Unit 1

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are getting in touch
with different new technologies day by day.Here, one of the booming
technologies of computer science is Artificial Intelligence which is ready to
create a new revolution in the world by making intelligent machines.The
Artificial Intelligence is now all around us. It is currently working with a variety
of subfields, ranging from general to specific, such as self-driving cars, playing
chess, proving theorems, playing music, Painting, etc.AI is one of the
fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which has a great scope in
future. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a human.

The theory and development of computer systems able to perform tasks

normally requiring human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech
recognition, decision-making, and translation between languages.Artificial
intelligence is a branch of computer science that aims to create intelligent
machines. It has become an essential part of the technology industry.Research
associated with artificial intelligence is highly technical and specialized. The
core problems of artificial intelligence include programming computers for
certain traits such as:

Knowledge
Reasoning
Problem solving
Perception
Learning
Planning
Ability to manipulate and move objects

Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human
intelligence such as:
 o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new
things by itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to
less errors and high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or
information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision
making, because of that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the
Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the
same action multiple times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as
defusing a bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human
can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the
users such as AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce
websites to show the products as per customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such
as a self-driving car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free,
facial recognition for security purpose, Natural language processing to
communicate with the human in human-language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly
as it requires lots of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with
AI, but still they cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that
work for which they are trained, or programmed.
 o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding
performer, but still it does not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind
of emotional attachment with human, and may sometime be harmful for
users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology,
people are getting more dependent on devices and hence they are losing
their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine
some new ideas but still AI machines cannot beat this power of human
intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative.

History of AI
Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for
researchers. This technology is much older than you would imagine. Even there
are the myths of Mechanical men in Ancient Greek and Egyptian Myths.
Following are some milestones in the history of AI which defines the journey
from the AI generation to till date development.
Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

 Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by
Warren McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model
of artificial neurons.
 Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying
the connection strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian
learning.
 Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and
pioneered Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing
Machinery and Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can
check the machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to
human intelligence, called a Turing test.

The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

 Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first
artificial intelligence program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist".
This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new
and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
 Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American
Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the
first time, AI coined as an academic field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or

COBOL were invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which

can solve mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first
chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which
was named as WABOT-1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI
winter refers to the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe
shortage of funding from government for AI researches.
 o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was
decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)

o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert

System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the decision-
making ability of a human expert.
o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American
Association of Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter
duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as
due to high cost but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON
was very cost effective.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess
champion, Gary Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world
chess champion.
o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of
Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies
like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-

present)

o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show,
where it had to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson
had proved that it could understand natural language and can solve tricky
questions quickly.
o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now",
which was able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
 o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a
competition in the infamous "Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics
with two master debaters and also performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual
assistant and which had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady
on other side didn't notice that she was talking with the machine.

Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big
data, and data science are now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like
Google, Facebook, IBM, and Amazon are working with AI and creating
amazing devices. The future of Artificial Intelligence is inspiring and will come
with high intelligence.

Intelligent Systems
The intelligent systems are classified into four types they are
 Industrial Applications
 Household Applications
 Research Applications of AI
 IS Research Centres

Industrial Application
These application used in different types of industries such as
 Transportation
 Agriculture
 Telecommunications
 Manufacturing
 Military
 Medicine
 Architecture
 Oil & Gas
 Chemistry
 Aviation

Household Applications
 Smart Houses
 Caring Robots
 Robots in the Home & Chat bots
Research Applications of AI
 Mathematics
 Politics & Foreign Relations
 Decision Support Systems
  Banking & Finance
 Medicine
 Astronomy & Space Exploration
 Archaeology
 Knowledge Management
IS Research centres
 NASA
 IRIS – Institute of Robotics and intelligent Systems
 CISR – Centre of intelligent Systems Research (Washington)
 Halmstad University – Centre of Applied Intelligent Systems Research
 University of Alster – Intelligent Systems Research Centre
 SRI – Stanford Research Institute
Foundations of AI
 1941 – First Electronic Computer Created
 1941 – 1949 – First Commercial Stored Program Created
 1949 – 1956 - Birth of AI
 1956 -1958 – LISP Created
 1963 – Start of DOD advanced research project
 1968 – First Micro Program Started
 1970 – First Expert System
 1972 – PROLOG
 1991 – AI System beats chess master
Applications of AI
Finance : Banks use artificial intelligence systems to organize operations, invest
in stocks, and manage properties. In August 2001, robots beat humans in a
simulated financial trading competition.

Medicine: A medical clinic can use AI systems to organize bed schedules, make
a staff rotation, and provide medical information. AI has also application in
fields of cardiology (CRG), neurology (MRI), embryology
(sonography),complex operations of internal organs etc.

Social Sites: Facebook wants to analyze the way people communicate with one
another so that it can add new features to its services or even automatically
remove offensive posts that might occur when a high-profile celebrity like
Angelina Joli posts a selfie.
Robotics: Robots are physical agents that perform tasks by manipulating the
physical world . Robots are manufactured as hardware. The control of robot is
AI (in the form of software agent) that reads data from the sensors decides what
to do next and then directs the effectors to act in the physical world.
Heavy Industries : Huge machines involve risk in their manual maintenance and
working. So in becomes necessary part to have an automated AI agent in their
operation.

