ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

MARIE VONNE OLIVAR VENUS

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM we must add a third chemical class,

because the prostaglandins are made
● Compared to other organs of the body,
from highly active lipids found in the cells'
the organs of the endocrine system are
plasma membranes.
small and unimpressive. Indeed, to collect
1 kg (about 2.2 pounds) of
hormone-producing tissue, you would CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
need to collect all the endocrine tissue - Hormone: chemical substances
from eight or nine adults! secreted by cell into the
extracellular fluid that regulate the
● The endocrine organs also lack the
metabolic activity of other cells in
structural or anatomical continuity typical the body
of most organ systems. Instead, bits and - Basic Classification of Hormones:
pieces of endocrine tissue are tucked 1. Endocrine - passing into the
away in widely separated regions of the blood and act on distant
body. However, functionally the endocrine target cells
2. Local - acts locally without
organs are very impressive, and when
first entering the
their role in maintaining body bloodstream
homeostasis is considered, they are true 3. Paracrine - acts on
giants. neighboring cells
4. Autocrine - act on the same
cell that secreted them
CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
● The key to the incredible power of the CHEMICAL TYPES OF HORMONES
endocrine glands is the hormones they 1. Amino acid-based hormones
produce and secrete. Hormones may be a) Proteins
defined as chemical substances, secreted b) Peptides
c) Amines
by cells into the extracellular fluids, that
2. steroid hormones (lipid-soluble)
regulate the metabolic activity of other
cells in the body. Although many different
hormones are produced, nearly all of MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTIONS
them can be classified chemically as either ● Although the blood-borne hormones
amino acid-based molecules (including circulate to all the organs of the body, a
proteins, peptides, and amines) or given hormone affects only certain tissue
steroids. Steroid hormones (made from cells or organs, referred to as its target
cholesterol) include the sex hormones cells or target organs. In order for a target
made by the gonads (ovaries and testes) cell to respond to a hormone, specific
and the hormones produced by the protein receptors must be present on its
adrenal cortex. All others are nonsteroidal plasma membrane or in its interior, to
amino acid derivatives. If we also consider which that hormone can attach. Only
the local hormones called prostaglandins,
 when this binding occurs can the hormone ▶ STEROID HORMONES
influence the workings of a cell. - Despite the huge variety of
● The term “hormone” comes from a hormones, there are really only
Greek word meaning "to arouse". In fact, two mechanisms by which
the body's hormones do just that. They hormones trigger changes in cells.
"arouse" or bring about their effects on Steroidal hormones use the
the body's cells primarily by altering mechanism of "steroid hormone
cellular activity — that is, by increasing or action”. Being lipid-soluble
decreasing the rate of a normal, or usual, molecules, the steroid hormones
metabolic process rather than by can (1) diffuse through the plasma
stimulating a new one. The precise membranes of their target cells.
changes that follow hormone binding Once inside, the steroid hormone
depend on the specific hormone and the (2) enters the nucleus, and (3)
target cell type, but typically one or more binds to a specific receptor protein
of the following occurs: there. The hormone-receptor
1. Changes in plasma membrane complex then (4) binds to specific
permeability or electrical state. sites on the cell's DNA, (5)
2. Synthesis of proteins or certain activating certain genes to
regulatory molecules (such as transcribe messenger RNA
enzymes) in the cell. (mRNA). The mRNA then is (6)
3. Activation or inactivation of translated in the cytoplasm,
enzymes. resulting in the synthesis of new
4. Stimulation of mitosis. proteins.

MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTIONS

- Target organ/cells: certain tissue or
cells affected by a given hormone.
- Receptors: proteins located at the
plasma membrane of the target
organ/cell where hormones attach.
- Types of hormone action:
1. Steroid hormone action
2. Nonsteroid hormone action

EFFECTS OF HORMONES IN THE TARGETS

CELLS/ORGANS
1. Changes in the plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state
2. Protein synthesis
3. Activation or inactivation of
enzymes
4. Stimulation of mitosis
STEROID HORMONE ACTION
- Process:

Diffusion through the plasma

membrane (lipid soluble) → enters
the nucleus → binds with specific
protein receptor within the nucleus
→ binds to specific sites of the DNA
→ activation of certain genes to
transcribe mRNA → translation of
mRNA in the cytoplasm → protein
synthesis

▶ NONSTEROID HORMONES
- Nonsteroidal hormones — protein
and peptide hormones — are
unable to enter the target cells and
instead bind to receptors situated
on the target cell's plasma NONSTEROID HORMONE ACTION
membrane. In these cases, (1) the - Unable to diffuse through the
hormone binds to the membrane plasma membrane (lipid insoluble).
receptor, (2) setting off a series of - Process:
reactions that activates an
Binds to the plasma membrane
enzyme. The enzyme, in turn, (3)
receptors of the target cell/organ →
catalyzes a reaction that produces activation of enzyme → enzyme
a second messenger molecule (in catalyzes a reaction producing
this case, cyclic AMP) that (4) second messenger molecule (cAMP
oversees additional intracellular G proteins or calcium) → promotion
changes that promote the typical of cellular response to hormones
response of the target cell to the
hormone. As you might guess, CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE
there are a variety of possible
● Now that we've discussed how
second messengers (including G
hormones work, the next question is,
proteins and calcium ions) and
"What prompts the endocrine glands to
many possible target cell
release or not release their hormones"?
responses to the same hormone,
● Negative feedback mechanisms are the
depending on the tissue type
chief means of regulating blood levels of
stimulated.
nearly all hormones. In such systems,
hormone secretion is triggered by some
internal or external stimulus; then rising
hormone levels inhibit further hormone
release (even while promoting responses
 in their target organs). As a result, blood hormone blood levels rising and
levels of many hormones vary only within falling again and again.
a very narrow range.
● The stimuli that activate the endocrine
organs fall into three major categories —
hormonal, humoral, and neural. Although
these three mechanisms typify most
systems that control hormone release,
they by no means explain all of them, and
some endocrine organs respond to many
different stimuli.

REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION

- Negative Feedback Mechanism:
chief regulator of almost all
hormones.
- Types of stimuli activating endocrine
organs:
1. Hormonal
2. Neural
3. Humoral (body fluids)

HORMONAL
▶ HORMONAL - Endocrine organs are stimulated by
- The most common stimulus is a other hormones.
hormonal stimulus, in which - Most common stimuli
endocrine organs are prodded into - Example:
action by other hormones. For
Hypothalamic hormones → anterior
example, hypothalamic hormones
pituitary gland → anterior pituitary
stimulate the anterior pituitary hormones → other endocrine
gland to secrete its hormones, and organs to secrete their hormones
many anterior pituitary hormones into the blood
stimulate other endocrine organs
to release their hormones into the ▶ HUMORAL
blood. As the hormones produced - Changing blood levels of certain
by the final target glands increase ions and nutrients may also
in the blood, they "feed back" to stimulate hormone release. Such
inhibit the release of anterior stimuli are referred to as humoral
pituitary hormones and thus their stimuli to distinguish them from
own release. Hormone release hormonal stimuli, which are also
promoted by this mechanism blood-borne chemicals. The term
tends to be rhythmic, with “humoral” refers to the ancient
use of humor to indicate the
 various body fluids (blood, bile,
and others). For example, the
release of parathyroid hormone
▶ NEURAL
(PTH) by cells of the parathyroid
- In isolated cases, nerve fibers
glands is prompted by decreasing
stimulate hormone release and the
blood calcium levels. Because PTH
target cells are said to respond to
acts by several routes to reverse
neural stimuli. The classic example
that decline, blood Ca2+ levels soon
is sympathetic nervous system
rise, ending the stimulus for PTH
stimulation of the adrenal medulla
release. Other hormones released
to release norepinephrine and
in response to humoral stimuli
epinephrine during periods of
include calcitonin, released by the
stress.
thyroid gland, and insulin,
produced by the pancreas.

NEURAL
- Nerve fibers stimulate target cells
HUMORAL and hormone release.
- Changes in blood levels of certain - Example:
ions and nutrients stimulate
hormone release. Sympathetic nervous system
- Example: stimulation of the adrenal medulla
to release norepinephrine and
Decrease serum Ca → activation of epinephrine during stress
the parathyroid gland to secrete
parathyroid hormones (PTH)
 MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS ● Exocrine glands - release its products at
● The major endocrine organs of the the body surface or into the body cavities
through ducts
body include the pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, thymus
glands, pancreas, and the gonads (ovaries
and testes).
● The hypothalamus, which is part of the
nervous system, is also recognized as a
major endocrine organ because it
produces several hormones. Although the
function of some hormone-producing
glands (the anterior pituitary, thyroid,
adrenals, and parathyroids) is purely
endocrine, the function of others
(pancreas and gonads) is mixed — both
endocrine and exocrine.
● Both types of glands are formed from
epithelial tissue, but the endocrine glands
are ductless glands that produce
hormones that they release into the blood
or lymph (as you might expect, the
endocrine glands have a very rich blood PITUITARY GLAND
supply). Conversely, the exocrine glands ● The pituitary gland is approximately the
release their products at the body's size of a grape. It hangs by a stalk from the
surface or into body cavities through inferior surface of the hypothalamus of
ducts. the brain, where it is snugly surrounded
by the "turk's saddle" of the sphenoid
MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS bone. It has two functional lobes —the
- Includes: anterior pituitary (glandular tissue) and
1. Pituitary gland (hypophysis) the posterior pituitary (nervous tissue).
2. Thyroid gland
3. Parathyroid gland
4. Adrenal glands
5. Pancreas
6. Pineal gland
7. Thymus
8. Gonads (Testes & ovaries)

● Endocrine glands - ductless glands that

produce hormones released into the blood
or lymph
 also endocrine glands, to secrete their
hormones, which in turn exert their
effects on other body organs and tissues.
● All anterior pituitary hormones (1) are
PITUITARY GLAND proteins (or peptides), (2) act through
- Also called “hypophysis” second-messenger systems, and (3) are
- Approximately the size of a walnut regulated by hormonal stimuli and, in
attached at the inferior surface of most cases, negative feedback.
the hypothalamus via infundibulum
and surrounded by the sella turcica
or “turks saddle” of the sphenoid ANTERIOR PITUITARY
bone - Also called “adenohypophysis”
- Lobes of Pituitary glands: - Glandular tissue
1. Anterior pituitary - 75% of the total weight of the gland.
(adenohypophysis) - Derived from hypophyseal Rathke’s
2. Posterior pituitary pouch (outgrowth of ectoderm) in
(neurohypophysis) the roof of the mouth.

