FORENSIC

PHOTOGRAPHY

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Photography
In a literal sense,
Photography is a derivative of two Greek
words: phos which means “light” and graphia
meaning “write”. Therefore Photography translates
to “write with light”.

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Photography
In a modern sense,
it is an art or science which deals with the
reproduction of images through the action of light,
upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera
and its accessories and the chemical processes
involved therein.

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Photography
Technically and legally,
this is a means for the chemical, thermal,
electrical or electronic recording of the images of
scenes, or objects formed by some type of radiant
energy, including gamma rays, x-rays, ultra-violet
rays, visible light and infrared rays.

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Police photography
an art or science which deals with the study of
the principles of photography, the preparation of
photographic evidence, and its application to
police work.

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Forensic Photography
an art or science of photographically
documenting a crime scene and evidence for
laboratory examination and analysis for purpose of
court trial.

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• Forensic – is derived from the word forum-
which means place for legal debate. Application
of scientific facts to legal problems.
• Lens – a medium or system which converges or
diverges light passing thru it to form images.
• Film – a cellulose tape embedded with
sensitized solution capable of recording images
thru light.

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• Mug-shot – is the process of taking photographs of
the suspect/s in full length, half body, right and left side
views, and two quarter views. To unidentified cadavers,
include marks on the victim’s body especially
tattoo/scar for identification.

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• Optics- is the study of light. It is concerned with the
nature of light and the way it behaves in optical
instruments.
• Parallax problem- the image seen by the lens of a
compact camera is not exactly the same as the
image that appears in the view finder.
• Focus: the means by which the object distance is
estimated or calculated to form sharp images.

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• Focusing-is the process of changing the distance
between the centers of the lens to the focal plane.
• Tripod is a portable three-legged frame, used as a
platform for supporting the weight and maintaining
the stability of some other object.
• Aperture. The lens opening formed by the iris
diaphragm inside the lens. The size is variable and
is adjusted by the aperture control.

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• Flash. 1. A short burst of light emitted by a flashbulb or
electronic flash unit at the same time the film is exposed. 2.
The equipment used to produce this light.
• Sharp. Describes an image or part of an image that shows
crisp, precise texture and detail. The opposite of blurred or soft.
• Synchronize. To cause a flash unit to fire while the camera
shutter is open.
• Stop down. To decrease the size of the lens aperture. The
opposite of open up.

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1. Light – the days of creation
• It was mentioned in the days of creation at Genesis,
chapter 1, verses 1-3 in the creation of the light could be
read.
• It is the most important components of photography, for
all other elements rely on it. Light could make the camera
activity and chemical processing possible to produce an
image.

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2. Equipment (1700)
• The primary equipment as a component of photography is
the used of camera which controls the amount of light
necessary to produce an image on the sensitive material.
• It was made possible because of the creation of the
portable camera obscura used by artist or painters to get
accurate perspective of natural scene and scale of their
subject.

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 3. Chemicals (1726 -1777)
• In conventional photography, the use of chemicals is highly
necessary for the development of the latent image captured
on the film.
• The light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver chloride
compounds that was impregnated on the film makes the
possibility of the development process. Through the use of the
Hydroquinone as developer, the latent images will developed
that will be fixed by the Hypo which is now known as the
Sodium Thiosulphate.

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 Known in the West as Alhazen,
Alhacen, or Alhazeni, Abu Ali al-Hasan
ibn, al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham was the
first person to test hypotheses with
verifiable experiments, developing the
scientific method more than 200 years
before European scholars learned of it—by
reading his books.

Alhazen Ibn Al-Haitham, an Arab scholar recorded one of the earliest

uses of a “dark room” that later called as “Camera Obscura”.

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The Camera Obscura from the Latin word for “room or “chamber” and
from a Middle English word “obscure” meaning “dark or lacking in
illumination

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1727- Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered that
light changes the nature of chemical
substances.
• MADE THE DISCOVERY THAT SUNLIGHT WOULD
BLACKEN CHALK THAT HAD BEEN TREATED WITH A
SOLUTION OF SILVER NITRATE (LUNAR CAUSTIC)
STILL N0 PERMANENT IMAGE.

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THOMAS WEDGWOOD, 1800.
• SUN PICTURE/PRINTS – BY PLACING OPAQUE OBJECTS ON LEATHER TREATED
WITH SILVER NITRATE

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THOMAS WEDGWOOD WORK EXAMPLE

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 Joseph Nicephore Niepce who first
patented the “Heliography” in 1826.
✓FIRST PERMANENT PHOTOGRAPH (USING
CAMERA OBSCURA)
✓POLISHED PEWTER PLATE COVERED WITH A
PETROLEUM DERIVATIVE CALLED BITUMEN
OF JUDEA. (ASPHALT)
✓OIL OF LAVANDER AS SOLVENT
✓“VIEW FROM THE WINDOW AT THE LE
GRAS”, SAINT–LOU DE–VARENNES
(FRANCE)
✓Lasted 8 hours

