L. C.

King’s Model of Evolution

LESTER CHARLES KING Lester Charles King (1907 – 1989) was an English
geologist and geomorphologist known for his theories on scarp retreat. Kings
ideas are contained in his 2 books:- 1) Morphology of the earth (published in
1960 ) 2)Cannons of landscape evolution (1953) Kings received his training
from C.A Cotton in Davisian morphology ,T.J.D Fair for the ideas of slope and
Alex L. Du Toit for ideas on tectonics. King’s ideas are influenced by his
observations in southern Africa. His ideas included some components from the
model of Davis and Penck. He rejected some of these and introduced some
completely new ideas.
He rejected the relationship between uplift and slope formed by Penck. He
accepted the idea of structure- process and slope given by Davis but he
changed the sequence in which process was placed first. • Process for king
meant the semi-arid environment. The semi-arid environment was suggested by
king because in this type different types of river mass wasting and weathering
process are important in addition to the work of river. • His ideas represent a
combination of Process, structure, crustal movement and mass wasting. vKings
idea can be understood in terms of 3 components: 1) Slope element 2)
Development of Hill slope 3) Epigene cycle of erosion.
SLOPE ELEMENTS King used four slope elements which were initially
proposed by ‘Wood'. Each element is semi-independent. Any one of the
elements can be completely absent on a given slope. This is particularly true for
free face. 1) Waxing slope: It is a convex segment at the crest of the slope. It is
covered by weathered material. Transportation on the surface is dominated by
soil creep. 2) Free face: It is similar to cliff proposed by Penck.It is a bedrock
out creep which retreats parallel to itself under the influence of weathering
processes and uniform removal of material. However areas which do not have
enough large relative relief, free face may not develop.
3)Debris slope: Its development is dependent upon free face. If free face is
there, debris slope will be there and vice-versa. 4)Waning slope: It has a gentle
concave profile. There may be bedrock or transported material covering eroded
bed rock surface, when the eroded transported debris cover such a surface it is
known as pediment.
WHAT IS PARALEL RETREAT? Each of the upper parts of the slope retreats
by the same amount and maintain the same angle . Therefore, the convexity,
free face and debris slope all retain the same length. The concavity extends in
length and becomes slightly gentler in angle. This is called pediment This type
of evolution is called a parallel retreat.
Evaluation of King’s Concept • Lester C King's model of landscape evolution
is similar to Davis’ in that uplift is episodic and rapid in comparison with rates
of denudation, and that the overall morphology of a landscape at any point in
time is diagnostic of its evolutionary stages of development. The difference:
mode of slope development. King emphasized the role of erosion alone in the
formation of pediment whereas Davis has emphasized both erosion and
deposition in the formation of peneplains. His model is very comprehensive.
His ideas of cymatogeny is basically outside the scope of geomorphology. It is
more related to plate tectonics and geo-physics. In most cases it has been
rejected. A fine evaluation of kings ideas is yet to be made because Acc.to
Young, the value of king’s work in providing a no. of hypothesis for
testing ,these have not yet been proved.
Slope Elements in King’s model
Lester Charles King (1957), though thoroughly trained in Davisian
geomorphology by C . A. Cotton, followed the concepts of Kirk Bryan and
Allan Wood in his ideas of slope evolution.
King doing his researches in Africa faced a challenge for explaining the large
escarpments of southern Africa. Their size, apparent age, and unsubdued forms
raised his interests. He proposed an idea of parallel retreat of scarp faces. The
four elements of slope suggested by Wood (1942) were used by L.C. King.
These are Waxing slope. Free face, Debris slope, and Waning slope.
Map of Great Escarpment
Characteristics of Slope elements
Waxing slope: It is the convex segment at the crest mantled by weathered
materials. Soil creep is predominating process of transportation here.
Convexity exists because of the generation of transportable material
everywhere on the slope. Transportation of weathered debris will occur through
sheet wash and rill erosion.
Free face: It is a cliff type of slope segment composed of bed outcrop. It
retreats parallelly under the influence of weathering, and uniform removal of
weathered debris. The free face is considered dependent upon adequate relative
relief. Thus it’s absent in areas of little local relief.
Debris slope: The weathered debris from waxing slope and free face compose
and rest at the angle of repose at the foot of the free face. The materials
undergo further breakdown while resting in the debris slope. King opines that
the angle of debris slope is determined by fragment size of weathered
materials, finer materials giving gentler slopes. As this slope is dependent on
the existence of free face, it remains absent where there is lack of free face.
Waning slope: It exhibits a gentle concave profile which is supposed to be a
hydraulic one. Below this surface there must be a vertical profile of soil, and
regolith and then bedrock or a profile comprising transported debris resting
directly upon an eroded bedrock surface.
 Form of Valley & Valley wall

Several critical concepts emerge from the idea of slope behaviour suggested by
King. Parallel retreat of slope results in emergence and expansion of the
pediment. It also implies that pediment surfaces experience only minimal
erosion or reworking once formed

Theory of Landform Development by L.C.