Education: AI researchers have created many tools to solve the most difficult
problems in computer science

Tic Tac Toe Game Playing

 Two players
 Human and Computer.
 The objective is to write a computer program in such a way that computer
wins most of the time.
 Three approaches are presented to play this game which increase in
Complexity Use of generalization Clarity of their knowledge
Extensibility of their approach These approaches will move towards
being representations of what we will call AI techniques
 It is two players ,X and O, game who take turns marking the spaces in a
3×3 grid. The player who succeeds in placing three respective marks in a
horizontal, vertical, or diagonal row wins the game.

Approach 1
 Data Structure Consider a Board having nine elements vector. Each
element will contain
 0 for blank
 1 indicating X player move
 2 indicating O player move
 Computer may play as X or O player.
 First player who so ever is always plays X.
 MT is a vector of 39 elements, each element of which is a nine element
vector representing board position. Total of 39 (19683) elements in MT
  To make a move, do the following:
 View the vector (board) as a ternary number and convert it to its
corresponding decimal number. Use the computed number as an index
into the
 MT and access the vector stored there.
 The selected vector represents the way the board will look after the move.
Set board equal to that vector.
Approach 2
 Data Structure Board: A nine-element vector representing the board:B[1..9]
 Following conventions are used
 2-indicates blank
 3-X
 5-0
 Turn: An integer
 1-First move
 9-Last move

Procedure – PossWin
PossWin (P) 🡪 Returns
0, if player P cannot win in its next move,

otherwise the number of square that constitutes a winning move for P.

Rule
If PossWin (P) = 0 {P can not win} then find whether opponent can win. If so,
then block it.
 PosWin checks one at a time, for each rows /columns and diagonals as
follows.

 If 3 * 3 * 2 = 18 then player X can win

 else if 5 * 5 * 2 = 50 then player O can win
  These procedures are used in the algorithm on the next slide.
Algorithm
 Assumptions
 The first player always uses symbol X.
 There are in all 8 moves in the worst case.
 Computer is represented by C and Human is represented by H.
 Convention used in algorithm on next slide
 If C plays first (Computer plays X, Human plays O) - Odd
moves
 If H plays first (Human plays X, Computer plays O) - Even
moves
 For the sake of clarity, we use C and H.

Algo - Computer plays first – C plays odd moves

 Move 1: Go (5)
 Move 2: H plays
 Move 3: If B[9] is blank, then Go(9) else Go(3) {make 2}
 Move 4: H plays
 Move 5: {By now computer has played 2 chances}
If PossWin(C) then {won} Go(PossWin(C))
else {block H} if PossWin(H) then Go(PossWin(H)) else if B[7] is
blank then Go(7) else Go(3)
 Move 6: H plays
 Moves 7 & 9 :
If PossWin(C) then {won} Go(PossWin(C))
else {block H} if PossWin(H) then Go(PossWin(H)) else
Go(Anywhere)
 Move 8: H plays
Complete Algorithm – Odd moves or even moves for C playing first or
second
 Move 1: go (5)
 Move 2: If B[5] is blank, then Go(5) else Go(1)
 Move 3: If B[9] is blank, then Go(9) else Go(3) {make 2}
 Move 4: {By now human (playing X) has played 2 chances} If
PossWin(X) then {block H} Go (PossWin(X)) else Go (Make_2)
 Move 5: {By now computer has played 2 chances} If PossWin(X) then
{won} Go(PossWin(X)) else {block H} if PossWin(O) then
Go(PossWin(O)) else if B[7] is blank then Go(7) else Go(3)
 Move 6: {By now both have played 2 chances} If PossWin(O) then
{won} Go(PossWin(O)) else {block H} if PossWin(X) then
Go(PossWin(X)) else Go(Make_2)
 Moves 7 & 9 : {By now human (playing O) has played 3 chances} If
PossWin(X) then {won} Go(PossWin(X)) else {block H} if
PossWin(O) then Go(PossWin(O)) else Go(Anywhere)
Move 8: {By now computer has played 3 chances} If PossWin(O) then {won}
Go(PossWin(O)) else {block H} if PossWin(X) then Go(PossWin(X)) else
Go(Anywhere)

Comments
 Not as efficient as first one in terms of time.
 Several conditions are checked before each move.
  It is memory efficient.
 Easier to understand & complete strategy has been determined in advance
 Still can not generalize to 3-D.
Approach 3
 Same as approach 2 except for one change in the representation of the
board.
 Board is considered to be a magic square of size 3 X 3 with 9 blocks
numbered by numbers indicated by magic square.
 This representation makes process of checking for a possible win more
simple.
Board Layout – Magic Square
Board Layout as magic square. Each row, column and diagonals add to 15.