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METAL PLATE USED BY NIEPCE

ACTUAL IMAGE
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The world’s first photograph, a persistent image made by exposing chemicals to light,
was taken in 1826 by Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce.
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 1839 - is generally as the birth year of
photography.
Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre
✓ “DAGUERRO TYPE PROCESS”- FISRT PRACTICAL
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS
✓ CREATE IMAGES ON SILVER-PLATED COPPER,
COATED WITH SILVER IODINE AND “DEVELOPED”
WITH WARMED MERCURY
✓ Hypo or sodium thiosulphate-fixing agent
✓ BOULEVARD DU TEMPLE – FIRST EVER
PHOTOGRAPH OF A PERSON
✓ 30 minutes

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FIRST EVER
PHOTOGRAPH
OF A PERSON

BOULEVARD DU TEMPLE BY DAGUERRE

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 Willam Henry Fox Talbot
• explained a process he had invented
(calotype) at the Royal Society of
London.
• produces negative photograph of a
window at Lacock Abbey, Wiltshire,
using paper sensitized by silver
chloride.
- The “Calotype” later called as
“Talbotype” used paper with its
surface fibers impregnated with light
sensitive compound.

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 1819, SOLVENT POWER OF
HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA-AS FIXING
AGENT IN PHOTOGRAPHY.
It was in 1856 when John F.W.
Herschel coined the word “
photography”.
- phos – light
- graphia – write
✓NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE

JOHN F.W. HERSCHEL, 1839

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✓SCULPTOR IN LONDON
✓“WET COLLODION PROCESS”
✓IMPROVES PHOTOGRAPHIC
RESOLUTION BY SPREADING A
MIXTURE OF COLLODION AND
CHEMICALS ON SHEETS OF GLASS.
✓UNLIMITED REPRODUCTION,
PUBLISHED BUT NOT PATENTED
(1852)

FREDERICK SCOTT ARCHER,

1851
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 “WET COLLODION PROCESS”

COLLODION is a mixture of raw cotton (which has been treated with nitric and sulfuric acids) dissolved in ether and alcohol, with a little
iodide and bromide mixed in.
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 ✓ English doctor
✓ Proposes the use of
an emulsion gelatin
and silver bromide
on a glass plate
✓ “dry plate
RICHARD LEACH MADDOX, process”
1871

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 ✓ AT THE Age OF 24, HE
SETS UP EASTMAN DRY
PLATE COMPANY IN
ROCHESTER, NY.
✓ DEVELOPED DRY GEL ON
PAPER, OR FILM, TO
REPLACE THE
PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE.
GEORGE EASTMAN, 1884

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✓ SCOTTISH PSYSICIST
✓ COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY SYSTEM
INVOLVING 3 BLACK AND
WHITE PHOTOGRAPHS, EACH
TAKEN THROUGH A RED,
GREEN, OR BLUE FILTER
✓ “COLOR SEPRATION METHOD”
✓ “TARTAN RIBBON” – FIRST
COLOR IMAGE, PHOTOHRAPH BY
HIMSELF.
“TARTAN RIBBON” JAMES CLERK – MAXWELL,
1861

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3 BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPHS, EACH TAKEN THROUGH A RED, GREEN, OR BLUE
FILTER

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The Camera Obscura from the Latin word for “room or “chamber” and
from a Middle English word “obscure” meaning “dark or lacking in
illumination

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MOZI (OR MO-TZU) 400 ARISTOTLE – 4TH
BC. CENTURY BC.
NOTED THAT LIGHT REALIZED THAT A
FROM AN ILLUMINATED PARTIAL ECLIPSE
OBJECT THAT PASSED COULD BE VIEWED BY
THROUGH A PINHOLE LOOKING AT THE
INTO A DARK ROOM GROUND BENEATH A
CREATED AN INVERTED TREE.
IMAGE OF THE
ORIGINAL OBJECT.

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✓ 11TH CENTURY, VIEWING SCREEN WAS USED TO SEE THE INVERTED IMAGE.
✓ ALHAZEN (IBN AL-HAYTHAM)IS SAID TO HAVE ACTUALLY INVENTED THE
CAMERA OBSCURA.
✓ FIRST TO REALIZE THE MODERN UNDERSTANDING OF VISION
✓ LIGHTS VALUES IN STRAIGHT LINES.
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GIAMBATTISTA DELLA PORTA
(1535 - 1915)
CAMERA
OBSCURA

LENS

JOHANNES KEPLER (1604)

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 DAGUERRE AND NICEPHORE, 1837

METAL PLATE
SLIDE TO
OBTAIN FOCUS

✓ DEVELOPED THE FIRST PERMANENT PHOTOGRAPH USING THE

CAMERA OBSCURA
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 TALBOT, 1839

✓ FITTED MICROSCOPE LENSES TO LITTLE CAMERAS

“MOUSETRAPS”
✓ MEASURING ONLY .5 INCHES INSIDE

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 KODAK BROWNIE, 1900
FOLDING BROWNIE CAMERA

✓ POPULARIZED LOW COST PHOTOGRAPHY AND INTRODUCED THE CONCEPT OF SNAPSHOT

✓ LIGHTWEIGHT BOW CAMERA MADE OF CARDBOARD AND IMITATION LEATHER
✓ “YOU PRESS THE BUTTON, WE DO THE REST”

