91582-Q0 Digital Communications 2 SW ED1 PR1

FACET®
Communications Systems
Digital Communications 2
Student Workbook
eSeries
Edition 1
91582-Q0
FIRST EDITION
First Printing, January 2009
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Digital Communications 2 Table of Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................................................1
Circuit Board Familiarization................................................................................................................3
Introduction to the Circuit Board.......................................................................................................7
Communications System Model.......................................................................................................8
Line Coding..........................................................................................................................................11
Encoding.........................................................................................................................................14
Decoding.........................................................................................................................................15
Frequency-Shift Keying......................................................................................................................17
FSK Signal Generation...................................................................................................................20
FSK Asynchronous Detection.........................................................................................................21
FSK Synchronous Detection...........................................................................................................22
Phase Shift Keying..............................................................................................................................25
PSK Signal Generation...................................................................................................................27
Synchronous Detection...................................................................................................................28
Amplitude Shift Keying.......................................................................................................................31
ASK Signal Generation...................................................................................................................33
ASK Signal Detection......................................................................................................................34
Effects of Noise...................................................................................................................................37
Channel Simulator..........................................................................................................................40
The Effects of Noise on ASK/PSK..................................................................................................41
The Effects of Noise on FSK...........................................................................................................42
Modem..................................................................................................................................................45
FSK Modem....................................................................................................................................50
DPSK Modem.................................................................................................................................51
Appendix A – Safety............................................................................................................................55
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FACET by Lab-Volt v
Table of Contents Digital Communications 2
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vi FACET by Lab-Volt
Introduction
Introduction
This Student Workbook provides a unit-by-unit outline of the Fault Assisted Circuits for Electronics
Training (FACET) curriculum.
The following information is included together with space to take notes as you move through the
curriculum.
♦♦ Unit objective
♦♦ Fundamentals
♦♦ New terms and words for the unit
♦♦ Equipment required for the unit
♦♦ Exercise objectives
♦♦ Exercise discussion
♦♦ Exercise notes
The Appendix includes safety information.
Student Workbook
FACET by Lab-Volt 1
Introduction
Student Workbook
2 FACET by Lab-Volt
Digital Communications 2 Circuit Board Familiarization
Circuit Board Familiarization

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the principles of digital
modulation and demodulation and the circuit blocks on your DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
In today’s fast-paced technological market, new electronic devices appear almost every day for consumer
entertainment, business management, industrial control, and data processing applications. To expand and
enhance the operation, versatility, and usefulness of these devices, they can be linked together through
digital communications.
Generally, communications involves an exchange of information between two persons or two devices.
This exchange can take on many forms, from face-to-face conversation between two people to a remote
transfer of scientific data between a ground station and a space satellite.
Digital communication is the electronic transmission of encoded information or data from one point to
another. Understanding digital communication involves the understanding of its elements, including
encoding, decoding, modulation, demodulation, and transmission media.
This figure shows generally how a digital input signal is processed for transmission and reception. At the
transmitter end the input signal drives an encoder, which changes the data into a form that is suitable
for transmission. The encoded signal is then processed by a modulator, which prepares the information
for transmission. The modulated signal is transmitted over a transmission medium, or channel. Typical
transmission media include the airwaves, wires, and optical fibers.
The demodulator output signal is identical to the encoded signal before it is modulated in the transmitter
section. The recovered digital signal is identical to the original input signal.
There are several methods of transforming, or encoding, the transferred information into a binary format
as shown here. The three most common coding techniques are NRZ (non return to zero), RZ (return to
zero), and MAN (Manchester). The method chosen depends on several transmission criteria, which will
be explained in the following units.
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FACET by Lab-Volt 3
Circuit Board Familiarization Digital Communications 2
This figure shows several different types of digital modulation used in transmission, and their relationship
to an NRZ coded signal. The modulation types are FSK (frequency shift keying), PSK (phase shift
keying), and ASK (amplitude shift keying). Notice that the modulated signals change for some of the bit
times (the intervals labeled 1-5). You will examine the three modulation types in detail in later units.
The three basic types of communication are simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex, as shown here.
Simplex involves a one-way communication from one device to another. Half-duplex is bidirectional
communication over a single channel. Since one channel is used, the two devices must time-share it. In
other words, each computer can transmit to the other, but not simultaneously. Full-duplex makes use of
two separate channels to allow simultaneous transmission and reception by both devices.
This figure shows a typical digital communication system between two computers. Each computer
is connected to a modem (modulator-demodulator). The modem modulates outgoing signals for
transmission and demodulates in-coming signals for reception. In this example, the information is
transferred over telephone lines. The signal carried via the channel is an analog signal modulated with the
encoded digital data. Transmission that uses modulation techniques, such as in the example shown, is
called broadband transmission.
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4 FACET by Lab-Volt
It is also possible for two devices with a direct interconnection to communicate without modulation. This is
called baseband transmission. A signal transmitted directly without being modulated is called a baseband
signal. Baseband transmission limits both the bandwidth of the transmission and the distance between
the transmitting and receiving devices.
Depending on the modulation technique and the transmission medium, errors can occur in the
transmission of data. To minimize such errors, the transmitting and receiving devices must conform
to certain communication rules and procedures, known as protocols. Errors in digital communication
are changes in the bit pattern of the data, which can be caused by interference, noise, or equipment
malfunctions. Protocols are employed to detect and correct transmission errors.
One function of protocols is to ensure that data transmission occurs in an orderly fashion. This can be
accomplished with either synchronous or asynchronous communication. Asynchronous communication
usually uses a start bit at the beginning of each word and one or more stop bits at the end of each word.
When no information is being transmitted, the channel is normally in the logic high state.
The start bit is a low-going pulse that signals the beginning of the word to be transmitted. The start bit is
followed by eight bits of serial data. After the last data bit, the stop bit(s) signals the end of transmission
for that word.
In high-speed or high-volume data transmission, the extra bits associated with each word can be a
disadvantage due to the additional transmission time required. This disadvantage is eliminated by using
synchronous communication.
In synchronous communication, special control characters are sent at the beginning and end of a large
data block. In the example shown, transmission begins with two 8-bit synchronization characters (SYN).
The data is then transmitted in a block, which could consist of up to several hundred or several thousand
continuous bytes. After the last byte, the end-of-transmission character (ETX) terminates the transfer.
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FACET by Lab-Volt 5
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

