to select the
metering strategy based on the flow and accordingly select the required ramp width.

25.3 Design of ramp metering

There are some considerations to be taken into account before designing and installing a ramp
meter. Installation of a ramp meter to achieve the desired objectives requires sufficient room

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

at the entrance ramp. The determination of minimum ramp length to provide safe, efficient,
and desirable operation requires careful consideration of several elements described below:

1. Sufficient room must be provided for a stopped vehicle at the meter to accelerate and
attain safe merge speeds.

2. Sufficient space must be provided to store the resulting cyclic queue of vehicles without
blocking an upstream signalized intersection.

3. Sufficient room must be provided for vehicles discharged from the upstream signal to
safely stop behind the queue of vehicles being metered.

Provision for the distances mentioned is an integral part of ramp design. Figure 25:3 illustrates
the requirements for the different types of distances explained above.

25.3.1 Minimum stopping distance to the back of queue

Sufficient stopping distance is required to be provided prior to entry to the ramp. Motorists
leaving an upstream signalized interchange will likely encounter the rear end of a queue as they
proceed toward the meter. Adequate maneuvering and stopping distances should be provided
for both turning and frontage road traffic. This stopping distance calculated similar to the
stopping sight distance which is a combination of the brake distance and lag distance travelled
by a vehicle before stopping. The equation to calculate the minimum stopping distance is given
below:
v2
X = vt + (25.1)
2gf
where, X is the stopping distance in meters, v is the velocity of the vehicle in m/sec, t is the time
in seconds, g is the gravity coefficient in m/sec2 , f is the friction coefficient. This is the minimum
distance to be provided from the back of the queue for safe stopping of vehicles approaching
the ramp. Figure 25:3 shows Safe stopping distance, storage distance and acceleration distance
which are respective three criteria for ramp design.

25.3.2 Storage distance

The storage distance is required to store the vehicles in queue to a ramp meter. The queue
detector controls the maximum queue length in real-time. Thus, the distance between the meter
and the queue detector defines the storage space. The following generalized spacing model can
be used to determine the single-lane storage distance:

L = aV − bV 2 ∀ V ≤ 1600 vph (25.2)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

Queue Single lane

Detector meter Acceleration distance
Ramp length
Storage space

Safe stopping distance

Figure 25:3: Components of Ramp design criteria

Distance to meter (metres)

200
Dual lane
Bulk metering
150 Single lane

100

50

0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500

Ramp demand volume (vph)

Figure 25:4: Variation of distance to meter with Ramp demand volume for different strategies
of Ramp metering

In this equation, L (in meters) is the required single-lane storage distance on the ramp when
the expected peak-hour ramp demand volume is V vph and a, b are constants. This figure
shows the requirements for three metering strategies:
1. Single-lane with single vehicle release per cycle.

2. Single-lane with bulk metering (three vehicles per green).

3. Dual-lane metering assuming single-line storage.

In the Figure 25:4 the curve is shown for the variation of storage distance i.e. distance to meter
with ramp demand volume for different strategy used for Ramp metering.

25.3.3 Distance from meter to merge

The distance from meter to merge is provided so that vehicles can attain a suitable merging
speed after being discharged from the ramp meter. AASHTO provides speed-distance profiles

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

Distance to merge (metres)

700 3%
600
500
0%
400
300 −3%

200
100
0
60 70 80 90 100

Freeway merge speed (km/hr)

Figure 25:5: Acceleration length v/s merge speed for different strategies of Ramp metering

Table 25:1: Acceleration length of ramps

Merge speed Ramp Grade (%)

(kmph) -3 0 +3
60 90 112 150
70 127 158 208
80 180 228 313
90 248 323 466
100 331 442 665

for various classes of vehicles as they accelerate from a stop to speed for various ramp grades.
Figure 25:5, given below provides similar acceleration distances needed to attain various freeway
merging speeds based on AASHTO design criteria. Table 25:1 provides the acceleration length
for different merge speed and with ramps of different grade. The desired distances to merge
increases with increasing freeway merge speed and the same ramp grade.

25.4 Ramp design methodology

To model the ramp influence area, a length of 450 m just upstream (for off ramp) and down-
stream (for on ramp) is considered to be affected. The input data required is the geometric
data of the freeway and the ramp and the demand flow. The three steps of design are:

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

V
F
{ V
{
12

}
D S
VR 12
R R } VFO

450 m

Figure 25:6: Schematic view of a typical merging area

1. The flow entering lanes 1 and 2 of the freeway upstream of merge area or diverge area is
first determined.

2. The capacity of the freeway, ramp and merge and diverge areas are determined and
checked with limiting values to determine the chance of occurrence of congestion.