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OSKAR BARNACK, 1913
✓ HE IS CREDITED WITH THE
MAKING OF THE VERY FIRST
35MM CAMERA (“LIIPUT
KAMERA” UR-LEICA)
PROTOTYPE 35MM CAMERA
✓ ADAPTED THE 35MM EASTMAN
KODAK ROLL-FILL (DOUBLE
THE FRAME SIZE TO 24X36)
✓ TEST MARKETED (1923 -
1924) AND PUT INTO
PRODUCTION AS THE LEICA I
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POLAROID CAMERA, 1943
✓Edwin H. Land Introduced
“Polaroid’ the one-step
photography.(INSTANT CAMERA)
✓WAS SOLD TO PUBLIC AND KNOWN AS
“LAND CAMERA”

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UNDERWATER CAMERA, 1960

✓ORIGINALLY PRODUCED FOR THE U.S navy

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DISPOSABLE CAMERA, 1986

✓FIRST DEVELOPED BY
FUJIFILM IN 1986
✓AT VERY LOW PRICE AND ARE
THROWN AWAY AFTER THE
ROLL OF FILM IS PRODUCED
✓ARE THEN RECYCLED AND
USED TO MAKE OTHER
CAMERAS OF THE SAME
STYLE.

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DIGITAL CAMERA, 1975
✓STEVE SASSON – EASTMAN KODAK
IN NEW YORK JUNIOR ENGINEER
✓EXPERIMENTED WITH KODAK CAMERA
PARTS AND CCD OR CHARGED COUPLE
DEVICE
✓MORE FEATURES
✓HAVE MORE PRINTING OPTIONS,
VIDEO OPTIONS, CA DELETE IMAGES
✓HOLD PHOTOS ON MEMORY CARD.

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1854–An Englishman, Richard Leech Maddox, development a dry
plate photography eclipsing Daguerre’s wet plate on tin
method. This made practical photography of inmates for
prison records.
1859–In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic
Science was in photography. It was used to demonstrate
evidence in a California case. Enlarged photographs of
signature was presented in a court case involving forgery.
1864–Odelbrecht first advocate the use of photography for the
identification of criminals and the documents of evidence and
crime scenes.
Early photographs of accused and arrested persons were
beautifully posed as example of the Victorian photographers at 20
to 30 years. Later, every major police force in England and the
United States has “Rogues’ galleries” – full face, profile and full
body shot.

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1882 – Alphonse Bertillion who initiated anthropometric
measurements for personal identification was also
involved in various means of documentation by
photography which developed into a fine science for
criminalistics when he photographed crime scenes and
formulated a technique of contact photography to
demonstrate erasure on documents.
1902 – Dr. Archibald Rudolph Reiss, a German scientist trained
in Chemistry and Physics at Lausanne University in
Switzerland. He contributed heavily to the use of
photography in forensic science and established the
world’s earliest crime laboratory that serviced the
academic community and the Swiss police. His interests
included photography of crime scenes, corpses, and blood
stains. He made a trip to Brazil in 1913 where his
experience in criminalistics was presented to the Western
Hemisphere for the first time.

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 1910 – Victor Baltazard developed
a method of photographic
comparison of bullets and
cartridge cases which act as an
early foundation of the field of
ballistics .
A Professor of forensic
medicine at Sorborne, used
photographic enlargements of
bullets and cartridge cases to
determine weapon type and was
among the first to attempt to
individualize a bullet to a weapon.

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 Legal Foundation of Photographic Evidence
1. For Black and White Photographs
1859 – Daguerreotype was used in civil case, Lueo vs.
United States, 23 Howard 515 to decide on the
authenticity of photographs in comparing signatures.
1874 - In a criminal case introducing photograph as
identification evidence, Underzook vs. Commonwealth,
76 Pa. 340.

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2. For Color Photographs
1943 – Civil litigations Green vs. City and country of Denver, 3 Colo.
390 142 P.2 D .277 involving color photography of spoiled meat in
violation of a health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to
the public.
1960 – In criminal case, state vs. Conte 157 Comm. 251 A.2d 81
showing the graphic wound of the victim.
3. For Digital Photographs
1995 - State of Washington vs. Eric Hayden. A homicide case was taken
through a Kelly-Frye hearing in which the defense specifically objected
on the grounds that the digital images were manipulated. The court
authorized the use of digital imaging and the defendant was found
guilty. In 1998 the Appellate Court upheld the case on appeal

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❑Personal Identification
✓ Personal Identification is considered to be the first
application of photography is police work. Alphonse
Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in
police work as a supplementary identification in his
Anthropometry system.
❑For Communication
✓ Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal
methods of communication considering that no other language
can be known universally than photograph.

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❑For Record Purposes
✓Considered to be the utmost used of photography in
police work.
Different Views in photographing
a. General View
b. Medium View
c. Close-up View
d. Extreme Close-up View

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❑For Preservation
✓Crime scene and other physical evidence requires
photograph for preservation purposes. Crime scene
cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but
through photograph the initial condition of the
scene of the crime can be preserved properly.