modem – a signal conversion device that contains both a modulator and demodulator.
broadband – relating to the transmission of signals over a frequency range that is produced by a
modulated-carrier system.
baseband – the band of frequencies associated with an original signal from a modulated source; an
encoded but unmodulated message signal.
protocols – rules of communication system operation that must be followed.
synchronous – relating to events that occur at the same time or that depend on the occurrence of
common timing signal; operating at the same frequency or at a frequency derived from the system.
asynchronous – relating to events that occur without a regular or predictable time relationship to a
specified event; operating at independent frequencies.
start bit – a bit that precedes data bits in a transmission and signals the beginning of the transmission.
stop bits – a bit that follows data bits in a transmission and signals the end of the transmission. It also
provides space between transmission.
data block – a group of data bits transmitted as a unit.
BER (bit error rate) – the amount of incorrect data bits received in a digital transmission in a specified
period of time.
on-off keying (OOK) – a form of ASK modulation in which the smaller amplitude is OV.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board
Oscilloscope, dual trace
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Workbook
6 FACET by Lab-Volt
Introduction to the Circuit Board
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the functions of the
circuit blocks on the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board.
DISCUSSION
• The individual circuit blocks contain test points and schematic block diagrams of the appropriate
circuit.
• The circuitry itself is contained in the component area in the center of the circuit board.
• Always use the ground jack closest to your measuring point for best noise immunity.
• Pairs of jacks with dashed lines between them indicate the option of using a two-post connector.
• Some commonly-used signals appear at more than one point on the circuit board.
• The ENCODER block encodes the data byte into three formats RZ (return to zero), NRZ (non-return
to zero), and MAN (Manchester).
• The CLK signal generated by the circuit board pulses once for each bit time.
• The SYNC signal is generated each time a complete byte is generated.
• XOR, D-FLIP FLOP, and Synchronous decode circuits are provided.
• The circuit board can generate FSK, PSK and ASK modulated signals.
• Synchronous and asynchronous detectors are provided to recover data from FSK, PSK and ASK
modulated signals.
• The CHANNEL SIMULATOR circuit block allows simulation of noise conditions.
• The BER (bit error rate) counter displays the number of incorrectly received bits during its test period.
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FACET by Lab-Volt 7
Communications System Model
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
In this exercise, you will use the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board to demonstrate the
operation of a communication system stage by stage.
DISCUSSION
• The DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board has circuit blocks that perform function of all the
elements of the communications model.
• The ENCODER block generates signals that are encoded with digital data.
• In the MODULATORS circuit block the encoded signals modulate a carrier signal.
• The CHANNEL SIMULATOR circuit block simulates the transmission medium over which the
modulated signal is carried.
• Demodulation is accomplished using the detectors.
• The MAN SYNC DECODER block recovers the NRZ and clock signals.
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8 FACET by Lab-Volt
NOTES
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FACET by Lab-Volt 9
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10 FACET by Lab-Volt
Digital Communications 2 Line Coding
Line Coding
UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to describe encoding and decoding methods for common
data codes. You will use the ENCODING circuit block on the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit
board.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
In baseband data transmission, the message signal containing the data is transmitted directly through
the transmission channel.
Binary data is often encoded into a series of pulses. The digital circuitry inside a computer often uses +5V
for a 1 state (mark) and 0V (space) for a 0 state. When data communications concerns the transmission
of data from one location to another, the data is commonly encoded.
There are many types of line codes in use such as AMI, RZ, NRZ, and Manchester. Choice of a line code
is judged by trade-offs between frequency response, bandwidth, clocking content, and dc drift.
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FACET by Lab-Volt 11
Line Coding Digital Communications 2
A line code that is used in the T1-Digital Transmission System is called the alternate mark inversion, or
AMI. A mark, or 1, is represented by either a positive or negative pulse symmetrical around 0V. Notice
that alternate marks are inverted and have a typical value of +3V or -3V.
The encoded signal cannot be transferred from one location to another without signal synchronization
between the two locations. In a synchronous system, the transmitter and receiver clocks must be
synchronous. When practical, the transmitter’s clock can be sent using a separate clock line.
Many types of transmitted encoded signals contain partial or full clocking information. This allows the
receiver to extract the clock timing information from the transmitted signals.
When clocking information is extracted from some types of encoded signals, it is often dependent on the
message information being transmitted.
Special line coding schemes are used with AMI signals to provide proper clock recovery when long
strings of 0’s are transmitted.
In a Binary 8-Zero Substitution scheme (B8ZS), strings of 8 zeros are detected at the transmitter and
substituted with code patterns containing 1’s. At the receiver, these substituted code patterns are used for
clock recovery and then changed back to the correct code of 8 zeroes.
Student Workbook
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