TYPES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

CELLS

1. SOMATOTROPHS
- Human growth hormones (hGH) or
somatotropin
2. THYROTROPHS
- Thyroid stimulating hormones

3. GONADOTROPHS
- Follicle stimulating hormones and
luteinizing hormones

4. LACTOTROPHS
HORMONES OF THE - Prolactin
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
● There are several anterior pituitary 5. CORTICOTROPHS
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone and
hormones that affect many body organs.
melanocyte stimulating hormone
Two of the six anterior pituitary lobe
hormones — growth hormone and
prolactin — exert their major effects on ▶ GROWTH HORMONE
- Growth hormone (GH) is a general
nonendocrine targets. The remaining four
metabolic hormone. However, its
— thyrotropic hormone,
major effects are directed to the
adrenocorticotropic hormone, and the
growth of skeletal muscles and
two gonadotropic hormones — are all
long bones of the body, and thus it
“tropic hormones”. Tropic hormones
plays an important role in
stimulate their target organs, which are
 determining final body size. GH is a childbirth, it stimulates and
protein-sparing and anabolic maintains milk production by the
hormone that causes amino acids mother's breasts. Its function in
to be built into proteins and males is not known.
stimulates most target cells to
grow in size and divide. At the PROLACTIN
same time, it causes fats to be - Stimulates and maintains milk
broken down and used for energy, production after childbirth
and spares glucose, helping to
maintain blood sugar homeostasis.
▶ ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone
GROWTH HORMONES (GH) (ACTH) regulates the endocrine
- Regulates growth of skeletal activity of the cortex portion of the
muscles and long bones of the body adrenal gland.
- Functions:
1. Transform amino acids into ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
proteins - Regulates the cortical portion of the
2. Stimulation of target cells to adrenal gland
grow in size and number
- Pathology:
▶ THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE
Pituitary dwarfism → secondary - Thyroid-stimulating hormone
hyposecretion of growth hormone (TSH), also called “thyrotropic
during childhood. It is characterized hormone” (TH), influences the
by fairly normal body proportions growth and activity of the thyroid
but with a miniature height) gland.
Pituitary gigantism → secondary
hypersecretion of growth hormone THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE
during childhood - Also called “thyrotropic hormone”
- Regulates growth and activity of
Acromegaly → secondary thyroid gland
hypersecretion of growth hormone
after long bone growth
(closure of epiphyseal plates). It is ▶ GONADOTROPIC HORMONE
characterized by enlargement of the - The gonadotropic hormones
bones of the face regulate the hormonal activity of
the gonads (ovaries and testes). In
females, follicle-stimulating
▶ PROLACTIN
- Prolactin (PRL) is a protein hormone (FSH) stimulates follicle
hormone structurally similar to development in the ovaries. As the
growth hormone. Its only known follicles mature, they produce
target in humans is the breast estrogen, and eggs are readied for
(“pro” — for; “lact” — milk). After ovulation. In males, FSH stimulates
 sperm development by the testes. cells of the testes
Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers
ovulation of an egg from the
female ovary and causes the ANTERIOR PITUITARY (SUMMARY)
ruptured follicle to become a
TROPINS/TROPHIC HORMONES
corpus luteum. It then stimulates - Hormones that influence another
the corpus luteum to produce endocrine gland
progesterone and some estrogen. 1. Gonadotropin - FSH & LH
In men, LH is also referred to as 2. Thyrotropin - TSH
“interstitial cell-stimulating 3. Corticotropin - ACTH
hormone” (ICSH) because it 4. Hypophysiotropic hormone
- hypothalamic releasing and
stimulates testosterone production
inhibiting hormones
by the interstitial cells of the
testes. TYPES OF HYPOPHYSIOTROPIC HORMONES

1. HYPOTHALAMIC RELEASING HORMONES

GONADOTROPIC HORMONE
a) Growth hormone releasing
- Regulates hormonal activity of
hormone (GHRH) - human growth
the gonads (ovaries and testes)
hormone
- Sterility: secondary
b) Thyrotropin releasing hormone
hyposecretion of FSH and LH in
(TRH) - thyrotropin and hGH
both males and females
c) Gonadotropin releasing hormone
- Types:
(GnRH) - LH and FSH
d) Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) -
1. FEMALE
prolactin
- FSH: stimulates follicle
e) Corticotropin releasing hormone
development in the ovaries
(CRH) - corticotropin and MSH
maturation of ovaries
production of estrogen
2. HYPOTHALAMIC INHIBITING
preparation of ovaries for
HORMONES
ovulation
a) Growth hormone inhibiting
- LH: triggers ovulation of an egg
hormone (GHIH) or “somatostatin”
from the ovary
- hGH and TSH
Develops ruptured follicle to
b) prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) -
become corpus luteum →
prolactin
stimulation of corpus luteum to
progesterone and estrogen
HORMONES OF THE
2. MALE
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
- FSH: stimulates sperm
development by the testes ● The posterior pituitary is not an
- LH: interstitial cell-stimulating endocrine gland in the strict sense
hormone because it does not make the peptide
Stimulates testosterone hormones it releases. Instead, as
production by the interstitial
mentioned above, it simply acts as a
 storage area for hormones made by vessels at the placental site and to
hypothalamic neurons. stimulate the milk ejection reflex.
● Hormones secreted by posterior
pituitary are: OXYTOCIN
1. Oxytocin - Secreted in significant amounts only
2. Antidiuretic hormone during childbirth and in nursing
women
- Functions:
POSTERIOR PITUITARY ➢ Stimulation of powerful
- Nervous tissue uterine contraction during
- Derived ectodermal outgrowth labor and sexual intercourse
called “neurohypophyseal bud” ➢ Milk ejection during
- Contains axons and axon terminals breastfeeding (letdown
of neurons from the supraoptic and reflex)
paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus
- Pituicytes: associating neuroglia in ▶ ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
the axon terminals of the - The second hormone released by
hypothalamic neurons the posterior pituitary is
- Not an endocrine gland because it antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
does not make the hormones it “Diuresis” is urine production.
secretes. Rather, it simply act as
Thus, an “antidiuretic” is a
storage area for hormones made by
the hypothalamic neurons chemical that inhibits or prevents
urine production. ADH causes the
▶ OXYTOCIN kidneys to reabsorb more water
- Oxytocin is released in significant from the forming urine; as a result,
amounts only during childbirth and urine volume decreases and blood
in nursing women. It stimulates volume increases. In large
powerful contractions of the amounts, ADH also increases blood
uterine muscle during labor, sexual pressure by causing constriction of
relations, and when a woman the arterioles (small arteries). For
breast feeds her baby. It also this reason, it is sometimes
causes milk ejection (the letdown referred to as vasopressin.
reflex) in a nursing woman. Both - Drinking alcoholic beverages
natural and synthetic oxytocic inhibits ADH secretion and results
drugs (Pitocin and others) are used in output of large amounts of
to induce labor or to hasten labor urine. The dry mouth and intense
that is progressing normally but at thirst experienced "the morning
a slow pace. Less frequently, after" reflect this dehydrating
oxytocics are used to stop effect of alcohol. Certain drugs,
postpartum bleeding by causing classed together as diuretics,
constriction of the ruptured blood antagonize the effects of ADH,
causing water to be flushed from
 the body. These drugs are used to ADH
manage the edema (water
retention in tissues) typical of
congestive heart failure. - Symptoms:
a) Polyuria - excretion of large
urine volume
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE b) Polydipsia - frequent thirst
- Liquors and ADH: 2ndary polyuria
➢ Intake of alcoholic beverages c) Bed wetting - common in
inhibits ADH secretion children
resulting to large urine d) Dehydration - common
output cause of death; secondary
➢ Responsible for dry mouth polyuria (loss of water);
and intense thirst death may occur from
experienced “the morning deprivation of water for only
after” a day or so
- Functions:
➢ Inhibition or prevention of
urine production (diuresis) PITUITARY-HYPOTHALAMUS
RELATIONSHIP
Greater ADH → increase
water reabsorption from the ● Despite its insignificant size, the
forming urine in the kidneys anterior pituitary gland controls the
→ decrease urine volume → activity of so many other endocrine glands
increase blood volume that it has often been called the "master
endocrine gland." Its removal or
➢ Constriction of the arterioles destruction has a dramatic effect on the
leading to increase blood
body. The adrenal and thyroid glands and
pressure (this explains its
other name vasopressin) gonads atrophy, and results of
hyposecretion by those glands quickly
Hyposecretion of ADH leads become obvious. However, the anterior
to a condition of excessive pituitary is not as all-powerful in its
urine output called diabetes control as it might appear because the
insipidus. People with this release of each of its hormones is
problem are continually
controlled by releasing & inhibiting
thirsty and drink huge
amounts of water. hormones produced by the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus
DIABETES INSIPIDUS liberates these regulatory hormones into
- Less oxytocin the blood of the portal circulation, which
- Secondary hyposecretion of ADH connects the blood supply of the
leading to polyuria and polydipsia
hypothalamus with that of the anterior
- Most common abnormality
associated with the dysfunction of pituitary.
posterior pituitary gland ● The hypothalamus also makes two
characterized by hyposecretion of additional hormones, oxytocin and
 antidiuretic hormone, which are
transported along the axons of the
hypothalamic neurosecretory cells to the
posterior pituitary for storage. They are THYROID GLAND
later released into the blood in response
● The thyroid gland is a
to nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.
hormone-producing gland that is familiar
to most people primarily because many
PITUITARY-HYPOTHALAMUS obese individuals blame their overweight
RELATIONSHIP condition on their "glands" (meaning the
- Pituitary gland is regulated by the
thyroid). Actually, the effect of thyroid
hypothalamus via hypophysiotropic
hormones (releasing and inhibiting hormones on body weight is not as great
hormones) released into the blood as many believe it to be.
of portal circulation ● The thyroid gland is located at the base
- Portal circulation: network of blood of the throat, just inferior to the Adam's
vessels connecting the blood supply apple, where it is easily palpated during a
of the hypothalamus and the blood
physical examination. It is a fairly large
supply of anterior pituitary gland
- Circulation: gland consisting of two lobes joined by a
central mass, or isthmus. The thyroid
Hypothalamus → superior gland makes two hormones, one called
hypophyseal arteries → primary thyroid hormone, the other called
plexus → hypophyseal portal veins calcitonin. Internally, the thyroid gland is
→ secondary plexus → pituitary composed of hollow structures called
gland
follicles, which store a sticky colloidal
Superior hypophyseal arteries → material. “Thyroid hormone” is derived
branches of internal carotid and from this colloid.
posterior communicating arteries ● Thyroid hormone, often referred to as
the body's “major metabolic hormone”, is
- Primary plexus: capillary network at actually two active iodine-containing
the base of the hypothalamus hormones, thyroxine (T4), and
formed by the superior hypophyseal
triiodothyronine (T4).
arteries
- Neurosecretory cells: specialized 1. Thyroxine - is the major hormone
neurons of the hypothalamus that secreted by the thyroid follicles.
secrete releasing and inhibiting 2. Triiodothyronine - is formed at the
hormones in the primary plexus target tissues by conversion of T4
- Secondary plexus: capillary network to T3.
formed by the hypophyseal portal
● These two hormones are very much
veins; serve as direct route that
permit hypothalamic hormones to alike. Each is constructed from two
act quickly on pituitary gland before tyrosine amino acids linked together, but
the hormones are diluted or thyroxine has four bound iodine atoms,
destroyed in the systemic circulation
 whereas triiodothyronine has three (thus, and development
T4 and T3). (reproductive and nervous
● Thyroid hormone controls the rate at systems)
which glucose is "burned," or oxidized, 3. Iodine synthesis
and converted to body heat and chemical
energy. Since all body cells depend on a
continuous supply of chemical energy to
power their activities, every cell in the
body is a target. Thyroid hormone is also
important for normal tissue growth and
development, especially in the
reproductive and nervous systems.