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❑For Discovering and Proving
✓Photography can extend human vision in discovering and
proving things such as:

The use of Magnification

▪Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of
small object through attaching a camera to the ocular of a
compound microscope so as to show a minute details of the
physical evidence.
▪Photomacrogaphy = Taking a magnified (enlarged)
photograph of small object by attaching an extended tube
lens (macro lens) to the camera.

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▪Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a
small strips of film a scenario. It is first used in filmmaking.
▪Macrophotography = used synonymously with
photomacrogaphy.
▪Telephotography = Is the process of taking photograph of
a far object with the aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens.

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❑For Court Exhibits - all evidence presented in court
before formally be accepted requires that they satisfy
the basic requirements for admissibility which is
relevancy and competency.

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 FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHER
TO QUALIFY AS A FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHER
ONE MUST POSSESS THE FOLLOWING TRAITS:
✓TECHNICAL SKILLS
✓KNOWLEDGE IN PHOTOGRAPHY
✓EXPERIENCE
✓ATTENTION DETAILS
✓PHOTOGRAPHER’S PHOTOGRAPH WILL STAND
UP IN COURT

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 PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
A PHOTOGRAPH IS A MECHANICAL RESULT OF
PHOTOGRAPHY. TO PRODUCE A PHOTOGRAPGH,
LIGHT (ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION) IS
NEEDED. LIGHT RADIATED OR REFLECTED BY
THE SUBJECT MUST REACH SENSITIZED
MATERIAL (FILM) IN CONTROLLED AMOUNT.
THE EXCLUSION OF ALL OTHER LIGHTS TO BE
RECORDED ON THE SENSITIZED MATERIAL
INSIDE THE LIGHT TIGHT BOX (CAMERA) IS
CONTROLLED BY THE LENS.

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WHEN AFTER EXPOSURE, IT IS TREATED WITH A
SOLUTION HAVING REDUCING PROPERTIES, TERMED AS
DEVELOPER, THE EXPOSED BROMIDE IS REDUCED TO
METALLIC SILVER, AND FORMS AN IMAGE
CORRESPONDING TO THE INTENSITY OF LIGHT TO
WHICH IT WAS EXPOSED. AFTER DEVELOPMENT, THE
UNEXPOSED SILVER BROMIDE IS REMOVED BY A
SOLVENT WHICH DOES NOT ATTACK SILVER BUT
DISSOLVES TO THE BROMIDE, AND THE PICTURE
ISTHEN PERMANENT, AND IS SAID TO BE FIXED.

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THE PICTURE THUS OBTAINED IS A NEGATIVE, IN WHICH THE
LIGHT PARTS OF THE OBJECT ARE THE BLACKEST IN THE
PICTURE AN THE DARK PART appears the brightest. It is
placed in contact with another piece of sensitive
material (photographic paper) which is exposed to
light through the negative (printing/enlargement), and
this gives in turn a positive image after development.

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 LIGHT
• one of a number of known form of
radiant energy which travel in wave
motion.
• the Wave theory is the only considered
theory.
• When an atom in a light source is
changed physically, it emits a photon
(electromagnetic radiation) which
behaves like waves.
• It travels at a speed of about 186,
000 miles per second in air but can be
slowed by dense mediums such as glass
or water. However, presently, the
speed of light in a vacuum is defined
to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s
(approximately 186,282 miles per
second).

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• Cosmic rays - high-energy radiation that originate from outside our solar system
• Gamma rays - electromagnetic radiation of the shortest wavelength and highest energy
• x-rays --------------------------------------.01-10 nm
• Ultraviolet rays --------------------30-400 nm FOUR MODERN PHOTOGRAPHIC
RAYS
• Visible spectrum --------------------400-700 nm
• Infrared rays -------------------------700-1000+ nm
• radio waves

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CREST WAVELENGTH

the distance from the crest

to the wave of the next
succeeding crest

the number of waves

passing in a given
TROUGH
point in one second
FREQUENCY

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FOUR MODERN PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS

X-RAYS
RADIATION HAVING THE
WAVLENGTH BETWEEN .01
TO 10 NANOMETER OR
MILIMICRONS, THEY
ARE PRODUCED BY
PASSING BY AN
ELECTRIC CURRENT
THROUGH SPECIAL TYPE
OF VACUUM TUBE.
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ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS
RADIATION HAVING A WAVELENGTH
OF 30 TO 400 NANOMETER OR
MILIMICRONS. IT USED TO
PHOTOGRAPH FINGERPRINTS ON
MULTI-COLORED BACKGROUND,
DOCUMENTS THAT ARE ALTERED
CHEMICALLY, OR OVER WRITINGS,
AND THE DETECTION OF SECRET
WRITINGS.
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VISIBLE LIGHT RAYS
RAYS HAVING A WAVELENGTH OF
400 TO 700 NANOMETER OR
MILIMICRONS.
1. 400-500 = BLUE
2. 500-600 = GREEN
3. 600-700 = RED

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INFRARED RAYS
RADIATION HAVING A
WAVELENGTH OF 700-1000
NANOMETER OR MILIMICRONS.IT
USED IN TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS
OF OBLITERATED WRITINGS,
BURNT OR DIRTY DOCUMENTS,
OR BLACKOUT PHOTOGRAPHY.
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INCREASING FREQUENCY
INCREASING WAVELENTH

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 COLORS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

PRIMARY
SECONDARY
COLORS
COLORS

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✓Reflection
✓Absorption
✓Transmission
✓Refraction
✓Diffraction

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 The bouncing back of light when it hits the
surface of the medium.
Two types of Reflection:
1. Specular or Regular reflection – HITS A FLAT,
SMOOTH AND SHINY SURFACE.
2. Diffused or Irregular reflection – HITS A ROUGH
OR UNEVEN BUT GLOSSY SUBJECT.