baseband data transmission – when a signal is transmitted without modification, no carrier signal.
line coding – encoding techniques used in data transmissions.
frequency spectrum – the distribution of the amplitude (energy) of a signal as a function of frequency.
unipolar signals – signals that have one polarity (+ or -) with respect to circuit common (zero).
polar signal – signals possessing positive or negative polarity with respect to circuit common (zero).
baud – a unit of signaling speed equal to the reciprocal of the shortest element duration in seconds.
encoded – to express information in terms of a code.
decode – to produce clear information from previous encoded data.
bps – the rate at which bits or binary digits are transmitted.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Generator, sine wave
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Workbook
Encoding
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe three common data encoding
techniques used in digital communications, and explain the benefits of each. You will verify your results by
using timing diagrams and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
• When transmitting data, message signal characteristics must be matched to the transmission
channel.
• Different signal encoding techniques offer trade-offs between bandwidth, clocking content, and dc
drift.
• The binary levels of NRZ data remain fixed for the duration of the bit time.
• In RZ encoding, the binary levels are represented during the first half of the bit time, and the second
half-bit is always zero.
• 0’s and 1’s in Manchester data encoding are sent in the first half bit time and the complement is sent
for the second half bit.
• RZ and Manchester codes combine clocking information with the data.
• When Manchester is used, clocking information can be recovered regardless of the data pattern.
• Unipolar signals typically switch between 0 and +5V.
• Polar signals switch between a negative and a positive voltage (-5 to +5V).
• Many communications channels are ac-coupled and, therefore, act like a bandpass filter.
• Manchester encoding can provide a bandwidth which matches the capacity of an ac-coupled channel.
Student Workbook
Decoding
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe three common methods used to
decode RZ and Manchester signals into NRZ signals. You will verify your results by using timing diagrams
and an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
• Sometimes data and clock signals are sent over separate lines.
• RZ and Manchester coded data can be decoded using a D-type flip-flop.
• An XOR gate can be used to decode Manchester coded data.
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NOTES
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Digital Communications 2 Frequency-Shift Keying
Frequency-Shift Keying
UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to describe frequency-shift keying and use the circuits on
the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board to generate and detect FSK signals.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Most analog channels have a bandwidth that is unsuitable for the conveyance of baseband digital
signals. The received signal no longer contains the transmitted data.
The channel’s bandwidth limitations distort signals that contain frequencies outside the channel’s
passband. Note that most of the frequency components are below the channel’s passband.
With the addition of a modulator and demodulator, a carrier signalcan be used that is compatible
with the channel’s passband. The frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulator transmits a carrier signal that
represents the baseband signal.
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Frequency-Shift Keying Digital Communications 2
The modulated carrier signal stays within the passband of the channel and is not attenuated. The
demodulator receives the carrier signal from the channel and recovers the baseband digital signal.
FSK is a type of frequency modulation (FM). The FSK modulator generates a carrier signal that
changes in frequency. The modulating signal controls the output frequency. Unlike analog FM, FSK uses
a digital modulating signal. The FSK carrier signal is switched between two specific frequencies by the
digital modulating signal.
The carrier frequencies used to represent the digital states are selected to be compatible with the
intended channel’s passband. Satellite transmissions typically use microwave carrier signals at
frequencies above 1 gigahertz. Phone transmission uses audio carrier signals at frequencies between
300 Hz and 3 kHz.
If the channel’s passband is wide enough, two carrier signals can be used to provide full-duplex operation.
The BELL 103 standard defines a full-duplex 300 baud FSK modem using two audio carrier signals. The
station originating the call transmits 1070 Hz for a logic low and 1270 Hz for a logic high. The station
answering the phone transmits a 2025 Hz for a logic low and 2225 Hz for a logic high. Each change in the
baseband signal generates one change in the 300 baud BELL 103 FSK carrier frequency.
FSK demodulators fall into two basic categories, synchronous and asynchronous. Asynchronous
demodulators filter the carrier signal before using an envelope detectorto recover the baseband signal.
Synchronous demodulators synchronize a reference signal with the carrier signal to detect changes in
carrier frequency and recover the baseband signal.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

analog channels – communication pathways intended for analog message signals. These channels are
characterized by limited bandwidth and poor low frequency response.
bandwidth – the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of a circuit.
baseband – the band of frequencies associated with an original signal from a modulated source. An
encoded but un-modulated message signal.
passband – the range of frequencies that pass through a circuit.
Student Workbook
modulator – a circuit that uses a message to vary some characteristic of a carrier signal.
demodulator – a circuit that recovers a message signal by detecting some varying characteristic of the
carrier signal.
carrier signal – a signal that can be modulated by a message signal.
attenuated – reduced in amplitude.
frequency modulation (FM) – the process of combining the message signal with the carrier signal that
causes the message signal to vary the frequency of the carrier signal.
synchronous – relating to events that occur at the same time or that depend on the occurrence of a
common timing signal. Operating at the same frequency or at a frequency derived from the system.
asynchronous – relating to events that occur without a regular or predictable time relationship. Operating
at independent frequencies.
envelope detector – a circuit that detects changes in a signal’s amplitude. A circuit containing a rectifier
and filter used to perform demodulation.
phase-locked loop (PLL) – a circuit that compares its output to an input signal to produce a phase
aligned output.
direct-coupled – an electronic circuit or component is used to deliver the carrier signal to the channel.
voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) – an oscillator that uses an input voltage to control its output
frequency.
analog multiplexer (MUX) – a circuit that will pass one of several analog signals selected by the control
signal(s).
analog switches – electronically controlled switches intended for use with analog signals.
discontinuities – portion of the waveform that are not continuous. Abrupt changes in a signal’s voltage.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Workbook
FSK Signal Generation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe the relationship between FSK and
the baseband digital modulating signal. Describe how an analog multiplexer can be used as an FSK
modulator and the frequency spectrum of an FSK signal.
DISCUSSION
• FSK is a simple low cost modulation technique.
• The FSK modulator can be acoustically or direct coupled.
• A VCO can be used as an FSK modulator.
• The circuit board uses an analog MUX as an FSK modulator.
Student Workbook
FSK Asynchronous Detection
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to recover the baseband NRZ signal from the
circuit board’s signal, demonstrate how a filter can convert an FSK signal into amplitude changes that
represent the baseband signal, and the operation of an asynchronous envelope detector.
DISCUSSION
• The FSK demodulator recovers the baseband digital signal be detecting the frequency changes in the
FSK carrier signal.
• An FSK signal consists of two on-off keying (OOK) signals.
• A bandpass filter can be used to pass one of the OOK carrier signals while attenuating the other.
• The filter output will change in amplitude as the FSK changes frequency.
• The amplitude changes are detected by an asynchronous detector.
Student Workbook
FSK Synchronous Detection
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this exercise you will be able to recover a digital signal from an FSK signal using
a synchronous detector, demonstrate how a phase-locked loop can be used to detect the baseband
digital signal in an FSK carrier signal, and describe the operation of a phase-locked loop configured as a
frequency to voltage converter.
DISCUSSION
• The FSK demodulator recovers the baseband digital signal be detecting the frequency changes in the
FSK carrier signal.
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NOTES
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Digital Communications 2 Phase Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying

UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this Unit, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the principles of PSK signal
generation, carrier synchronization, and synchronous detection.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Phase shift keying (PSK) is a form of modulation in which the phase of the carrier signal shifts each time
the digital intelligence signal changes state. The figure shows just after the NRZ signal switches from high
to low, the PSK signal at 0 and in phase with the carrier signal.
With reference to the carrier signal, the PSK signal phase shift is 0° for low NRZ states, and 180° for high
NRZ states.
This figure shows how the intelligence signal is PSK-modulated on your circuit board. The digital input
signal has logic levels of 0V and +5V. A level shifter changes the logic levels to -5V and +5V. The dc-offset
signal is then multiplied with the carrier signal in a balanced modulator to produce the PSK signal.
PSK signals must be detected synchronously because asynchronous detection does not recognize
phase shifts. In demodulating a PSK signal, it is necessary to regenerate the carrier signal at the receiver
end. This is accomplished by deriving the carrier signal from the received PSK signal with a carrier
synchronizer consisting of frequency doubler, PLL, ÷2, and 90° phase shift circuitry.
Student Workbook
Phase Shift Keying Digital Communications 2
The regenerated carrier signal is then combined with the PSK signal in a product detector. The product
detector output is low-pass filtered, and the resulting pulses are shaped by a voltage comparator to
recover the original digital intelligence signal from the received signal.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

None
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Workbook
PSK Signal Generation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this Exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate how PSK signal
generation is accomplished on your circuit board.
DISCUSSION
• The original signal is shifted from 0 +5V logic levels to -5V and +5V polar logic levels.
• The polar digital signal is then multiplied with a carrier signal in a balanced modulator.
• Multiplying by a positive voltage produces a 0° phase shift.
• Multiplying by a negative voltage produces a 180° phase shift.
• PSK can be used with any type of encoding.
Student Workbook
Synchronous Detection
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate synchronous
detection of a PSK signal. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
• The carrier synchronizer regenerates a carrier from the received PSK signal.
• The PLL VCO OUT frequency will also be twice the PSK signal frequency.
• The doubler is a full wave rectifier and bandpass filter which removes the intelligence from the PSK
and doubles its frequency.
• The final stage divides the VCO OUT frequency by 2 and shifts it by 90° to produce the regenerated
carrier.
• The regenerated carrier is mixed with the PSK to demodulate the signal.
• The low pass filter and voltage comparator perform the final shaping of the pulses.
Student Workbook
NOTES
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Digital Communications 2 Amplitude Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying

UNIT OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this unit, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the principles of ASK
signal generation and detection.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Most analog channels have a limited bandwidth that is unfit for the transmission of baseband digital
signals. To transmit baseband digital signals over analog channels, it is first necessary to use some form
of modulation.
Modulation mixes the baseband digital signals with a carrier signal that is compatible with the channel’s
passband. The amplitude-shift keying (ASK) modulator produces amplitude changes in the modulated
signal to represent the baseband signal. The demodulator receives the ASK carrier from the channel.
An electronic SPDT switch, controlled by the digital modulating signal, can be used to illustrate ASK
modulation. The large carrier is connected (switch up) to the output for a binary 1. The small carrier is
connected (switch down) to the output for a binary 0.
Student Workbook
Amplitude Shift Keying Digital Communications 2
An electronic SPST switch can be used to illustrate a simpler type of ASK modulation. The carrier is
connected (switch closed) to the output for a binary 1.
The carrier is disconnected (switch open) from the output for a binary 0. This special technique of
amplitude modulation is called on-off keying (OOK). The abrupt on and off changes between signaling
elements requires an increased channel bandwidth over standard ASK.
ASK demodulators (detectors) can be either asynchronous or synchronous. An asynchronous detector

does not use a reference carrier to recover the ASK amplitude changes. A synchronous detector
recovers the ASK amplitude changes using a reference carrier that agrees in frequency and phase with
the original ASK carrier signal.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