THYROID GLAND
- Two lobed gland
- Hormones:
1. Thyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin)
➢ Functions to reduce PATHOLOGY OF THYROID HORMONE
serum Ca by ● Can be divided into
depositing calcium 1. Hypothyroidism
into the bones
2. Hyperthyroidism
➢ Acts as antagonist to
parathyroid
hormones
HYPOTHYROIDISM
THYROID HORMONES ● Hypothyroidism happens when the
- Body’s major metabolic hormone thyroid gland doesn't make enough
- Types: thyroid hormone. This condition also is
1. Triiodothyronine (T3) - called underactive thyroid.
majority of T3 is formed at
Hypothyroidism may not cause noticeable
the target tissues by
conversion of T3 to T4 symptoms in its early stages. Over time,
hypothyroidism that isn't treated can lead
2. Thyroxine (T4) - major to other health problems, such as high
hormone secreted by the cholesterol and heart problems.
thyroid follicles
- Functions: 1. GOITER - enlargement of the thyroid
1. Regulation of the rate of
gland cause by iodine deficiency
glucose breakdown and
conversion of glucose to - PROCESS:
chemical energy and body
heat Low iodine → activation of
2. Aid in normal tissue growth anterior pituitary gland to secrete
TSH → stimulation of the thyroid
 gland to secrete thyroxine → ● Hyperthyroidism generally results from
synthesis of peptide part of a tumor of the thyroid gland. Extreme
thyroxine (non-functional part of overproduction of thyroxine results in a
the molecule secondary lack of high basal metabolic rate, intolerance of
iodine) → absence of negative heat, rapid heart beat, weight loss,
feedback mechanism → failure to nervous and agitated behavior, and a
inhibit anterior pituitary gland → general inability to relax.
hyperactivity of the thyroid gland
→ thyroid gland hypertrophy 1. GRAVES DISEASE - autoimmune
disorder, which is the most common form
2. CRETINISM - secondary lack of TH of hyperthyroidism.
stimulation (leading to hyposecretion of - MECHANISM:
thyroxine during childhood)
- SIGNS & SYMPTOMS: Production of antibodies (thyroid
stimulating immunoglobulins or
1. Dwarfism - adult body TSIs) → TSIs mimic the action of
proportions remain TSH but are not regulated by the
childlike head and trunk are normal negative feedback controls
1 ½ times the length of the → continuous stimulation of the
legs rather the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid
approximately the same hormones → thyroid gland
length, as in normal adults hypertrophy
2. Scanty hair
3. Dry skin - SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
4. Mental retardation
1. Exophthalmos
3. MYXEDEMA - hypothyroidism in adult 2. Goiter
(female > male) 3. Heat intolerance
- SIGNS & SYMPTOMS: 4. Diaphoresis
5. Weight loss despite good
1. Edema (hallmark) appetite
2. Fatigue 6. Insomnia
3. Poor muscle tone 7. Tremor of extended finger
4. Physical and mental 8. Nervousness
sluggishness
5. Hypothermia PARATHYROID GLAND
6. Dry skin
● The parathyroid glands are tiny masses
7. Obesity
of glandular tissue found on the posterior
surface of the thyroid gland. Typically,
HYPERTHYROIDISM there are two glands on each thyroid lobe;
 that is, a total of four, but as many as eight - Also stimulates kidneys and
have been reported, and some may be in intestines to absorb more calcium
other regions of the neck. (from forming urine and foodstuffs)
- Hypercalcemic hormone acts to
increase serum Ca