3. The density in the ramp influence area is then found out and depending on the value f
this variable, the level of service is determined.

From design point of view analysis of merge area and diverge area are treated separately but
follows the same basic principle already explained.

25.5 Merging influence area

The Merging influence area is the area where increase in local density, congestion, and reduced
speeds is generally observed due to merging traffic from ramps. The ramp contributing traffic
to the freeway is called an ON ramp. The analysis of the merging influence area is done to find
out the level of service of the ON ramp (Figure 25:6). The analysis of merge area is done in
following three primary steps:

25.5.1 Predicting entering flow

The first step of the merge area analysis is to predict the flow entering lanes 1and 2 of the
freeway (V12 ). The terms used in above figure are explained below. V12 is influenced by the
following factors:

1. Total freeway flow approaching merge area (VF ) (pc/h): The total approach flow is the
most important influencing factor for the flow remaining in lanes 1 and 2 of the freeway.

2. Total Ramp Flow (VR ): This is the total flow on the ramp which ultimately enters the
freeway to merge with existing flow.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

3. Total length of acceleration lane: A longer acceleration lane reduces the turbulence and
hence the density in the influence area of the ramp. The flow in the lanes 1 and 2 thus
are higher.

4. Free- flow speed of ramp at point of merge area: Higher the free flow speed of ramp
vehicles, vehicles on freeway tend to move away from merging flow to avoid high speed
turbulence.

HCM 2000 provides model for predicting V12 at on-ramps as given below:

V12 = VF × PF M (25.3)

where V12 is the flow rate in lane 1 and 2 of freeway entering ramp influence area (pc/h), VF
is the total freeway flow approaching merge area, and PF M is the Proportion of approaching
freeway flow remaining in lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of merge. For four lanes freeway
(2 lanes in each direction) PF M = 1.00

25.5.2 Determining capacity

Determining the capacity of the merge area is the second step of the analysis. The capacity
of a merge area is determined by the capacity of the downstream freeway segment. Thus, the
total flow arriving on the upstream freeway and the on-ramp cannot exceed the basic freeway
capacity of the departing downstream freeway segment.

vR12 = v12 + vR (25.4)

Two conditions may occur in a given analysis:

1. The total departing freeway flow, given as V = vF + vR , is greater than the capacity of
the down steam freeway segment, and hence the LOS is F and queuing is expected on
the freeway.

2. Flow entering the ramp influence area exceeds its capacity but total departing freeway
flow is within capacity. This may result in in local high densities and queuing is not
expected on the freeway.

25.5.3 Determining LOS

Determining the level of service (LOS) of the merge area is the third step in merge area analysis.
LOS depends on the density in the influencing area. HCM 2000 provides the equation to

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

Table 25:2: LOS criteria for merge and diverge areas

LOS Density (pc/km/lane)

A ≥6
B 6 - 12
C 12 - 17
D 17 - 22
E > 22
F Demands exceeds capacity

estimate the density in the merge influence area.

DR = a + b VR + c V12 + d LA (25.5)

where, DR is the density of merge influence area (pc/km/ln), VR is the on-ramp peak 15-min
flow rate (pc/h), LA is the length of acceleration lane (m), V12 is the flow rate entering ramp
influence area (pc/h), and a, b, c, and d are constants.

Numerical example

Consider a single lane on-ramp to a six-lane freeway. The length of the acceleration lane is 150
m. What is the LOS during the peak hour for the first on-ramp? Given that the peak hour
factor is 0.95, the heavy vehicle adjustment factor is 0.976, the driver adjustment factor is 1.0
and proportion of approaching freeway flow remaining is 55.5%? The freeway volume is 3000
veh/hr and the on-ramp volume is 1800 veh/hr.

Solution

1. Convert volume to flow rate: Convert volume in (veh/hr) to flow rate (pc/hr) using
Vi
vi =
P HF × Fhv × Fp
where, vi is the flow rate in pc/hr for direction i, Vi is the hourly volume in veh/hr for
direction i, PHF is the peak hour factor, and Fhv is the adjustment factor for heavy
vehicles, and Fp is the adjustment factor for driver population.

VF = 3236 pc/hr (Fhv = 0.976, F p = 1.000)

VR = 1941 pc/hr (Fhv = 0.976, F p = 1.000)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

2. Compute V12 as:

V12 = VF × PF M
= 3236 × 0.555 = 1796 pc/hr.