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 The absorption of light through an opaque
medium.
Humans are able to see colors because of
absorption.

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 When light hits a transparent medium,
almost all of the light pass through it.

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The bending of light when passing from
one medium to another.

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The bending of light when it hits a sharp
edge of an opaque object.

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 Kinds of Object as to How they behave to light

• Transparent Objects – allows sufficient visible light to pass through

them that the object on the other side may be clearly seen.
• Translucent Objects – allows light to pass, however diffuse is
sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be clearly
distinguished. In sharp objects the other side may be recognizable but
sharp detail and outlines are obscured.(PARTIALLY VISIBLE)
• Opaque Objects – LIGHT CANNOT PASS THROUGH THE OBJECT. 85
 There are two (2) sources of light,
they are known as natural AND artificial.
Natural lights are lights which come
to existence without the intervention of
man and artificial lights are lights which
are man made.
In photography natural light is used
for outdoor photography and artificial
lights are utilized in indoor photography
to augment the adverse lighting condition.

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• Bright sunlight – a lighting condition where
objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or
distinct shadows.
• Hazy sunlight - objects in open space cast a
transparent shadow.
• Dull sunlight - objects in open space cast no
shadow.
• Cloudy bright - objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at
far distance are clearly visible.
• Cloudy dull - objects in open space cast no shadow and visibility of
distant objects is already limited.

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 Hazy sunlight

Bright sunlight

Dull sunlight

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 Almost all artificial light
sources can be used in photographing
for objects, as long as the light is
capable of exposing the sensitized
materials (film).
Some of the artificial lights
are electronic flash, photoflood
lamp, fluorescent lamp, Infra-red
and Ultra-violate lamp.
- Continuous radiation
- Short duration (Flash unit)

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• Ultraviolet lamp
• LASER (Light Amplification through Simulated
Emission of Radiation)
• Alternative Light Sources (ALS)

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 Ultra-violet lighting
Alternative light source

Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of Radiation

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 Films
SHEET OF PLASTICS
COATED WITH A SILVER
HALIDE EMULSION
CONTAINS SILVER
HALIDES SALTS THAT
ARE BONDED BY
GELATIN.

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 BASIC COAMPONENTS OF FILM
GRAY OR ANTI-HALATION BACKING – This
layers is placed between the emulsion
and the plastic base of a film to
prevent whatever light that passes
through the emulsion and reflected by
the base back to the emulsion forms a
“halo”.

EMULSION – consist of BASE – made up of a

crystals of light sensitive plastic material. serves as
compounds (silver nitrate) a support to the emulsion.
evenly distributed
throughout the plastic base
material.

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 FILM SPEED
• THE EXTENT TO WHICH AN EMULSION IS SENSITIVE TO LIGHT IS
REFERED TO AS ITS EMULSION SPEED.

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 According to Emulsion Speed
• ASA (American Standards
Association) Rating. This ASA DIN ISO
is expressed in arithmetical 12 12º 12/12º
value.
25 15º 25/15º
• DIN(Deutche Industri Normen)
Rating. Expressed in 48 18º 48/18º
logarithmic value.
100 21º 100/21º
• ISO (International Standards
Organization) Rating. 200 24º 200/24º
Expressed in combined
arithmetical and 400 27º 400/27º
logarithmical values.
800 30º 800/30º

1600 33º 1600/33º

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 According to Spectral Sensitivity
• Blue Sensitive – sensitive to ultraviolet rays and
blue color only.
• Orthochromatic – sensitive to ultraviolet rays,
blue and green colors. It is not sensitive to red
color.
• Panchromatic – sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to
blue, green and red color.
• Infrared – sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to all
colors and also to infrared rays.

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 Granularity or Graininess

THIS REFERS TO THE SIZE OF THE METALLIC SILVER GRAINS THAT

ARE FORMED AFTER DEVELOP OF AN EXPOSED TO FILM.

THE RULE IS:

• THELOWER THE EMULSION SPEED RATING OF THE FILM, THE FINER IS
THE GRAIN AND CONVERSELY,
• THE HIGHER THE EMULSION SPEED RATING, THE BIGGER ARE THE
GRAIN.

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 Photographic Papers
• This refers to a paper
coated with light sensitive
material on a paper base or
support.
• Is exposed to light in a
controlled manner, either
by placing a negative in
contact print, by using an
enlarger in order to create
a latent image.