on-off keying (OOK) – a form of ASK in which the carrier is turned on to transmit a binary 1 and off to
transmit a binary 0.
the scaling summer – an inverting operational amplifier that allows scaling of each input before addition.
switched-capacitor low-pass filter – an active filter whose resistive element is a switched-capacitor
allowing a clock-tunable cutoff frequency.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Workbook
ASK Signal Generation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this Exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate how ASK
generation is accomplished on your circuit board.
DISCUSSION
• In Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK), the amplitude of a carrier is changed between two levels in response
to a modulating binary signal.
• The first step performed by the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board is a shifting or offsetting
of the NRZ signal.
• The summer adds a positive dc voltage to the NRZ signal.
• At the output of the summer, the logic low of the NRZ signal is above the 0V level.
• The balanced modulator functions as an amplitude-shift keying modulator.
• The balanced modulator's output signal shifts the carrier signal between two levels in response to the
NRZ logic levels.
• When the NRZ signal is a logic 1, the gain of the balanced modulator is fixed.
• As observed, a logic 1 appears as the larger amplitude portion of the ASK signal.
• When the NRZ signal is a logic 0, the gain of the balanced modulator is a function of the amplitudes
of the carrier signal and NRZ signal.
• As a result, a logic 0 appears as the smaller amplitude portion of the ASK output signal.
• As the offset voltage is reduced, a logic 0 appears in the ASK signal as a smaller carrier amplitude.
• When the offset is adjusted to 0 Vdc, the full-amplitude carrier level from the balanced modulator
represents a logic 1; carrier absence represents logic 0.
• This special case of amplitude modulation is called on-off keying (OOK).
• ASK modulation can be used with other types of encoding such as RZ and Manchester.
Student Workbook
ASK Signal Detection
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate how ASK detection
is accomplished on your circuit board.
DISCUSSION
• Detection, or demodulation, is the process of recovering the transmitted digital intelligence from a
modulated signal.
• The amplitude changes in the ASK input signal are detected to recover the original NRZ signal.
• ASK signals can be demodulated asynchronously or synchronously.
• Asynchronous demodulation does not recover the original un-modulated carrier.
• An asynchronous detector circuit uses a full-wave rectifier to rectify the ASK signal, a low-pass filter to
smooth the output of the rectifier, and a voltage comparator to restore the low-pass filter's NRZ output
signal to proper logic levels.
• A synchronous detector recovers the transmitted digital intelligence using a reference carrier that
agrees in frequency and phase with the original ASK carrier signal.
• A synchronous detector recreates a copy of the original un-modulated carrier signal.
• The regenerated carrier signal and the ASK modulated signal are input to the mixer.
• The output of the MIXER has varying positive peaks, at twice the carrier frequency, that follow the
amplitude variations of the ASK signal.
• The last two circuit blocks, LP FILTER and VOLT COMP, are the same as in the asynchronous
detector circuit.
• The low-pass filter smoothes the output of the mixer.
• The voltage comparator restores the low-pass filter's NRZ output signal to proper logic levels.
Student Workbook
NOTES
Student Workbook
Student Workbook
Digital Communications 2 Effects of Noise
Effects of Noise
UNIT OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit you will be able to explain and demonstrate the effects of noise on the
reception of a digital signal.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Noise is random, undesirable electrical energy that can interfere with the transmitted message in a
communications system.
External noise (from outside the system) can be man-made or occur naturally and can enter the system
via the channel.
Internal noise (from inside a circuit or component) can be produced in the transmitter or receiver.
There are many possible sources of external noise. Atmospheric disturbances such as lightning can
cause static. Various types of radiation emitted by the sun and other stars can also interfere with
communications.
Sources of troublesome man-made noise include; power lines, automotive ignition systems, electric
motors, and fluorescent lights
Many electronic components generate internal noise due to thermal agitation of the atoms. Because the
noise level is temperature-related, it is termed thermal noise. Thermal noise is a form of white noise,
which has the same amount of energy over a wide range of frequencies.
Another type of noise is shot noise which is random noise produced by current through a semiconductor
junction. The level of shot noise is proportional to the junction’s bias current.
Low-pass noise ranges from dc to a certain cutoff frequency. In this example, the cutoff frequency is
about 300 kHz.
Student Workbook
Effects of Noise Digital Communications 2
Bandpass noise occurs over a band of specific frequencies, but not outside those frequencies.
In analog communications, where the intelligence signal may be voice or music, you can detect the
effects of noise as static or audio distortion.
In digital communications, excessive noise can change the value of individual data bits, resulting in the
reception of invalid or erroneous data.
Most signals also include some noise. Excessive noise can cause some or all of the signal information to
be lost. To minimize the effects of noise, its level should be kept small relative to the actual signal.
The top signal in this figure shows a typical digital pulse. The bottom signal is the same pulse with the
addition of noise. The noise almost obscures the original signal.
For this reason, it is important to maintain a favorable signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The SNR is the ratio
of valid signal amplitude to noise signal amplitude, usually using rms values.
Vrms (signal)
SNR =
Vrms (noise)
The SNR is often expressed in decibels as follows:

SNR (dB) = 20 x log[Vrms(signal)/Vrms(noise)]
Student Workbook
Ideally, the highest possible signal-to-noise ratio should be maintained to ensure error-free signal
detection in a receiver.
Noise can affect either the amplitude or phase of a signal. Phase noise is due to inherent delays in
circuits and components.
Amplitude noise can be measured by determining the bit error rate (BER).
There are several ways to measure the BER. This block diagram shows the method used by the BER
COUNTER block on your circuit board.
The transmitted and received data are compared bit by bit.
If the bits do not match, an error pulse is generated.
The errors are totalized in a counter over a fixed time period generated by a one-shot.
A display indicates how many errors occurred within the time interval.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