▶ PARATHYROID HORMONE
- The parathyroids secrete - MECHANISM:
parathyroid hormone (PTH), or
“parathormone”, which is the most Low serum Ca → parathyroid gland
secretes PTH → activation of osteoclast
important regulator of calcium
→ breakdown of bone matrix →
ions (Ca2+) homeostasis of the release of Ca into the blood → increase
blood. When blood calcium levels serum Ca BTN
drop below a certain level, the
parathyroids release PTH, which PATHOLOGY OF PARATHYROID HORMONE
stimulates bone destruction cells
1. TETANY
(osteoclasts) to break down bone
- Fatal condition of secondary
matrix and release calcium into the
hypocalcemia
blood. Thus, PTH is a - PROCESS:
hypercalcemic hormone (that is, it
acts to increase blood levels of Hypocalcemia → extreme irritability
calcium), whereas calcitonin is a and overactivity of neurons → increase
hypocalcemic hormone. The muscular stimulation → muscle spasm
negative feedback interaction
2. HYPERPARATHYROIDISM
happens between these two - Causes massive bone destruction
hormones as they control blood
calcium level. Although the
HORMONAL CONTROLS OF IONIC
skeleton is the major PTH target,
CALCIUM LEVELS IN THE BLOOD
PTH also stimulates the kidneys
and intestine to absorb more
calcium (from forming urine and
foodstuffs, respectively).

PARATHYROID GLAND
- Tiny masses located at the posterior
surface of the thyroid gland
- Two glands on each thyroid gland
- Hormone:

1. PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)

- Most important calcium regulator in
the blood
 ● The adrenal cortex produces three
major groups of steroid hormones
collectively called “corticosteroids” —
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and
sex hormones.

ADRENAL GLANDS
▶ MINERALOCORTICOIDS
● The two bean-shaped adrenal glands - The mineralocorticoids, mainly
curve over the top of the kidneys. aldosterone, are produced by the
Although the adrenal gland looks like a outermost adrenal cortex cell layer.
single organ, it is structurally and As their name suggests, the
functionally two endocrine organs in one. mineralocorticoids are important
Much like the pituitary gland, it has in regulating the mineral (or salt)
glandular tissue (cortex) and neural tissue content of the blood, particularly
(medulla) parts. The central medulla the concentrations of sodium and
region is enclosed by the adrenal cortex, potassium ions. Their target is the
which contains three separate layers of kidney tubules that selectively
cells. reabsorb the minerals or allow
them to be flushed out of the body
in urine.
- When blood levels of aldosterone
rise, the kidney tubule cells reclaim
increasing amounts of sodium ions
and allow potassium ions to go out
in urine.
- When sodium is reabsorbed, water
follows. Thus, the
mineralocorticoids help regulate
ADRENAL GLANDS both water and electrolyte balance
- Two bean shaped glands over the in body fluids. The release of
top of the kidneys aldosterone is stimulated by
- Parts: humoral factors such as (1) fewer
1. Adrenal cortex - outer gland
sodium ions or (2) more potassium
part
2. Adrenal medulla - inner ions in the blood (and by ACTH to a
neural part containing three lesser degree).
separate layers of cells - Renin, an enzyme produced by the
kidneys when blood pressure
drops, also causes the release of
HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX
aldosterone by triggering a series
of reactions that result in
 formation of angiotensin II, a - Inhibits aldosterone secretion to reduce
potent stimulator of aldosterone blood volume and blood pressure
release. A hormone released by
the heart, atrial natriuretic ▶ GLUCOCORTICOIDS
peptide, prevents aldosterone - The middle cortical layer produces
release, its goal being to reduce glucocorticoids, which include
blood volume and blood pressure. cortisone and cortisol.
MINERALOCORTICOIDS Glucocorticoids promote normal
- Functions: cell metabolism and help the body
1. Regulation of the mineral to resist long-term stressors,
content of the blood (sodium primarily by increasing blood
and potassium) by absorbing glucose levels. When blood levels
sodium into the blood excreting
of glucocorticoids are high, fats
potassium in the urine
2. Regulation of water balances in and even proteins are broken
the body (water follows when down by body cells and converted
sodium is reabsorbed) to glucose, which is released to the
blood. For this reason,
ENZYMES REGULATING ALDOSTERONE glucocorticoids are said to be
SECRETION
hyperglycemic hormones.
1. RENIN (RAAS system) Glucocorticoids also seem to
- Enzyme secreted by the kidneys control the more unpleasant
activating secretion of aldosterone effects of inflammation by
during hypotension decreasing edema, and they
reduce pain by inhibiting some
Low BP → secretion of renin into the pain-causing molecules called
bloodstream → circulation of renin
prostaglandins. Because of their
throughout the entire bloodstream →
reaction of renin with angiotensinogen anti-inflammatory properties,
in the blood → angiotensin 1 formation glucocorticoids are often
→ reaction of angiotensin 1 with prescribed as drugs for patients
converting enzyme in the endothelium with rheumatoid arthritis, to
of the lung blood suppress inflammation.
Vessels → angiotensin 2 formation → - Glucocorticoids are released from
stimulates adrenal
the adrenal cortex in response to
glands to secrete aldosterone → Na
reabsorption in the rising blood levels of ACTH.
kidney tubules → water reabsorption in
the kidney
GLUCOCORTICOIDS
tubules → increase Na and H2O in the
- Includes cortisone and cortisol
ECF → increase ECF volume → blood
- Functions:
volume → increase BP BTN
1. Promotion of normal cell
metabolism
2. ATRIAL NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE
2. Resist long term stressors (by
 increasing serum glucose - SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
levels)
1. Bronze tone of the skin
High glucocorticoids →
breakdown of fats and proteins Low aldosterone → excretion of Na
by body cells into the blood and water from the
(hyperglycemic hormones) body → electrolyte and water
imbalance → skin changes
3. Reduction of inflammation
by reducing edema and