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 Types of Photographic Printing Paper
• Chloride Papers.
Have a slow speed emulsion containing silver chloride ,
fine grain and produce deep blacks, and used for contact
printing.
• Bromide Papers.
Have faster emulsion speed than chloride paper, achieve
sensitivity through the use of bromide halides. Because of
the relatively high sensitivity to light, these emulsions
are particularly suitable for projection printing.

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• Chlorobromide Papers.
Contain both silver chloride and silver bromide
halides. Emulsion speed lies between that of
chloride and bromide papers, used for both contact
and projection printing.
• Variable Contrast Paper.
Combines the contrast ranges in one paper, this
versatility is achieved with special chlorobromide
emulsion that produces varying contrast responses
upon exposure to different colored light.

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 According to contrast
• Velox No. 0 – used for printing from extremely contrast
negative; the low contrast in the paper sensitizing
counteracts the high contrast in the negative, to give a
new print.
• Velox No. 1 – sed for high contrast negative.
• Velox No. 2 – a paper for normal contrast used with
normal negatives.
• Velox No. 3 – use for negatives that are a little weak
in contrast.
• Velox No. 4 –provides sufficient contrast to compensate
for very thin or weak negatives. It is useful in printing
silhouettes and other such pictures in which high
contrast is desired.
• Velox No. 5 –for negative so flat as to be otherwise
unprintable.

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According to physical characteristics

• Weight – single, double

• Surface – glossy, semi-matte, matte
• Color – white or cream

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 CAMERA
Is light tight box, with a means of forming the image
(lens), with a means of holding sensitized materials (film
holder) and with a means of controlling the amount of light
that will reached the film

105
 Basic parts of the camera
• Camera body- a light-tight container used to hold light
sensitive materials (film).this suggest an enclosure or devoid
of light.
• Shutter- a mechanism that opens and closes within the camera to
provide the time interval necessary for exposure. Time
intervals are called shutter speed.
• Lens- a single shaped piece of optical glass or molded plastic
designed to gather and focus light rays in a camera to form an
image of a subject on film.

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• Viewfinder – it is a means of
determining the field of view of
the camera or the extent of the
coverage of the lens.
• Film holder- part of the camera
that holds the light sensitive
material/film.

107
 OTHER PARTS OF THE CAMERA
Mirror
It is in use when
the shutter is
closed. It reflects
light of the image
through a prism to
the eye of the
photographer.

108
Aperture
the lens opening, the size of which is regulated by a diaphragm and
expressed as an f-stop or f-number (f-stop represents the ratio of
the focal length of the lens to the diameter of the lens. Also the
number that indicates the size of a lens opening.

109
F-stop ring
This refers to the control which sets of the aperture
opening as the photograph it taken.

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Shutter speed
dial
This
regulates how
long the
shutter stays
open

111
Film advance lever
This is used to advance or move over each small piece
of film after the photograph is taken.

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Rewind crank
This used only after
all the photographs
have been taken. It
is used to rewind the
exposed film back to
the canister.

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Shutter release
button
The control that
releases the
aperture opening,
lifts up the
mirror, and exposes
the film to the
light.

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Asa dial
The asa number
assigned to film
reflects how
sensitive it is to
light, or how quickly
it will react to
light.

115
 Types of Camera
• Box camera - uses lens and spring-loading shutter and roll
film. Shutter speed and aperture usually not adjustable.
Camera body is a rigid box.
• Folding camera - lens and shutter mounted to camera body by
means of accordion-pleated bellows, which can be folded into
camera foe ease of carrying.
• viewfinder camera - camera with viewing that is separate
from the lens used in taking the picture.
• Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera - uses same lens for
picture-taking and viewing. Characterized by focal-plane
shutter (usually) and an operable mirror that directs the
image to eve for viewing function.
• Single-use camera–camera that is used only once.
• Instant camera–type of camera with self-developing
film.(polaroid)

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 Camera Lens
- a transparent medium which
either converge or diverge
light rays passing through it
to form an image.
- is an optical lens or
assembly of lenses used in
conjunction with a camera body
and mechanism to make images
of objects either
on photographic film or on
other media capable of storing
an image chemically or
electronically.

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 The Creation of Lens
The word lens comes from the
Latin name of the lentil,
because a double-convex lens is
lentil-shaped.
The genus of the lentil
plant is Lens, and the most
commonly eaten species is Lens
culinaris.

118
The oldest lens artifact is the
Nimrud lens, dating back 2700 years
to ancient Assyria.
David Brewster proposed that it may
have been used as a magnifying glass,
or as a burning-glass to start fires
by concentrating sunlight

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Convex / convergent /
positive
Type of lens which is
always thicker at the
center and thinner at
the side. Light passing
through it are bended
toward each other on the
other side of the lens
meeting at a point.
curves outward
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Concave / divergent / negative
Lens that possesses at
least one surface that curves
inwards.
It is a diverging lens,
spreading out those light rays
that have been refracted
through it.
A concave lens is thinner
at its centre than at its
edges, and is used to correct
short-sightedness (myopia).

121
 Focusing
This refers to the setting of proper distance in
order to form a sharp image. The lens of the
camera, except those with fixed focused, requires
focusing. A lens may be focused by any of the
following:

122
 Focusing scale or scale bed
A scale is usually found at the lens barrel indicating pre-set
distance in feet or in meters. To focus the lens of the camera,
the distance of the objects to e photographed is measured,
estimated, or calculated and the point or marker on the lens
barrel is adjusted to corresponding number on the scale.