3. Compute density at ramp influence area using equation:

DR = a + b VR + c V12 + d LA
= 3.402 + 0.00456 VR + 0.0048 V12 − 0.01278 LA
= 3.402 + 0.00456 × 1941 + 0.0048 × 1796 − 0.01278 × 150
= 18.96 pc/km/ln.

4. Compute LOS For DR =18.96 pc/km/ln, the LOS = D from the LOS table above.

25.6 Diverge influence area

The Diverging influence area is the area where increase in local density, congestion, and reduced
speeds is generally observed due to diverging traffic to ramps. The ramp which diverge traffic
to the ramp is called an OFF ramp. The analysis of the diverging influence area is done to
find out the level of service of the OFF ramp. The analysis of diverge area is done in following
three primary steps:

25.6.1 Predicting entering flow

The first step is same as that of merge area analysis. The flow in lanes 1 and 2 of the freeway
is first predicted. However, there are two major differences in the analysis of diverge area.

1. First, approaching flow V12 is measured for a point immediately upstream of the deceler-
ation lane.

2. Second, V12 includes VR at the diverge area. V12 is the flow rate entering ramp influence
area (pc/h), and vR is the Off-ramp demand flow rate (pc/h).

The general model given by HCM 2000 treats V12 as the sum of the off-ramp flow plus a
proportion of the through freeway flow.

V12 = VR + (VF − VR ) × PF D (25.6)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

V
F
{ V12
{ } VR12
D S
R R } V
FO

450 m V
R

Figure 25:7: Typical diverging area diagram

where, V12 is the flow rate in lanes 1 and 2 of freeway upstream of diverge area in (pc/hr),
VF is the freeway demand flow rate immediately upstream of diverge in (pc/h), and PF D is
the proportion of through freeway flow remaining in lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of
diverge. For four lanes freeway (2 lanes in each direction) PF D is 1.00.

25.6.2 Determining capacity

As in the merge area analysis, determining the capacity is the second step of the diverge area
analysis. Three limiting values should be checked:

1. Total flow that can depart from the diverge: this is limited by the capacity of the lanes
in the freeway prior to approach of the diverge.

2. The capacities of the departing freeway leg or legs or ramp or both. This is the most
important of the three as generally diverge areas fail due to failure of one or more exit
legs..

3. V12 (approaching flow) prior to deceleration lane: this flow also includes the off-ramp flow
and must be checked against capacity.

25.6.3 Determining LOS

Determine the level of service (LOS) of the diverge area is the third step of the diverge area
analysis. LOS criteria for diverge area are based on density in the diverge influence area. HCM
2000 provides the equation to estimate the density in the merge influence area.

DR = a + b V12 + cLD (25.7)

where, DR is the density of diverge influence area (pc/km/ln), V12 is the flow rate entering ramp
influence area (pc/h), LD is the length of deceleration lane(m), and a, b & c are constants.
This equation is applicable only for under saturated conditions of flow. The density calculation

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

D S
R R

150 m 225 m 90 m

Figure 25:8: Numerical example

is not done when either of the three capacities mentioned earlier are exceeded. In such cases,
the LOS is assigned as F.

Numerical example

Consider an off-ramp (Single-lane) pair, 225 meters apart, from a six lane freeway. The length
of the first deceleration lane is 150m and that of the second deceleration lane is 90 m. What is
the LOS during the peak hour for the first off-ramp given that the peak hour factor is 0.95, the
heavy vehicle adjustment factor is 0.93, the driver adjustment factor is 1.0 and the proportion
of through freeway flow remaining is 61.7%? The freeway volume is 4500 veh/hr and the first
off-ramp volume is 300 veh/hr.

Solution

1. Convert volume to flow rate: Convert volume in veh/hr to flow rate in pc/hr as
follows:
Vi
vi =
(P HF × Fhv × Fp )
VF = 5093 pc/hr (Fhv = 0.930, Fp = 1.0)
VR = 340 pc/hr (Fhv = 0.930, Fp = 1.0)

2. Compute V12 as below:

V12 = VR + (VF − VR ) × P F D
= 340 + (5093 − 340) × (0.617)
= 3273 pc/hr

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

3. Compute density at ramp influence area as below:

DR = 2.642 + 0.0053 V12 − 0.0183 LD

DR = 2.642 + 0.0053 × 3273 − 0.0183 × 150
DR = 17.2 pc/km/ln.

4. Determine LOS: For DR =17.2 pc/km/ln the LOS is D.

25.7 Fixed, reactive and predictive systems

There are two different metering approaches available. First is Pre-timed metering, which use
fixed signal cycles. Second is Traffic responsive, which uses real time traffic data to calculate
signal cycle lengths. Traffic responsive systems can be local or system-wide.