King: An Illustrative Guide
The geomorphic model or geomorphic system of L.C. King, as it is generally called,
comprises a set of cyclic models such as the Landscape Cycle, the Epigene Cycle, the
Pediplanation Cycle, Hillslope Cycle, etc. are based on the landscape characteristics of
savanna, arid, and semi-arid regions of South Africa as studied by him.

The reference system of the theory propounded by L.C. King is that there is uniform
evolution of landforms in different environmental conditions and there is trivial
influence of climatic changes in the development of fluvially-originated landforms.
Major landscapes all over the globe have been developed by rhythmic global tectonic
events. There is constant retreat of hillslope and such retreat always occurs in the form
of parallel retreat.

As mentioned above, L.C. King formulated his geomorphic theory or model on the
basis of information of characteristics of landform derived through his personal
researches on landscape scenario of South Africa having savanna, arid, and semi-arid
environment and then he asserted that his theory may be applicable in other parts of
the world. According to him, an ideal hillslope profile is composed of all the four
elements of slope, namely, summit, scarp, debris slope and pediments. Such hillslopes
develop in all regions and in all climates as well where there is sufficient relief and
accordingly fluvial process acts as the dominant denudational agent.

L.C. King, through his extensive study, recognized that surfaces of planation,
surmounted by isolated hills known as ‘inselbergs’ and piles of rock boulders known
as ‘castle koppies’, are such obvious features of landscape in arid, semi-arid and
savanna regions of South Africa. Thus, King propounded an entirely new 'Cyclic
Theory of Pediplanation' (also known as ‘Pediplanation Cycle by L.C. King’) in
1948 in order to elaborate the above mentioned unique landscapes since he was
convinced that Davisian model of arid cycle of erosion (Cycle of Erosion by W.M.
Davis) was not capable to explain these landscapes. It is important to mention that
L.C. King claimed to have propounded his geomorphic theory as entirely different
from that of Davisian cyclic model and based on some assumptions of Penckian
theory of landscape evolution; however, in fact King's model is nearer to Davisian
theory than that of the Penckian theory.

Three Basic Elements of a Landscape

After extensively studying the South African landscape, King convinced that the
South African landscape composed of three basic elements. These are as follows.

 The first element is rock pediments adjoining river valleys and having
concave slope within it varying in angle between 1.5° and 7º cut into solid
rocks.
  Second element is scarps having vertical slopes bounding the uplands and
varying in angle between 15° and 30° with the occurrence of parallel retreat
owing to backwasting by rain-wash and weathering processes.
 The third element comprises of steep-sided residual hills known as
‘inselbergs’ or ‘bornhardts’ which may vary in size and shape as well. The
size of these inselbergs is ascertained by the magnitude of erosion. Less eroded
inselbergs are large in size, for instance, Mesa, while on the other hand,
intensely eroded inselbergs are small in size, for instance, Buttes. The shapes
of these inselbergs depend on the nature of underlying structures.

Pediplanation Cycle by L.C. King

The Cycle of Pediplanation is preferably called as ‘twin processes’ that is, (a) Scarp
Retreat, and (b) Pedimentation. Each cycle starts with a rapid rate of upliftment
followed by long period of tectonic stability. Thus, King's concept of upliftment and
crustal or tectonic stability is similar to that of the concept of W.M. Davis. It may be
noted that Pediplanation Cycle starts with the upliftment of previously formed
pediplains and not of any structural unit of landscape. The pediplanation cycle evolves
through the stages of youth, mature and old in the same way as Cycle of Erosion by
Davis.

The Youth Stage of Pediplanation

The youth stage of pediplanation cycle is individualized by initiation of rapid rate of

active downward cutting of valleys by rivers consequent upon upliftment of land
surface. The long profile of the rivers is accentuated by a series of nick points that
move upstream. The valleys are so excavated that they take up the form of gorges and
canyons. With the passing of time, the active down cutting of valleys is reduced and as
a consequence the valley side slopes become characterized by constant slope angles.
Physical processes operating on the slopes and lithological characteristics control the
form of valley side slope. By the late youth stage owing to scarp retreat, most of the
interfluves are narrowed down and consequently converted into steep sided hills that
are called as inselbergs. The rounded inselbergs are generally called as Bornhardts and
Castle Koppies.
The Mature Stage of Pediplanation