Strategy for possible win for one player

 Maintain the list of each player’s blocks in which he has played.
 Consider each pair of blocks that player owns.
 Compute difference D between 15 and the sum of the two blocks.
 If D < 0 or D > 9 then
 these two blocks are not collinear and so can be ignored
 otherwise if the block representing difference is blank (i.e.,
not in either list) then a move in that block will produce a
win.
Working Example of algorithm
  Assume that the following lists are maintained up to 3rd move.
 Consider the magic block shown in slide 18.
 First Player X (Human)

8 3

 Second Player O (Computer)

5
Working – contd
 Strategy is same as in approach 2
First check if computer can win.
 If not then check if opponent can win.
 If so, then block it and proceed further.

 Steps involved in the play are:

o First chance, H plays in block numbered as 8
o Next C plays in block numbered as 5
o H plays in block numbered 3
o Now there is a turn of computer.
 Strategy by computer: Since H has played two turns and C has played
only one turn, C checks if H can win or not.
 Compute sum of blocks played by H

 S = 8 + 3 = 11
 Compute D = 15 – 11 = 4
 Block 4 is a winning block for H.
 So block this block and play in block numbered 4.
 The list of C gets updated with block number 4 as follows:

H 8 3 C 5 4
 Assume that H plays in block numbered 6.
 Now it’s a turn of C.

 C checks, if C can win as follows:

 Compute sum of blocks played by C
 S=5+4=9
 Compute D = 15 – 9 = 6
 Block 6 is not free, so C can not win at this turn.

 Now check if H can win.

 Compute sum of new pairs (8, 6) and (3, 6) from the list of
H
  S = 8 + 6 = 14
 Compute D = 15 – 14 = 1
Block 1 is not used by either player, so C plays in block
numbered as 1
 The updated lists at 6th move looks as follows:
 First Player H

8 3 6

 Second Player C
5 4 1

 Assume that now H plays in 2.

 Using same strategy, C checks its pair (5, 1) and (4, 1) and finds bock
numbered as 9 {15-6 = 9}.
 Block 9 is free, so C plays in 9 and win the game.
Comments
 This program will require more time than two others as
it has to search a tree representing all possible move sequences
before making each move.
 This approach is extensible to handle
 3-dimensional tic-tac-toe.
 games more complicated than tic-tac-toe.

Current trends in AI
Artificial Intelligence (AI) was invented several decades ago. In the past, many
people associated AI with robots. But, it plays a crucial role in our lives now.
Personal gadgets, media streaming gadgets, smart cars, and home appliances
use artificial intelligence. Also, businesses use it to improve customer
experience and management functions. Here are six artificial intelligence trends
to look out for in 2020.

1. AI Customer Support and Assistance

Each business should strive to offer an enjoyable customer experience.
Satisfying existing customers helps businesses market new products and
services. AI enables firms to improve their customer service by offering better
response time and interaction. Artificial system assistance includes sales tasks
and customer services. It will be more streamlined this year.
Digital marketing experts predict that customer service representatives won’t be
required to manage over 85 percent of customer support communication by
December. Companies can use programs and applications with Artificial
Intelligence systems to build brand reputation and loyalty. They will help them
increase their revenue.

2. Data Access Enabling Ubiquity

Data is making Artificial Intelligence more versatile. Data access enabling
ubiquity is one of the recent Artificial Intelligence innovations this year.
Reliable and accurate information helps businesses shift to AI-powered
automated decision making. It has cut operational cost, streamlined processes,
and improved the research capabilities of many organizations.
For example, developers of the autonomous car software can access a lot of
driving data without driving the vehicles. Soon, we will witness a drastic
increase in the application of Artificial Intelligence in real-world simulations.
As AI becomes more sophisticated, it will cause cost-effective and widespread
availability of crucial data.

3. Predictive Analytics
Artificial Intelligence, NLP, and machine learning to process data have a
positive effect on augmented analytics. More companies will start using
predictive analytics this year. It is essential in customer service, recruitment,
price optimization, retail sales, and supply chain improvement. Predictive
analytics will help businesses use real data to prepare for outcomes and
behaviors thus being more proactive.
4. Enhanced Customization
Companies need to understand delivery services and customer preferences to
have an edge over their competitors. All-pervasive location and real-time data
have conformed customer services in online marketplaces and urban mobility.
Businesses need to offer relevant and personalized services to remain relevant
and widen their client base.
5. Real-Time Marketing Activities
Instant data on current marketing decisions is part of real-time marketing. It
relies on relevant trends and customer feedback to prepare strategies. The
number of real-time marketing activities is expected to soar in 2020, and
Artificial Intelligence will drive most of them. Besides, more companies will
apply AI to manage real-time user interactions and satisfy clients.
6. AI-Powered Chatbots
Many businesses use chatbots to market products and make payments. They are
efficient in offering exemplary customer service. Many chatbots use data from
huge databases. But, they might not comprehend particular phrases. Chatbots
will match human conversation this year. For instance, AI-driven chatbots can
recall some parts of a conversation with a client and make a personalized
conversation using them.
Artificial intelligence has many possibilities. It is one of the most important
technologies in Industry 4.0 and automation, agriculture, aerospace,
construction, logistics, robotics, and connected mobility. AI customer support
and assistance, data access enabling ubiquity, predictive analysis, enhanced
customization, real-time marketing activities, and AI-powered chatbots are the
top artificial intelligence trends this year.