25.7.1 Pre-timed (fixed) systems

In the pre-timed ramp metering systems, the ramp signal operates with a constant cycle in ac-
cordance with a metering rate prescribed for the particular control period.. the salient features
of this type of ramp metering are:

1. It is the simplest and least expensive form of ramp metering for construction and instal-
lation.

2. It is also the most rigid approach because it cannot make adjustments for real-time
conditions including non-recurring congestion (i.e., congestion that occurs as a result of
weather, collisions, etc.).

3. Th system being pre-timed, it is best used to address conditions that are predictable from
day-today.

4. If there is no mainline or ramp detection, agencies must regularly collect data by al-
ternative means in order to analyze traffic conditions on the freeway and determine the
appropriate metering rates.

5. The metering operation will require frequent observation so that rates can be adjusted to
meet traffic conditions which is a drawback.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

25.7.2 Traffic responsive systems

In contrast to the pre-timed metering control, traffic-responsive metering is directly influenced
by the mainline and ramp traffic conditions during the metering period. Metering rates are
selected on the basis of real-time measurements of traffic variables indicating the current relation
between upstream and downstream capacity. The salient features of this type of ramp metering
system are:

1. This system uses freeway loop detectors or other surveillance systems to calculate or select
ramp metering rates based on current freeway conditions.

2. It is generally considered to be five to ten percent better than those of pre-timed metering.

3. A traffic responsive approach can be used either locally or system-wide.

Local traffic responsive

Local ramp metering is employed when only the conditions local to the ramp (as compared
with other ramps) are used to provide the metering rates. The salient features are:

1. Local traffic responsive metering approaches base metering rates on freeway conditions
near the metered ramp.

2. This is used where the traffic congestion at a location can be reduced by the metering of
a single ramp.

3. They are used as backups when system-wide algorithms fail.

4. Unlike pre-timed systems, local systems require surveillance of the freeway using traffic
detectors.

5. Although, more capital costs are required to implement traffic responsive systems, they
more easily adapt to changing conditions and can provide better results than their pre-
timed counterparts.

System-wide traffic responsive

In most cases, it is preferable to meter a series of ramps in a freeway section in a coordinated

fashion based on criteria that consider the entire freeway section. The strategy may also consider
the freeway corridor consisting of the freeway section as well as the surface streets that will be
affected by metered traffic. The salient features are:

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Transportation Systems Engineering 25. Ramp Metering

1. This is used when there are multiple bottlenecks or locations of recurring congestion along
a freeway.

2. This type of ramp metering is used to optimize traffic flow along a metered stretch of
roadway, rather than at a specific point on the freeway (as is the case of local traffic
responsive systems).

3. Like local traffic responsive systems, system-wide traffic responsive systems require data
from ramp detectors and local freeway detectors.

4. In addition to these components, system-wide traffic responsive systems are unique in the
fact that data is also needed from downstream detectors and/or upstream detectors at
multiple locations, potentially from cross-street signal controllers, and from the central
computer.

5. System-wide traffic responsive systems have the most complex hardware configuration
compared to the other metering approaches discussed so far (i.e., pre-timed and local
traffic responsive).

25.8 Summary
In this chapter we discussed ramp metering, different strategies of ramp metering, procedure
to find out the level of service of on and off ramps, different kind of metering systems. From
the analysis that we have done in this chapter we can say that the Ramp metering can result
into increased freeway speed, decreased travel time, increase in freeway capacity, reduction in
accidents and congestion, improved fuel economy and efficient use of capacity.

25.9 References
1. Ismail Chabini and Amedeo R Odoni. Transportation Flow Systems. MIT, 2019.

2. A Chaudhary and J Messer. Report on design criteria for ramp metering. Texas
Transportation Institute, Texas, 2000.

3. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,

Washington, D.C., 2000.

4. P Stewart. Ramp metering study. SIAS Limited, Dundee, UK, 2003.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

Chapter 26

Corridor Analysis

26.1 Introduction
Transport problems are very critical one to be solved frequently, sequentially and economically
for all sectors of one nation. Even though these solutions are mandatory, they are continuous
and expensive so needs to be planned systematically. These all requirements will lead us to
Transportation System Planning. Transportation System Planning is a tool that attempts to
provide feasible and systematic method for solving transport problems of the society. Trans-
portation system planning starts from the problem of the society which is the difference of users
desire to the existing condition of the system. Afterwards following its stages it will attempt
to meet its goals and objectives. While in the process so many analyses are required to be
done from them the one is done to know the performance of the existing system. This can be
expressed as either individual component performance or the whole system performance. Doing
this is dependent on the type of transportation system. Among them multi modal multi facility
system is the one which requires aggregate performance measurement for all components which
constitutes. According to our study area we can choose from the two methods of performance
measurement alternatives which are Corridor analysis and Area wide analysis.