inhibition of prostaglandins
2. Muscle weakness -
(pain-causing molecules).
secondary water and
Prescription of
electrolyte imbalance
glucocorticoids as drugs for
3. Shock - secondary water and
inflammatory cases
electrolyte imbalance
(arthritis)
4. Hypoglycemia - secondary
glucocorticoid deficiency
▶ SEX HORMONES 5. Burnout - decreased ability
- Regardless of one's gender, both to cope with stress
male and female sex hormones 6. Suppression of the immune
system lead to susceptibility
are produced by the adrenal cortex
to infection
throughout life in relatively small
amounts. Although the bulk of the 2. HYPERALDOSTERONISM
sex hormones produced by the - Hyperactivity of the outermost
innermost cortex layer are cortical layer leading to water and
androgens (male sex hormones), sodium retention
some estrogens (female sex - SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
hormones) are also formed.
1. HPN
2. Edema
SEX HORMONES
- Androgen and Estrogen 3. CUSHING’S SYNDROME
- Secreted by the innermost cortical - Hyperactivity of the middle cortical
layer produced throughout life in layer leading
small amounts - to excessive glucocorticoid
- Pathology: production
1. Addison’s disease - SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
2. Hyperaldosteronism
3. Cushing’s syndrome 1. Moon face
4. Masculinization 2. Buffalo hump (lump of fat
on the upper back)
1. ADDISON’S DISEASE 3. HPN
- Generalized hyposecretion of all 4. Hyperglycemia
adrenal cortex hormones 5. Diabetes
 6. Bone weakness (secondary medulla, which literally pumps its
conversion of bone proteins hormones into the bloodstream to
into glucose) enhance and prolong the effects of the
7. Severe depression of the neurotransmitters of the sympathetic
immune system nervous system. Basically, the
catecholamines increase heart rate, blood
pressure, and blood glucose levels and
4. MASCULINIZATION
- Hyperactivity of sex hormones dilate the small passageways of the lungs.
(regardless of sex) These events result in more oxygen and
- More apparent in females glucose in the blood and a faster
circulation of blood to the body organs
(most importantly, to the brain, muscles,
- SIGNS & SYMPTOMS:
and heart). Thus, the body is better able
to deal with a short-term stressor,
1. Hirsutism
2. Masculine pattern of the whether the job at hand is to fight, begin
body hair distribution the inflammatory process, or make you
3. Low voice production more alert so you think more clearly.
4. Testicular atrophy ● The catecholamines of the adrenal
medulla prepare the body to cope with a
brief or short-term stressful situation and
HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL
MEDULLA cause the so-called “alarm stage” of the
stress response. Glucocorticoids, by
● The adrenal medulla, like the posterior
contrast, are produced by the adrenal
pituitary, develops from a knot of nervous
cortex and are more important in helping
tissue. When the medulla is stimulated by
the body to cope with prolonged or
sympathetic nervous system neurons, its
continuing stressors, such as dealing with
cells release two similar hormones,
the death of a family member or having a
epinephrine, also called “adrenaline”, and
major operation. Glucocorticoids operate
norepinephrine, into the bloodstream.
primarily during the resistance stage of
Collectively, these hormones are referred
the stress response. If they are successful
to as “catecholamines”. Since some
in protecting the body, the problem will
sympathetic neurons also release
eventually be resolved without lasting
norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter, the
damage to the body. When the stress
adrenal medulla is often thought of as a
continues on and on, the adrenal cortex
"misplaced sympathetic nervous system
may simply "burn out," which is usually
ganglion."
fatal.
● When you are (or feel) threatened
physically or emotionally, your
sympathetic nervous system brings about ADRENAL MEDULLA
the "fight-or-flight" response to help you - Stimulated by the sympathetic
nervous system to secrete
cope with the stressful situation. One of
catecholamines into the
the organs it stimulates is the adrenal
 bloodstream within an organ. Two important hormones
- Hormones: catecholamines produced by the islet cells are insulin and
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline) glucagon. Both help regulate the amount
2. Norepinephrine of sugar (glucose) in the blood, but in
(noradrenaline) - misplaced opposite ways (see Figure 9.13). The islets
sympathetic nervous system also produce small amounts of other
ganglion (because it secretes
hormones.
NE since some sympathetic
neurons also release NE as a ● High blood glucose levels stimulate the
neurotransmitter) release of insulin from the beta cells of
- Fight or Flight reaction the islets. Insulin acts on just about all
body cells and increases their ability to
- Enhance and prolong the effects of transport glucose across their plasma
the neurotransmitters of the membranes. Once inside the cells, glucose
sympathetic nervous system
is oxidized for energy or converted to
- Effects:
1. Increase HR glycogen or fat for storage. These
2. Increase BP activities are also speeded up by insulin.
3. Increase serum glucose level Since insulin sweeps the glucose out of
4. Bronchodilation the blood, its effect is said to be
The effects cause more oxygen and hypoglycemic. As blood glucose levels fall,
glucose in the blood and faster the stimulus for insulin release ends —
blood circulation to the body
another classic case of negative feedback
especially the brain, muscles and
heart. control. Many hormones have
hyperglycemic effects (glucagon,
glucocorticoids, and epinephrine, to name
PANCREATIC ISLETS a few), but insulin is the only hormone
● The pancreas, located close to the that decreases blood glucose levels.
stomach in the abdominal cavity, is a Insulin is absolutely necessary for the use
mixed gland. Probably the best-hidden of glucose by the body cells. Without it,
endocrine glands in the body are the essentially no glucose can get into the
pancreatic islets, formerly called the cells to be used.
“islets of Langerhans”. These little masses
of hormone-producing tissue are
scattered among the enzyme-producing
tissue of the pancreas. The exocrine
(enzyme-producing) part of the pancreas,
which acts as part of the digestive system.
● Although there are more than a million
islets, separated by exocrine cells, each of
these tiny clumps of cells goes busily
about its business manufacturing its
hormones and working like an organ
 within the cells
3. Reduces serum glucose
➢ Transportation of
glucose out of the
blood into the cells
(hypoglycemic)
➢ Only hormone that
reduces serum
glucose