noise – random, undesirable electrical energy that can interfere with the transmitted message in a
communications system.
external noise – noise originating outside a communications system that can enter the system via the
channel.
internal noise – noise originating inside a circuit or component in a transmitter or reciever.
thermal noise – internal noise generated by thermal agitation of atoms.
white noise – a type of noise that has the same amount of energy over a wide range of frequencies.
shot noise – random noise introduced by current flow in a semiconductor junction.
low-pass noise – noise that ranges from dc to a certain cutoff frequency.
bandpass noise – noise that occurs over a band of frequencies, but not outside those frequencies.
signal-to-noise ratio – the ratio of signal amplitude to noise amplitude.
bit error rate (BER) – the number of incorrect bits received in reference to the total number of bits
transmitted.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS II circuit board
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Workbook
Channel Simulator
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to demonstrate the effects of external noise on
a digital communications channel. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope and with the CHANNEL
SIMULATOR circuit block on your board.
DISCUSSION
• The CHANNEL block on your circuit board simulates the transmission medium over which a digital
communication takes place.
• A noise generator circuit within this block allows you to inject a variable amount of noise into the input
signal and observe the results at the receiver end.
• The amount of injected noise is controlled by the NOISE pot.
• The amplitude of CHANNEL circuit block pulses is controlled by the NOISE pot.
• Summing amplifier U16A adds the noise signal to the input signal. The resulting output drives U16B,
which is configured as a low-pass filter.
• The filter output is amplified by U17A before driving one of the demodulator circuits.
• Three op amp circuits function together as a bandpass filter with a frequency range from about 160
Hz to 70 kHz.
• Noise signals within the passband can result in reception errors.
• Noise signals outside the channel's passband do not present a problem.
• The noise generator on your circuit board has frequencies in the range 75 Hz to 600 Hz, which can
cause data errors in your communication system.
• In the BER COUNTER circuit block transmitted and received signals are XOR-gated together.
• The output of the XOR gate switches high only when the transmitted and received data are different.
• An XOR gate is used because an error can be defined as a condition where the received data is not
the same as the transmitted data.
• Each time you press and release the RESET pushbutton, the control circuit simultaneously resets the
counter and triggers a 106 ms one-shot. In your circuit, 106 ms is the time required for 128 data bits.
• Error pulses from the XOR gate are totalized by the counter only during the 106 ms window.
• If you press and release RESET a second time, only the number of error pulses in the second interval
is displayed.
Student Workbook
The Effects of Noise on ASK/PSK
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the effects of noise
on ASK- and PSK-modulated signals.
DISCUSSION
• Noise can cause errors in digital transmission by causing logic levels to be read incorrectly.
• Zero volts is much smaller than the amplitude of a normal ASK signal, so noise is often not sufficient
to affect the recovered digital signal.
• A low zero-state amplitude condition results in better noise immunity.
• Because the PSK signal has a constant amplitude, it is not as sensitive to amplitude noise.
• Intelligence in a PSK signal is a function of phase, which is affected minimally by amplitude noise.
The recovered digital signal, therefore, has fewer errors than that recovered from an ASK signal.
• Some noise can be filtered out of a communications system, depending on the noise frequencies and
the type of detection circuitry used.
• On the circuit board, the noise frequencies range from 75-600 Hz.
• The ASYNC DETECTOR is often preceded by a bandpass filter for ASK and PSK modulation. The
filter on the circuit board has a passband of 1.2 kHz to 4.6 kHz.
• The bandpass filter is designed to attenuate noise and pass the carrier.
• Inputs to the mixer of the SYNC DETECTOR circuit block are the original carrier and a regenerated
carrier of the same frequency. The mixer outputs the sum (twice the carrier frequency) and the
difference (zero) of the two frequencies.
• If 75−600 Hz noise frequencies are present at the input, 150−1200 Hz noise frequencies are output
from the mixer.
• If a 600 Hz noise signal is present, the mixer also outputs the sum and difference of the 2400 Hz
carrier and the noise frequencies.
• The frequency range of the signal at the mixer output is 1800−3000 Hz.
Student Workbook
The Effects of Noise on FSK
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the effects of noise
on FSK-modulated signals.
DISCUSSION
• Noise can change the amplitude of an FSK signal, which also affects the amplitude at the output of
the bandpass filter.
• Amplitude changes are passed on to the envelope detector which results in errors in the recovered
digital signal.
• FSK signals can be detected either synchronously or asynchronously.
• Synchronous detection provides better amplitude noise response because the phase comparator
senses phase changes independent of the signal amplitude.
• In the case of asynchronous detection, noise response is improved by the bandpass filter. Any noise
frequencies outside the passband are attenuated by the filter.
• Noise frequencies above the high cutoff frequency and below the low cutoff frequency will be rejected
by the channel.
• Telephone circuits are designed to pass a bandwidth limited to about 300 to 3000 Hz, which
includes the high and low FSK carrier frequencies. Any noise frequencies outside the passband are
attenuated.
Student Workbook
NOTES
Student Workbook
Student Workbook
Digital Communications 2 Modem
Modem
UNIT OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this Unit, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the operation of a
modem.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
The vast network of telephone lines throughout the world has become the most convenient and
economical medium for mass communications. Although voice is the primary signal carried by the
telephone system, this network is now widely used to carry digital information as well.
When it is necessary for two computers to communicate, voice-grade telephone lines can serve as the
communications medium. At each end of the communication link, modems are used to convert between
the baseband digital signals and the analog signals required for phone transmission.
The modem is a device that acts as both a receiver and a transmitter; it contains both modulation
and demodulation circuitry. Modems can be set to operate in the originate mode or answer mode,
depending on whether they initiate or receive the call, respectively.
In communications terminology, modems are called DCEs (data communication equipment). Devices
with which the modems communicate, such as computers, are called DTEs (data terminal equipment).
Communication between DCEs and DTEs is often governed by an Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
standard called RS232.
Student Workbook
Modem Digital Communications 2
This figure shows the basic signals in an RS232 interface. There can also be more signals, depending
on the application. The DTE sends data via its TXD (transmit data) output, and receives data via its RXD
(receive data) input. The next five lines are digital control signals that allow the efficient transfer of data.
The DTE outputs a DTR (data terminal ready) signal when it is powered up and ready to operate.
Similarly, the DTE receives a DSR (data set ready) signal when the DCE is powered up and ready to
operate. The DTE outputs an RTS (request to send) signal when it is ready to exchange data. When a
CTS (clear to send) reply is received from the DCE, the DTE begins to transmit its data. The DCD (data
carrier detect) signal is used by the DCE to inform the DTE when a carrier signal is present.
These figures show the logiclevel voltages specified by the RS232 standard for both output (upper figure)
and input (lower figure) signals. A logic 0 (space) output requires a voltage in the +5 to +15V range. A
logic 1 (mark) output requires a voltage in the -5 to -15V range. The range from -5 to +5V is a transition
region for which a logic level is not defined.
The modem must be capable of transferring data at efficient rates within the limitations of the telephone
bandwidth, which is about 300 to 3000 Hz. This figure illustrates an FSK technique using four separate
frequencies for full duplex operation (simultaneous transmission in both directions).
There are two sub-bands assigned within the telephone passband: the originate channel and the answer
channel. The originate modem sends a frequency of 1070 Hz to represent a logic 0 and 1270 Hz to
represent a logic 1.
The originate frequencies are far enough apart from the answer frequencies to be selected by filtering.
Student Workbook
This block diagram shows how the four frequencies are man-aged by the two modems. Modem A
transmits the 1070 and 1270 Hz tones through the channel to modem B. A bandpass filter passes these
frequencies through to the modem B demodulator. When modem B transmits, its 2025 and 2225 Hz tones
are filtered by an-other bandpass filter in modem A. To simplify the diagram, only one bandpass filter is
shown for each modem.
Depending on the answer/originate status each modem selects 1 of the 2 bandpass filters. If MODEM B
has originated the call to MODEM A, then MODEM A would select the 1000 -
1350 Hz BPF and MODEM B would select the 1950 - 2300 Hz BPF.
PSK is another modulation type used with modems. In Unit 4, you demonstrated the two-phase PSK
method shown here. This is an absolute form of PSK because the state of each data bit determines
whether the phase shift is 0° (bit = 1) or 180° (bit = 0).
In DPSK (differential phase shift keying) the phase change for any given bit depends on the phase of
the previous bit. The type of DPSK used by the modem on your circuit board at the higher bit rate is called
dibit DPSK.
In dibit DPSK, two bits of data (one dibit) are used to specify one of four phase changes as shown in the
table. By encoding more than one bit per phase change, dibit DPSK allows you to increase the binary
data rate without increasing the bandwidth.
A modem’s operation must conform to one of several industry standards to ensure compatibility with other
devices. The TS7515 modem IC on your circuit board can operate according to the Bell 103 or 212A
standards, as well as “recommendation” V.22 of an international telecommunications committee known as
CCITT (Comité Consultatif International de Télégraphie et Telephonie).
Student Workbook
This table shows a basic comparison between the two standards you will observe in the following
Exercises. Each standard has both a high and a low data-transfer rate. The high speed for both standards
is 1200 bps, and both standards use dibit DPSK modulation at this speed. The low speed for V.22 is 600
bps, and two-phase DPSK modulation is employed. The 212A standard has a low speed of 300 bps, with
FSK as the modulation type.
This figure shows how a modem communicates between a DTE and the telephone network. The modem
has three basic sections, all with their own set of input and output signals. The transmit section receives
commands and data from the DTE and outputs an ATO (analog transmit output) signal to the telephone
network.
The receive section inputs an RAI (receive analog input) signal from the telephone network and sends
data and commands to the DTE. The control section allows you to configure the modem for various
operating modes and parameters as required for different applications.
The input and output signals will be explained in the following exercises as they apply to FSK (Exercise 1)
and dibit DPSK (Exercise 2) operation.
NEW TERMS AND WORDS