26.2 Terminologies
The terminologies used in the corridor analysis is provided below.

26.2.1 Corridor system

1. Corridor: A corridor is a set of essentially parallel and competing facilities and modes
with cross-connectors that serve trips between two designated points. A corridor may
contain several subsystems of facilities freeway, rural highway, urban street, transit, pedes-
trian, and bicycle Figure. 26:1.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

Segment

Point
Freeway

Arterials

Figure 26:1: Showing the Point Segment and Corridor Model

2. Segment: Segments are stretches of a facility in which the traffic demand and capacity
conditions are relatively constant.

3. Point: Points are locations at the beginning and end of each segment, at which traffic
enters, leaves, or crosses the facility.

4. Facility: is a structure built or road design modification to increase the efficiency of the
two main road way services (accessibility and Mobility).

26.2.2 Highway sub systems

1. Freeway: A freeway is defined as a divided highway with full control of access and having
two uninterrupted flow or more lanes for the exclusive use of traffic in each direction. All
the access is through a ramp a separate entrance or exit way to or from the Freeway.

2. Rural highway: A road with only one lane in each direction and traffic signals spaced
no closer than 3.0 km. mostly recognized by its low flow condition.

3. Urban Street: With traffic signals spaced no farther than 3.0 km apart. Since in
Urban areas most activities are fond of Transportation, are characterized by its high
flow condition and high traffic movements due the complex interaction between vehicles
accidents are also high in urban areas. To avoid this and other conflicts Traffic control is
required especially in urban areas.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

26.2.3 Transit
Transits are a means of transporting massive either passenger or freight on a separated route.
These modes of transportations are a key to every city especially in urban areas. The most
common types of Transits include:

1. Bus transit is a term applied to a variety of public transportation systems using buses
to provide faster, more efficient service than an ordinary bus line. Often this is achieved
by making improvements to existing infrastructure, vehicles and scheduling. Bus rapid
transit also called Bus way and/or Quality bus.

2. Street car is a means of public transport which requires their own rail to flow through the
system these rails can be built embedded in roadways. Streetcar (also called Tram) is a
passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes
on separate rights of way.

3. Rail transit is a form of urban rail public transportation that generally has a lower
capacity and lower speed than heavy rail and metro systems, but higher capacity and
higher speed than traditional street-running tram systems.

26.3 Segment capacity

Capacity is the maximum hourly flow rate, at which persons or vehicles reasonably can be
expected to traverse a point or a uniform section, of a lane or roadway during a given time
period, under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions. But sometimes the demand
may exceed the capacity during peak hours, which will bring queue delay. Thus demand
adjustment is required and is done as follows. Adjusting for excess demand from the capacity
is necessary only if working with forecasted or estimated demands rather than counted traffic.
If the demand exceeds the capacity at any point in time or space, then the excess demand must
be stored on the segment and carried over to the following hour. The downstream demands
are reduced by the amount of excess demand stored on the segment. The algorithm starts with
the entry gate segments on the periphery of the corridor and works inward until all segment
demands have been checked against their capacity.

26.3.1 Demand adjustment algorithm

The following steps are used to adjust demand when excess demand occurs in a time period.

Step 1. Select the entry gate segment with the highest priority and the highest v/c ratio.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

Step 2. Select the first time period.

Step 3. If demand ≤ capacity or the initial queue = 0, go to Step 7.

Step 4. If demand > capacity or queue > 0, then calculate new queue by using eqn. 26.1.

queuei = queuei−1 + demand − capacity (26.1)

where, i is the current analysis period, i − 1 is the previous analysis period, queuei−1 is
the queue remaining from the preceding analysis period.

Step 5. Reduce downstream segment demand by the amount that the demand exceeds
the capacity. Propagate this reduction to all connecting downstream segments in pro-
portion to the ratio of each downstream segment demand to all segments exiting from
the subject segment. Continue the process downstream until the reduction is less than 5
percent of capacity.

Step 6. Add the excess demand - the amount by which the demand exceeds the capacity
- to the next time period demand for the subject segment.

Step 7. Apply the increment to the next time period. Repeat Steps 3 through 6 until
the processes for all the time periods are finished.

Step 8. Go to next gate tree with unanalyzed segments in current rank. Repeat Steps 2
through 7 until all segments of current rank have been analyzed.