2. GLUCAGON
- Hyperglycemic
- Antagonist of insulin secreted by
alpha cells of pancreatic islets
PANCREAS - Function:
- Mixed gland (both endocrine and 1. Promote serum glucose by
exocrine) located close to the stimulating the liver to break
stomach in the abdominal cavity down stored glycogen into
- Pancreatic islets (islets of glucose and to release it into
langerhans) the blood
- Hormones:
1. G – glucagon PATHOLOGY OF INSULIN HORMONE
2. A – alpha
3. B – beta 1. DIABETES MELLITUS
- Common pancreatic abnormality
4. I – Insulin
5. D – delta
- characterized by excessive serum
6. S – somatostatin
glucose 2ndary to decrease insulin
- Cardinal signs:
1. INSULIN
1. Polyuria - excessive urination
- Secreted by beta cells of islets
to flush out glucose and
- Functions:
ketone
1. Increases cellular
2. Polydipsia - excessive thirst
permeability to glucose
resulting from water loss
3. Polyphagia - hunger
insulin → increase
secondary failure of glucose
permeability of cells to
consumption and the loss of
glucose → entrance of
fat and proteins from the
glucose into the cells →
body
oxidation of glucose for
- Failure of glucose consumption of
energy or conversion of
energy – fats and protein
glucose to glycogen or fat for
breakdown for energy production
storage
(to meet the energy requirements of
the body)
2. Facilitation of glucose
- SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
oxidation and conversion
1. Glucosuria - presence of
 glucose in the urine
secondary to inability of the
kidney tubule cells to
reabsorb excessive amounts
of glucose
2. Dehydration - secondary
water excretion
(waterfollows as glucose
flushes from the body) PINEAL GLAND
3. Low resistance to infection -
● The pineal gland, also called the “pineal
2ndary loss of proteins
(explains why diabetics must body”, is a small, cone-shaped gland found
be careful with hygiene and in the roof of the third ventricle of the
management of even small brain. The endocrine function of this tiny
cuts and bruises) gland is still somewhat of a mystery.
4. Weight loss - secondary Although many chemical substances have
consumption of fats and been identified in the pineal gland, only
proteins for energy
the hormone melatonin appears to be
5. Acidosis
secreted in substantial amounts. The
Low insulin → low glucose levels of melatonin rise and fall during the
breakdown of energy → low course of the day and night. Peak levels
fat breakdown (instead of occur at night and make us drowsy; the
sugars/glucose) for energy lowest levels occur during daylight around
→ increase ketones in the noon. Melatonin appears to play an
blood (ketones are
important role in establishing the body's
“day-night cycle”. In some animals,
intermediate products of fat melatonin also helps regulate mating
breakdown) → high acidity behavior and rhythms. In humans, it is
of blood → death (untreated believed to coordinate the hormones of
cases) fertility and to inhibit the reproductive
system (especially the ovaries of females)
REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS so that sexual maturation is prevented
INVOLVING PANCREATIC HORMONES from occurring during childhood, before
adult body size has been reached.
 THYMUS
- Located at the upper thorax,
posterior to the sternum
- Large during infancy and childhood,
but decreases in size throughout
adulthood
- Hormone:

1. THYMOSIN
- Functions in immune system
PINEAL GLAND - Serve as incubator for maturation of
- Small cone shaped gland located at immature WBC (T-lymphocytes)
the roof of the 3rd ventricle of the
brain
- Hormone: GONADS
● The female and male gonads produce
1. MELATONIN sex hormones that are identical to those
- Functions: produced by adrenal cortex cells. The
1. Regulation of sleep-awake
major differences are the source and
cycle — peak levels occurs at
night, which causes relative amounts produced.
drowsiness and lowest level
occurs during daylight
2. Inhibition of reproductive
system — especially ovaries,
which explains prevention of
asexual maturation from
occuring during childhood