originate mode – operation mode assigned to a modem that initiates a connection request (dials the
phone).
answer mode – operation mode assigned to a modem that responds to a connection request (answers
the phone).
DTEs (data terminal equipment) – a device, such as a computer or terminal, that exchanges baseband
data with a modem.
RS232 – an industrial standard that governs the connections, signals, and timing for one type of serial
communication system.
DPSK (differential phase shift keying) – a form of PSK by which data is recovered by measuring the
phase difference from one logic state to the next.
dibit DPSK – a form of DPSK in which one of four phases is represented by a two-bit binary value (one
dibit).
dibit – a circuit in the receiver section of a modem that reverses the scrambler’s conversion process to
recover the original data. A group of two bits.
CCITT (Comité Consultatif International de Télégraphie et Telephonie) – an international committee
established by the United Nations to recommend international telecommunications standards of
transmission with the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) – a form of modulation in which both the amplitude and the
phase of the carrier signal can vary with the baseband data.
constellation diagram – a graphic representation of the relationship between baseband data and the
phase and/or amplitude of the modulated signal.
Student Workbook
scrambler – a circuit in the transmitter section of a modem that converts continuous strings of identical
bits into an alternating bit pattern.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
FACET base unit
Multimeter
Two-post connectors
Terminal posts
Student Workbook
FSK Modem
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe and demonstrate the operation of an
FSK modem.
DISCUSSION
For the transmit section of the modem IC configured for FSK operation:
• The TXD input accepts digital information from the DTE.
• The data is modulated and filtered for transmission and then output from ATO.
• The control and mode selection circuitry has several external inputs used to configure the modem.
• Four inputs are connected to CM switches for external control. These inputs are pulled high by
external resistors, and can be grounded by the CMs. CM4 is a normally closed switch, while the
others are normally open.
• CM17 allows you to select answer or originate mode (A#/O).
• With CM19, you can select the CCITT or Bell operating mode (C#/B).
• The TL# (test loop) input allows you to select one of several test loop modes for checking modem
operation.
• The test loop selected also depends on the modulation type (FSK or DPSK), the standard (CCITT or
Bell), and the BRS and A#/O input states.
• BRS (binary rate selection) sets the modem for a high speed of 1200 bps (BRS = 1) or a low speed of
either 300 or 600 bps (BRS = 0).
• A bit clock signal from the DTE is applied to a PLL via the TCLK input; this synchronizes the chip's
internal transmit clock.
• An internal clock circuit, in conjunction with an external crystal, provides all the required
synchronization of both internal and external circuitry.
• For the receive section of the modem IC when it is configured for FSK operation:
• The modulated analog signal is input to RAI.
• The signal is internally filtered and then output from RFO.
• An external connection ties the filtered signal to RDI.
• After amplification and demodulation, the resulting signal is output from the RXD pin.
• A Carrier Detection circuit outputs a digital signal at DCD# that indicates whether or not a valid carrier
signal is present at RAI.
• The Control and Mode Selection signals are the same as for the transmit section.
• A Clock Recovery circuit derives the RCLK signal from RDI.
• In synchronous mode, the RCLK frequency equals the bit rate.
• In asynchronous mode, the RCLK frequency equals 16 times the bit rate. [NOTE: FSK operation is
asynchronous only.
Student Workbook
DPSK Modem
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
When you have completed this Exercise, you will be able to describe and demonstrate the operation of a
two-phase DPSK and a dibit DPSK modem.
DISCUSSION
• The two-phase PSK method you demonstrated in Unit 4 is an absolute form of PSK because each bit
describes a specific phase shift.
• When a bit is 1, the corresponding phase shift is always 0°.
• When a bit is 0, the phase shift is always 180°.
• In two-phase differential PSK (two-phase DPSK), phase is measured in two successive bit times in
order to determine the differential phase, or phase change, from one bit time to the next.
• The phase change, which is always either 90° or 270°, then determines the bit value.
• Assume that a modulated signal has a certain phase at some reference point. If the phase at the
following bit time changes by 90°, then the data bit is 0. If the phase at the following bit time changes
by 270°, then the bit is 1.
• In the case of dibit DPSK, four phase changes are used. An extra bit is added to define the four
possible logic states.
• In two-phase DPSK, the baud rate equals the bit rate. In dibit DPSK, twice as many bits are
transmitted in the same time period. Therefore, in dibit DPSK, the baud rate equals twice the bit rate.
• By adding a third bit to the dibit DPSK binary code, the number of states is doubled again to eight.
This method is called QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation).
• In QAM, both the phase and amplitude of the signal are modulated.
• The first two bits (one dibit) represents one of four phases, and the third bit represents one of two
amplitudes.
• The dibit/phase relationship can be shown graphically in a constellation diagram, in which the
phases are assigned to the horizontal and vertical axes, and the amplitudes are represented by a
distance along an axis.
• The number of possible states can be increased by adding either more phases or more amplitudes.
• In the transmit section of the modem, when it is configured for dibit DPSK operation, data from the
DTE enters at the TXD input and drives an asynchronous-to-synchronous converter.
• The converter's output drives a scrambler circuit that ensures the transmission of a continuously
changing bit pattern if continuous strings of ones or zeroes are input.
• The SEI# control signal can be used to enable or disable the scrambler. When disabled, the
scrambler circuit is bypassed.
• The next stage modulates the signal in a dibit DPSK format.
• The modulated signal is filtered before being output from ATO to the channel.
• In the receive section of the modem, when it is configured for dibit DPSK operation, the modulated
signal from the channel enters at RAI.
• The signal is filtered and output from RFO.
• The filtered signal re-enters the modem at RDI via an external connection.
Student Workbook
• The modulated signal is amplified, and the carrier and data are recovered.
• A clock signal is recovered and output at RCLK.
• When SEI# is enabled, the receive decoder output is descrambled, fed to a synchronous-to-
asynchronous converter, and output to the RXD pin.
• When SEI# is disabled, the data from the receive decoder is output directly to the TEST pin for
diagnostic purposes. In this case, the RXD data is not descrambled and, therefore, is not valid.
• As with the FSK configuration, a carrier detection circuit outputs a DCD# signal to indicate the
presence or absence of a valid carrier signal.
• The modem on your circuit board uses a cosine wave as the carrier.
• The cosine wave is a sine wave shifted by 90°.
Student Workbook
NOTES
Student Workbook
Student Workbook
Appendix A – Safety
Appendix A – Safety
Safety is everyone’s responsibility. All must cooperate to create the safest possible working environment.
Students must be reminded of the potential for harm, given common sense safety rules, and instructed to
follow the electrical safety rules.
Any environment can be hazardous when it is unfamiliar. The FACET computer-based laboratory may
be a new environment to some students. Instruct students in the proper use of the FACET equipment
and explain what behavior is expected of them in this laboratory. It is up to the instructor to provide the
necessary introduction to the learning environment and the equipment. This task will prevent injury to both
student and equipment.
The voltage and current used in the FACET Computer-Based Laboratory are, in themselves, harmless
to the normal, healthy person. However, an electrical shock coming as a surprise will be uncomfortable
and may cause a reaction that could create injury. The students should be made aware of the following
electrical safety rules.
1. Turn off the power before working on a circuit.