Step 9. Apply the increment to current Rank (the new one). Go to the segment with
the highest v/c ratio among those of the new rank. Repeat Steps 2 through 8 until all
segments are analyzed.

26.3.2 Free flow Travel time

The segment free-flow traversal times are obtained by dividing the length of the segment by
the estimated free-flow speed (FFS), as shown in equation 26.2
L
Rf = (26.2)
Sf
where, Rf is the Segment free-flow travel time for given Direction of Segment and Time Period,
(hr), L is the length of segment (km), and Sf is the Segment free-flow speed computed (km/hr).
The FFS is computed according to the Part III methods using the adjusted demands determined
in the previous step. The computation is repeated for each direction of each segment for each
time sub-periods.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

26.3.3 Queue delay

The queuing delay only the amount due to demand exceeding capacity is computed for all
segments. The queuing delay is computed for each direction of each segment and time period
only when demand is greater than Capacity by eqn. 26.3.

T T2
Di = × Di−1 + [V − c] × (26.3)
2 2
where, Di is the total delay due to excess demand (veh-hr) for direction, segment, and time
period; T is the duration of time sub-period (hr); Di−1 is the queue left over at end of previous
time period (veh); V is the demand rate for current time period (veh/hr); and c is the capacity
of segment in subject direction (veh/hr). These the above steps are repeated for any additional
time periods to be analyzed. For example, if the peak period lasts for 4 hours, it might
be divided into four 1hr periods (or 16 quarter hr periods), with each time period analyzed
in sequence. The first and the last analysis periods must be uncongested for all delay to
be included in the performance measures. Once all time periods have been analyzed, the
performance measures are computed.

26.4 Determining performance measures

This step describes how to compute performance measures of congestion intensity, duration,
extent, variability, and accessibility for the corridor.

26.4.1 Intensity
The possible performance measures for the intensity of congestion on the highway subsystems
(freeway, two-lane highway, and arterial) in the corridor are computed from one or more of the
following: person-hours of travel, person-hours of delay, mean trip speed, and mean trip delay.
If average vehicle occupancy (AVO) data are not available, then the performance measures are
computed in terms of vehicle-hours rather than person-hours.

1. The eqn. 26.4 given below is used to determine PHT.

P HT = AV O × Σd,l,h [V × R + DQ] (26.4)

where, P HT is the person-hours of travel in corridor, AV O is the average vehicle occu-

pancy, V is the vehicle demand in Direction on Link during Time Period (veh), R is the
segment traversal time (h/km), and DQ is the queuing delay (veh-h).

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

2. The mean trip time is computed by dividing the total person hours of travel by the
number of person trips.
t = 60 × P HT /P (26.5)
where, t is the mean trip time (min/person), P HT is the person-hours of travel, and P
is the total number of person trips.

3. The mean trip speed is computed by dividing the total number of person-kilometers by
the total person-hours of travel as in eqn. 26.6 below:
P kmT Σd,l,h [V × L]
S= = AV O × (26.6)
P HT P HT
where, S is the mean corridor trip speed (km/h), P kmT is the person-kilometers of travel,
PHT is the person-hours of travel, AV O is the average vehicle occupancy, V is the vehicle
demand in the given Direction on a Segment and Period (veh), and L is the length of
segment (km).

4. The mean trip delay is computed by subtracting the PHT under free-flow conditions from
the PHT under congested conditions and dividing the result by the number of person-
trips. The person-hours of travel under free-flow conditions is computed like PHT for
congested conditions, but using free-flow traversal times and zero queuing delay. It can
be determined using eqn. 26.7 given below:
(P HT − P HTf )
d = 3600 × (26.7)
P
where, d is the mean trip delay (s/person), P HT is the person-hours of travel, P HTf is
the person-hours of travel under free-flow conditions, and P is the total number of person
trips.

26.4.2 Duration
Performance measurements of duration can be computed from the number of hours of congestion
observed on any segment. The duration of congestion is the sum of the length of each analysis
sub-periods for which the demand exceeds capacity. The duration of congestion (i.e., over-
saturation) for any link is computed using Eqn. 26.8 as:-
Hi = Ni × T (26.8)
where, Hi is the duration of congestion for Link i(h), Ni is the number of analysis sub-periods
for which v/c > 1.00 on Link i, and T is the duration of analysis sub-periods (h). The maximum
duration on any link indicates the amount of time before congestion is completely cleared from
the corridor.