123
 Range Finders
this is the mechanism that measure the angle of the convergence of
light coming from a subject as a seen from two apertures or opening
but viewed at the same time. There are three types of range
finders.
✓Split image
✓Co-incident image
✓Ground glass

124
 Split image
The image of a straight
line in the object
appears to be cut into
halves and separated from
each other when the lens
is not in focus.

125
 Co-incident image
A single image Is seen
double when the
subject is out of
focus. Make the image
coincide and the lens
is in focus.

126
 Ground glass
It is focused by observing the image formed at the
ground glass, screen place behind taking lens.
The point of focus is where the image is
sharpest.

127
 LOWER NUMBER HIGHER NUMBER
Types of Lenses According to Focal Length
• The distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the
focal plane when the lens is focused at infinity position or far
distance.
• The focal length number tells us how much of the scene is
captured in the picture.
• The lower the number, the more we can see.
• A wide angle setting (zoomed out), where you can see a lot of the
scene, has a small number or shorter focal length.
• A narrow angle setting (zoomed in), where you can see only a
small part of the scene, has a large number or longer focal
length.

128
 Fish eye lens (8mm-24mm)
DESCRIBES AN EXTREME
WIDE-ANGLE LENS THAT
HAS AN ANGLE OF VIEW
EXCEEDING 100° -
SOMETIMES MORE THAN
180°- AND THAT
RENDERS A SCENE AS
HIGHLY DISTORTED.

129
 Wide-angle lens (24mm-35mm)
• A lens having a wide
area coverage but
produces a small
image size.
• usually used to take
pictures indoor or
inside a small room.
• also used outdoor to
get a panoramic
view.
• focal length is less
than the diagonal of
its negative
material.

130
 Normal lens (35mm-70mm)

• it corresponds to nearly the coverage of the human

eye.
• focal length is equal or not more than the diagonal
of the film format.
131
Telephoto lens (70mm-300mm)
• it provides a bigger image of an object at far
distance but its area of coverage is smaller.
• the focal length is more than two times of its
negative material.

132
 Spherical aberrations
• Is an optical problem that occurs when all incoming
light rays end up focusing at different points after
passing through a spherical surface.
• Light rays passing through a lens near its
horizontal axis are refracted less than rays closer
to the edge or “periphery” of the lens and as a
result, end up in different spots across the optical
axis.
• In other words, the parallel light rays of incoming
light do not converge at the same point after
passing through the lens.
• Because of this, Spherical Aberration can affect
resolution and clarity, making it hard to obtain
sharp images.

133
 Chromatic aberrations
also known as “color fringing” or “purple
fringing”.
is a common optical problem that occurs when a lens
is either unable to bring all colors (wavelengths) to
the same focal plane, and/or when wavelengths of color
are focused at different positions in the focal plane.
is caused by lens dispersion, with different colors
of light travelling at different speeds while passing
through a lens. As a result, the image can look blurred
or noticeable colored edges (red, green, blue, yellow,
purple, magenta) can appear around objects, especially
in high-contrast situations.
134
 Coma
a shortcoming in a camera lens where
light rays, bumping into the objective far
from it's optical axis do not come to focus
within the identical image plane.
this results in star images near the
outer edge of the viewing field seeming to
have comet-style tails scattering radially
away from it's optical axis (called negative
coma) or toward it's axis (called positive
coma).
✓Coma sometimes known as lateral spherical
aberration.

135
 Distortion
The outer parts of the image produced by
the lens will be magnified either less or
more than the center.

136
 Pincushion distortion
a lens effect
which causes images to
become pinched in the
center. It is most
often associated with
telephoto lenses, and
in particular, zoom
telephotos.
the distortion
will usually occur at
the telephoto end of
the lens. The
pincushion distortion
effect increases with
the distance the
object is from the
optical axis of the
lens.
137
 Barrel lens distortion
an effect associated
with wide-angle lenses and,
in particular, zoom wide-
angles. This effect causes
images to be spherized,
which means the edges of
images look curved and bowed
to the human eye.
It almost appears as
though the photo image has
been wrapped around a curved
surface. It is most visible
in images that have straight
lines in them, as these lines
appear to be bowed outward.

138
139
 Curvature of field
Field Curvature, also known as “curvature of
field” or “Petzval field curvature”.
a common optical problem that causes a flat
object to appear sharp only in a certain part(s)
of the frame, instead of being uniformly sharp
across the frame.
this happens due to the curved nature of
optical elements, which project the image in a
curved manner, rather than flat. And since all
digital camera sensors are flat, they cannot
capture the entire image in perfect focus.

140
 Type of lenses
according to degree of
correction

141
Achromatic lens
used to
minimize or
eliminate chromatic
aberration.
the achromatic
design also helps
minimize spherical
aberrations.