2. Always confirm that the circuit is wired correctly before turning on the power. If required, have your
instructor check your circuit wiring.
3. Perform the experiments as you are instructed: do not deviate from the documentation.
4. Never touch “live” wires with your bare hands or with tools.
5. Always hold test leads by their insulated areas.
6. Be aware that some components can become very hot during operation. (However, this is not a normal
condition for your FACET course equipment.) Always allow time for the components to cool before
proceeding to touch or remove them from the circuit.
7. Do not work without supervision. Be sure someone is nearby to shut off the power and provide first aid
in case of an accident.
8. Remove power cords by the plug, not by pulling on the cord. Check for cracked or broken insulation on
the cord.
Student Workbook
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Circuit Board Familiarization

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

Introduction to the Circuit Board

Communications System Model

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

FSK Signal Generation

FSK Asynchronous Detection

FSK Synchronous Detection

Phase Shift Keying

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

PSK Signal Generation

Amplitude Shift Keying

ASK demodulators (detectors) can be either asynchronous or synchronous. An asynchronous detector

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

ASK Signal Generation

ASK Signal Detection

The SNR is often expressed in decibels as follows:

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

The Effects of Noise on ASK/PSK

The Effects of Noise on FSK

NEW TERMS AND WORDS

1. Turn off the power before working on a circuit.

For further information, visit our website at www.labvolt.com

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