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

Table 26:1: Queue density defaults given by HCM 2000

Sub system Storage Density Vehicle Spacing
(veh/Km/ln) (m)
Freeway 75 13.3
Two lane highway 130 7.5
Urban Street 130 7.5

26.4.3 Extent
Performance measures of the extent of congestion can be computed from the sum of the length
of queuing on each segment. One can also identify segments in which the queue overflows the
storage capacity; this is particularly useful for ramp metering analyses. To compute the queue
length, an assumption must be made about the average density of vehicles in a queue. Default
values are suggested in Table. 26:1 To compute queue length, Eqn. 26.9 is used.

T × [v − c]
QL = (26.9)
N × ds
where, QL is the queue length (km) for the given Direction, of Segment, for Time Sub-period;
v is the segment demand (veh/h); c is the segment capacity (veh/h); N is the number of lanes;
ds is the storage density (veh/km/ln); and T is the duration of analysis period (h). Note that if
v < c, then QL = 0, and if QL > L, then the queue overflows the storage capacity. The queue
lengths for all segments then can be added up to obtain the length of queuing in kilometers in
the subsystem during the analysis period. The number of segments in which the queue exceeds
the storage capacity also might be reported. This statistics is particularly useful for identifying
queue overflows that result from ramp metering.

26.4.4 Variability
Variability is a sensitivity measure. The variability or sensitivity of the results can be deter-
mined by substituting higher and lower demand estimates. For example assuming 110 percent
of the original demand estimates for all segments and repeating the calculations.

26.4.5 Accessibility
Accessibility can be measured in terms of the number of trip destinations reachable within a
selected travel time for a designated set of origin locations such as a residential zone. The

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

8 7

Arterials

1 6

2 4

3 5

Figure 26:2: Two way Arterial Highway system

Table 26:2: Peak hour input demand rate 1

control North bound South bound East bound West bound
point Lt Th Rt Lt Th Rt Lt Th Rt Lt Th Rt
2 53 268 34 378 536 176 163 963 55 110 779 110
4 43 684 109 144 810 153 113 1065 81 126 945 145

results for each origin zone are tabulated and reported as X percent of the homes in the study
area can reach Y percent of the jobs within Z minutes.

Numerical example

For the given Urban street system geometry and Data inputs determine the performance mea-
surement using Corridor analysis. Given that:

1. Average vehicle occupancy (AVO) is 1.2.

2. Peak Hour Demand data all Volumes are in (veh/hr) is given in Table. 26:2.

3. Capacities, Lengths, Free flow speeds and average flow speeds for each link input data is
also given in Table. 26:3.

Solution:

1. Step 1. Because we have Traffic count data we should convert it as link data. This can
be done by allocating the flow and adding the volume as per its logical direction (Table
4 col (3)). The flow allocation overview is as shown below. In Fig. 26:3

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

Table 26:3: Capacity, length and Speeds input

link length Capacity FFS Actual
(km) (veh/hr) (km/hr) speed(km/hr)
1 2 1.06 1400 56 40
2 1 1.06 3400 56 56
2 4 1.67 1400 56 41
4 2 1.67 1400 56 46
2 8 1.21 1400 56 43
8 2 1.21 1700 56 26
2 3 0.09 3400 56 40
3 2 0.09 1400 56 12
4 7 1.21 1400 56 43
7 4 1.21 1200 56 43
4 6 0.76 3400 56 56
6 4 0.76 1400 56 33
4 5 0.09 3400 56 40
5 4 0.09 1400 56 11

8 7

541 1090 942 1107

Rt WB Rt WB
Th NB SB During Variation use the smaller Th NB SB
Lt EB Lt EB
Rt Lt
Rt Lt
Th
Th
Th EB
Rt NB
Lt SB

Th EB
Rt NB
Lt SB
1375

1318
Lt

Lt
1101

Th

1259
EB

4
Th
Rt
22

2
Rt

1 6
Rt

WB
22

1216
Rt

Th
WB
Rt SB
Th WB
Lt NB

Th

999
1008

Rt SB
Th WB
Lt NB

Lt
1141
Lt

Th Th
Lt Rt Lt Rt
Use 999 Lt WB
Lt WB Th SB
NB Th SB NB Rt EB
Rt EB
366 701 836 1017

22 22
3 5

Figure 26:3: Showing how the flow allocation is done

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

Table 26:4: Demand by Capacity

link Demand(V) Capacity(C) V/c
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 2 1181 1400 0.843571
2 1 1008 3400 0.296471
2 4 1375 1400 0.899286
4 2 1141 1400 0.713571
2 8 541 1400 0.386429
8 2 1090 1700 0.641176
2 3 701 3400 0.206176
3 2 355 1400 0.253571
4 7 942 1400 0.672857
7 4 1107 1200 0.9225
4 6 1318 3400 0.387647
6 4 1216 1400 0.868571
4 5 1017 3400 0.299118
5 4 836 1400 0.597143

2. Step 2. Calculate V/C ratio demand by capacity for each link which is as shown below
in Table. 5 col (5).

3. Step 3. For V/C > 1 find the Queued vehicles simply the difference of demand to
capacity.

4. Step 4. Adjust the demand downstream till it reaches 10% of the volume before doing
further check up. Until all V/C ratios are below 1.