There is absence of any active valley deepening and initiation of lateral erosion in the
beginning of mature stage of Pediplanation. There is rearward retreat of valley side
slope due to valley widening. Hence, valley sides are distanced from the channel.
However, there is no significant change in the angle of valley side slope. Extensive
pediments, varying in slope angles from 5° to 10°, are developed at the base of valley
side slope. The pediments consists of concave slope. Constant erosion and weathering
process result in progressive decrease in the number of inselbergs. Many of the
inselbergs are extensively weathered that they are transformed to castle koppies.
Eventually, many of these inselbergs and castle koppies finally cease to exist while
there is continuous expansion of pediments consequent upon steady parallel retreat of
scarps. Gradually, many pediments unite to form extensive flat surface termed by L.C.
King as ‘pediplain’ which is individualized by low relief jagged surface and subdued
intersecting concave surfaces. The pediplain surface is still characterized by the
existence of a few odds and ends of inselbergs and mounds.

The Old Stage of Pediplanation

With the march of time, by the old stage of Pediplanation, most of the inselbergs
becomes disappeared. Low-angled pediments will now characterize the entire
landscape; the multi-concave land surface is the ultimate form of the cycle, that is, the
pediplain.

Antique Pediplanation

L.C. King also postulated the concept of antique pediplanation. According to him, the
odds and ends of original pediplains evolved during each stage are preserved and exist
on all summits. He identified a few antique pediplanation surfaces in South Africa,
South America and Australia, namely,
  African Gondwana Pediplain– evolved in Jurassic period. This was of
nearly 1300 m. height and having its counterpart at the altitude of nearly 700
m. to 1000 m. in Brazil.
 African Pediplain– evolved in Creataceous period. This was found at two
elevations. One was 600 m. to 800 m. that was located in the coastal areas of
South Africa, and the other one is of 1000 m. to 1600 m., located in the interior
of South Africa, which is similar to that of Australian pediplain at the elevation
of 400 m. to 500 m.

Regarding the evolvement of hillslope, L.C. King has opined that the form of
migrating or parallelly retreating slope is controlled by the processes operating on
them. The apex of hillslope is convex and this convexity results from the process of
soil creep. Scarp slope is carved out of rock outcrops and is individualized by parallel
retreat because of backwasting under the process of rock fall, landslides and gullying.
Scarp is the most active element of hillslope. Debris coming from upslope develops
the debris slope and the angle of repose of debris determines the gradient of slope,
while the pediment, forming the lowermost part of the hillslope, is formed due to
erosion of solid rocks by tumultuous sheet flood.

Evaluation

If the two geomorphic theories of W.M. Davis and L.C. King are compared, it is seen
that both the theories are compatible to some extent since both envisage cyclic
evolvement of landscape wherein cycle of erosion sets in with a fast upliftment within
a short period followed by a long period of tectonic inactivity. Gradually, the landmass
is eroded down to peneplain according to W.M. Davis, and pediplain according to L.C.
King. Both the landscapes, that is, peneplain and pediplain, have resemblance since
both have distinctiveness, extensive areas and subdued reliefs. Both the models are
established on the postulation of completion of all the three stages of the cycle,
namely, youth stage, mature stage and old stage. In addition to these resemblances,
both the models also differ from each other, such as, according to the theory of Davis,
peneplain is formed as a result of downwasting, however, on the contrary, according to
the theory of L.C. King, pediplain is formed as a result of coalescence and integration
of several pediments which are formed because of parallel scarp retreat. In the theory
of Davis, it is said that peneplain, once formed, does not go through further
development until and unless it is uplifted once again. If uplifted, new cycle of erosion
sets off and the rivers begin to rejuvenate. On the contrary, King advocated in his
theory that pediplain, once formed, further develops headward. New scarp initiates at
the far end of the previously developed pediplain, which is gradually consumed by the
retreat of new scarp and consequently second pediplain is developed. In the
meanwhile, the former pediplain begins to decrease. This process continues and a
series of intersecting pediplains are developed and begin to extend headward.

Criticism

Critiques have highlighted some negative points of King’s theory of landform

evolution, since a few of the assumptions of his theory are controversial to some
extent. These are mentioned below.

 L.C. King propounded his theory on the basis of African experience but, as
stated by R.J. Small (1970), it is not surprising that King tried to apply his
thought not only to the African landscape, but also to those regions which
experience fairly different climatic conditions from those of Africa, which
exhibit 'peneplains', not readily accounted for by the geomorphic cycle theory
proposed by W.M. Davis.
 His affirmation that there is uniformity of landscapes in different environmental
conditions is unreliable.
 As mentioned by R.J. Chorley (1985), notwithstanding the presence of these
extensive pediplain surfaces of low relief estranged by cliff-like escarpments in
the tropics, the idea of antique pediplanation must remain dubious, if only
because of a long periods of time concerned and our deficiency of knowledge
regarding nature and swiftness of erosional processes in sub-humid
environment.