142
Rapid rectilinear
lens
lens use to
correct and
minimize
distortion.

143
Anastigmat lens
completely corrected
for spherical
aberration,
coma, and astigmatism.

144
 Apochromatic
lens
Used to correct
astigmatism, but
with higher degree
of correction to
color.

145
146
 Exposure

• subjecting the light sensitive

material to light in order to form
an image (initially a latent image).
• This involves controlling the right
amount of light and time to achieve
correct exposure.

147
 Lens opening or apertures
• The light gathering power of the lens.
• indicated as f-numbers or f-stops.
• By increasing or decreasing the f-number numerically, it
is possible to:
✓Control the amount of light passing through the lens
✓Depth of field
✓Control the degree of sharpness due to lens defects.

148
Example:
1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22
• The bigger the f-number the smaller the aperture or lens
opening is while smaller the f/ the bigger the aperture or
lens opening.
• Basically, small apertures are used in low light conditions
while large apertures are used in bright lighting conditions.

149
150
➢is the smallest and largest f-number of any
given lens.
➢The smaller the f-number the faster the lens
and vice versa.
➢It is also indicates the capability of the
lens to gather more light in low light
conditions.

151
 Depth of field

➢is defined as the amount of area in focus.

➢ It is the distance from the nearest object
in good focus to the farthest object in good
focus.

152
 Depth of field is increased by
• Shorter focal length lens
• Smaller lens aperture
• Greater subject distance

DEPTH OF FIELD IS DECREASED BY

• LONGER FOCAL LENGTH LENS
• LARGER LENS APERTURE
• SHORTER SUBJECT DISTANCE

153
 Shutter
a device that
opens to uncover
the film to make
exposure for an
accurately timed
intervals then
closes
automatically.

154
 Shutter speed
• as whole numbers in the shutter speed dial but it
is actually fractions of a second.
• The unit of measure used for controlling the time
light is allowed to enter the camera is Seconds.

155
 Shutter speed
• Slow shutter speeds are basically used for
low light while fast shutter speeds are used
in bright lighting conditions.
• Aside from controlling the amount of time
the shutter also controls motion or action.
(the ability to “freeze” action)
• You have to control both shutter speed and
lens opening to achieve correct exposure.

156
157
 ✓ This is an intermediate bath between
Photographic processing
the developer and the fixer.
✓This is the process of reduction. The exposed silver halides
✓ It is usually a combination of water
It isreduced
are into metallic
the process silver.
of removing theThe factors silver
unexposed that affects
halidesthe
plus 28%
developing of are
acetic acid or just plain
remaining in time agitation,
the emulsion after thetemperature,
first stage concentration
of development of
Photographic processing
of water.
chemicals
the can be defined simply as a
and image.
latent exposure.
✓will
series of chemicalItThe Primarily,
chemical
changes the its
make composition
that function
image is
to to
of developer:
accomplish
developed be prevent
the permanent when it is
Hydroquinone
the
followed a and Elon washing.
contamination
by thorough of –a two
the reducer or developing agent
chemical
following goals: The
Sodium Sulphite
fixer is a chemical compound –a preservative
usually composed of the
solutions.
Sodium Carbonate –an accelerator
1) Develop the image
following:
Potassium Bromide –a restrainer or for preventer.
Hypo or Sodium Thiosulphate – a dissolving agent
2) Stop the action of development
Sodium Sulphite at a desired – a point
preservative
Boric acid and Acetic acid – a neutralizer
3) Fix the visible imagePotassium
to make Alum it permanent – a hardener
4) Wash all traces of chemicals used
5) Dry the photographic chemical

158
159
 TRAYS
THESE ARE
ESSENTIALS TO HOLD
THE INDIVIDUAL
CHEMICALS AND
WATER FOR PRINT
DEVELOPMENT.

160
 CHEMICALS
DEPENDING ON
WHETHER YOU
DEVELOP COLOR
BLACK AND WHITE
PRINTS, YOU WILL
NEED DIFFERENT
CHEMICALS.

161
 DARKROOM SINK
THE PRINTS REQUIRE
WATER FOR THE
FINAL WASH TO BE
SURE ALL THE
CHEMICALS ARE
REMOVED.

162
 DRYING RACK
WHILE THIS CAN BE
CONSIDERED A DRY
AREA NECESSITY, IT
SHOULD BE PLACED
NEAR TO THE WET
AREA SO THAT YOU
CAN QUICKLY HANG OR
SET PRINTS ON THE
DRYING RACK WITHOUT
GETTING WATER ALL
OVER.

163
 ENLARGER
THIS IS THE ESSENTIAL
TOOL FOR PRINTING YOUR
NEGATIVES ONTO PAPER.
IT MAY ALSO REQUIRE
THAT YOU HAVE A TALL
CEILING AS SOME
ENLARGERS HAVE LARGE
COLUMNS.

164
 PRINTS EASEL
THIS WILL HOLD THE
PAPER FLAT WHEN IT IS
EXPOSED. IT WILL ALSO
ALLOW YOU TO ADJUST
THE SIZE OF YOUR PRINT
ON THE PAPER, GIVING
YOU MORE OPTIONS THAN
AS STANDARD 8X10
PRINT.

165
THANK YOU . . . GOOD
LUCK!
Your preparation will
determine your
destiny!

166