5. Step 5. Determination of person hour delay (PHD), person hours travel (PHT), person
kilometer hour travel (PkmT).
Note that in Table. 5

(a) None of them(V/C) is greater of unity.

(b) No Adjustment is required.
(c) Indicates No Queue delay Determination

6. Step 6. Free VHT (col(7))= (col (3) × col (4))/col (5)

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

Table 26:5: PHD and PHT calculation

Link Len. Dem- FFS Actual free actual Free Actual Delay
and speed speed VHT VHT PHT PHT PHT Total
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
1 2 1.06 1181 56 40 22.35 31.30 26.83 37.56 10.73 1251.86
2 1 1.06 1008 56 56 19.08 19.08 22.90 22.90 0.00 1068.48
2 4 1.67 1375 56 41 41.00 56.01 49.21 67.21 18.00 2296.25
4 2 1.67 1141 56 46 34.03 41.42 40.83 49.71 8.88 1905.47
2 8 1.21 541 56 43 11.69 15.22 14.03 18.27 4.24 654.61
8 2 1.21 1090 56 26 23.55 50.73 28.26 60.87 32.61 1318.9
2 3 0.09 701 56 40 1.13 1.58 1.35 1.89 0.54 63.09
3 2 0.09 355 56 12 0.57 2.66 0.68 3.20 2.51 31.95
4 7 1.21 942 56 43 20.35 26.51 24.42 31.81 7.38 1139.82
7 4 1.21 1107 56 43 23.92 31.15 28.70 37.38 8.68 1339.47
4 6 0.76 1318 56 56 17.89 17.89 21.46 21.46 0.00 1001.68
6 4 0.76 1216 56 33 16.50 28.00 19.80 33.61 13.80 924.16
4 5 0.09 1017 56 40 1.63 2.29 1.96 2.75 0.78 91.53
5 4 0.09 836 56 11 1.34 6.84 1.61 8.21 6.60 75.24
12.18 13828 Sum 282.05 396.81 114.76 13162.51

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

Table 26:6: Performance measurement

Facility type Length PkmT PHT PHD Speed(S)
(Km) Pers. Km Pers. Hr Pers. Hr km/hr
Arterial sub. system 12.8 15795 396.8 114.75 39.6

7. Step 7. Actual VHT (col(8))= Qd +(col (3) × col (4))/col (6), where, Qd is the queue
delay in our case zero.

8. Step 8. Free PHT (col(9))= AVO × col (7)

9. Step 9. Actual PHT (col(10))= AVO × col (7)

10. Step 10. Travel Delay (PHD) (col(11))= Actual PHT (col(10)) - Free PHT (col(9))

11. Step 11. Calculation of PkmT

P kmT = AV O × ΣV × L

where, V is adjusted volume, L is length of the Link, and ΣV L is col(12) last cell in
Table. 26:5.

12. Step 12. Intensity measures

P HT = ΣactualP HT
= 396.8pers.hr
60 × P HT
t = = 1.43min/pers
AV O × ΣV
P kmT
S = = AV O × (Σd,l,h [V × L])/P HT
P HT
= 39.6km/hr
(P HT − P HTf )
d = 3600 ×
P
= 24.9sec/pers.

26.5 Summary
Corridor Analysis is the method of combining Point, Segment and Facility analysis to estimate
the overall performance of multi-modal corridor. Mostly the performance measures of any
corridor are determined by calculating its capacity, the travel time and queue delay in the

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Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis

given section. Since this tool is required for multi facility and multi-modal transportation
system mostly it covers Highway subsystems (Freeways, Rural highways and urban streets)
and Transit.

26.6 References
1. Urban transportation planning model update - phase ii, 1981. Task F- Development of
Corridor Analysis Procedures.

2. Highway Capacity manual part V Draft Working Paper 385-9. University of Florida
Transportation Research Center and T-Concepts Corp, Proposed 2010 Highway Capacity
manual part V Draft Working Paper 385-9, 2007., 2010.

3. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,

Washington, D.C., 2000.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 26.13 February 19, 2014