THYMUS
HORMONES OF THE OVARIES
● The thymus is located in the upper
● The female gonads, or ovaries, are
thorax, posterior to the sternum. Large in
paired, almond-sized organs located in the
infants and children, it decreases in size
pelvic cavity. Besides producing female sex
throughout adulthood. By old age, it is
cells (ova, or eggs), ovaries produce two
composed mostly of fibrous connective
groups of steroid hormones, estrogens
tissue and fat. The thymus produces a
and progesterone. The ovaries do not
hormone called thymosin, and during
really begin to function until puberty,
childhood the thymus acts as an
when the anterior pituitary gonadotropic
"incubator" for the maturation of a special
hormones stimulate them into activity.
group of white blood cells (T lymphocytes)
This results in the rhythmic ovarian cycles
that are important in the immune
in which ova develop and blood levels of
response.
ovarian hormones rise and fall.
● Ovaries are stimulated to release their ESTROGEN
estrogens and progesterone in a cyclic way - Estrone and estradiol
by the anterior pituitary gonadotropic - Secreted by Graafian follicles
hormones. Hyposecretion of the ovarian - Functions:
hormones severely hampers the ability of ➢ Stimulation of secondary sex
a woman to conceive and bear children. characteristics in females
(growth & maturation of the
reproductive organs & hair
OVARIES growth in the pubic and
- Ovaries: paired almond sized organs axillary regions)
located in the pelvic cavity, ➢ Preparation of the uterus in
producing ova or eggs receiving a fertilized egg
- Non-functional until puberty, (menstrual cycle)
activated by gonadotropic ➢ Maintenance of pregnancy
hormones from the anterior ➢ Prepares breast for lactation
pituitary gland
- Hormones: CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
1. Estrogen ESTROGEN DEFICIENCY
2. Progesterone
1. Osteoporosis
2. Arteriosclerosis
▶ ESTROGEN 3. Decrease skin elasticity
- Estrogens, primarily estrone and 4. “Hot flushes“ - secondary functional
estradiol, produced by the changes in the sympathetic nervous
Graafian follicles of the ovaries, system
stimulate the development of the
secondary sex characteristics in
females (primarily growth and ▶ PROGESTERONE
maturation of the reproductive - Progesterone, as already noted,
organs and the appearance of hair acts with estrogen to bring about
in the pubic and axillary regions). the menstrual cycle. During
In addition, the estrogens work pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of
with progesterone to prepare the the uterus so that an implanted
uterus to receive a fertilized egg. embryo will not be aborted and
This results in cyclic changes in the helps prepare breast tissue for
uterine lining, which is called the lactation.
menstrual cycle. - Progesterone is produced by
- Estrogens also help maintain another glandular structure of the
pregnancy and prepare the breasts ovaries, the corpus luteum. The
to produce milk (lactation). corpus luteum produces both
However, the placenta and not the estrogen and progesterone, but
ovaries is the source of the progesterone is secreted in larger
estrogens at this time. amounts.
PROGESTERONE ● In adulthood, testosterone is necessary
- Secreted by corpus luteum for continuous production of sperm. In
- Functions: cases of hyposecretion, the man becomes
➢ Activation and regulation of sterile; such cases are usually treated by
menstrual cycles (acts with testosterone injections. Both the
estrogen) endocrine and exocrine functions of the
➢ Relaxation of muscles of the
testes begin at puberty under the
uterus during pregnancy to
prevent abortion of the influence of the anterior pituitary
implanted embryo gonadotropic hormones. Testosterone
production is specifically stimulated by LH.
MENOPAUSE
- “Change of life“
- Decline of ovarian function TESTES
occurring in the late middle age - Suspended by the scrotum outside
- Manifestations: the pelvic cavity, producing sperm
1. Atrophy of female cells
reproductive organs - Both endocrine and exocrine organ,
2. Cessation of fertility which begins to function at puberty
3. Estrogen deficiency under the influence of the anterior
4. Fatigue pituitary GH
5. Nervousness - Hormones:
6. Mood changes (depression)
1. TESTOSTERONE
- Androgen
HORMONES OF THE TESTES - Secreted by interstitial cells
- Testosterone production is
● The paired oval testes of the male are stimulated by LH
suspended in a sac, the scrotum, outside - Functions:
the pelvic cavity. In addition to male sex ➢ Development of the adult
cells, or sperm, the testes also produce male sex characteristics
male sex hormones, or androgens, of (growth of beard,
development of heavy
which testosterone is the most important.
bones, muscles and lowering
Testosterone, made by the interstitial cells of the voice
of the testes, causes the development of ➢ Promotion of growth and
the adult male sex characteristics. It
promotes the growth and maturation of
maturation of the
the reproductive system organs to prepare reproductive organs
the young man for reproduction. It also ➢ Stimulation of sex drive
causes development of the male's ➢ Continuous sperm
secondary sex characteristics (growth of reproduction (in
the beard, development of heavy bones adulthood)
and muscles, and lowering of the voice) as
well as stimulating the male sex drive.
OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING
 TISSUES AND ORGANS levels maintain the lining of the uterus
(thus, the pregnancy) and prepare the
● Besides the major endocrine organs,
breasts for producing milk. Human
pockets of hormone-producing cells are
placental lactogen (hPL) works
found in the walls of the small intestine,
cooperatively with estrogen and
stomach, kidneys, and heart— organs
progesterone in preparing the breasts for
whose chief functions have little to do
lactation, and relaxin, another placental
with hormone production. The placenta, a
hormone, causes the mother's pelvic
temporary organ formed during
ligaments and the pubic symphysis to
pregnancy, produces hormones generally
relax and become more flexible, which
thought of as ovarian hormones (estrogen
eases birth passage.
and progesterone). Additionally, certain
tumor cells, such as those of some lung
and pancreatic cancers, make hormones DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT OF
identical to those made in normal ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
endocrine glands, but in an excessive and ● The embryonic development of the
uncontrolled fashion. endocrine glands varies. The pituitary
gland is derived from epithelium of the
oral cavity and a neural tissue projection
PLACENTA
of the hypothalamus. The pineal gland is
● The placenta is a remarkable organ entirely composed of neural tissue. Most
formed temporarily in the uterus of of the strictly epithelial glands appear to
pregnant women. In addition to its roles develop as little saclike outpocketings of
as the respiratory, excretory, and the epithelial lining of the digestive tract.
nutrition-delivery systems for the fetus, it These would include the thyroid, thymus,
also produces hormones that help to and pancreas. The formation of the
maintain the pregnancy and pave the way gonads, adrenal and parathyroid glands is
for delivery of the baby. much more complex.
● During very early pregnancy, a hormone ● Barring outright malfunctions of the
called human chorionic gonadotropin endocrine glands (hypoactivity and
(hCG) is produced by the conceptus and hyperactivity), most endocrine organs
then by the fetal part of the placenta. seem to operate smoothly until old age. In
Similar to LH (luteinizing hormone), hCG late middle age, the efficiency of the
stimulates the corpus luteum of the ovary ovaries begins to decline. This causes the
to continue producing estrogen and onset of menopause (commonly called
progesterone so that the lining of the "change of life"). During this period, a
uterus is not sloughed off in menses. In woman's reproductive organs begin to
the third month, the placenta assumes the atrophy, and the ability to bear children
job of producing estrogen and ends. Problems associated with estrogen
progesterone, and the ovaries become deficiency begin to occur, such as
inactive for the rest of the pregnancy. The arteriosclerosis, osteoporosis, decreased
high estrogen and progesterone blood skin elasticity, and changes in the
operation of the sympathetic nervous
system that result in "hot flashes." In
addition, fatigue, nervousness, and mood
changes such as depression are common.
No such dramatic changes seem to
happen in men. In fact, many men remain
fertile throughout their lifespan, indicating
that testosterone is still being produced in
adequate amounts.
● While striking changes occur in aging
women, due to decreasing levels of
female hormones, many other much less
noticeable hormone-related changes
occur in both sexes. The efficiency of the
endocrine system as a whole gradually
declines in old age. There is no question
that growth hormone output by the
anterior pituitary declines, which partially
explains muscle atrophy in old age. Since
the anterior pituitary affects so many
other endocrine glands through its tropic
hormones, it is assumed that its target
organs also become less productive.