Geology Presentation
Geology Presentation
Geology Presentation
INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
WHAT IS GEOLOGY
Many processes such as landslides, earthquakes, floods and volcanic eruptions can be hazardous to people.
Geologists work to understand these processes well enough to avoid building important structures where they
might be damaged.
If geologists can prepare maps of areas that have flooded in the past they can prepare maps of areas that
might be flooded in the future.
These maps can be used to guide the development of communities and determine where flood protection or
flood insurance is needed.
People use earth materials every day. They use oil that is produced from wells, metals that are produced from
mines, and water that has been drawn from streams or from underground.
Geologists conduct studies that locate rocks that contain important metals, plan the mines that produce them
and the methods used to remove the metals from the rocks. They do similar work to locate and produce oil,
natural gas and ground water.
Today we are concerned about climate change. Many geologists are working to learn about the past climates of
earth and how they have changed across time.
This historical geology news information is valuable to understand how our current climate is changing and what
the results might be.
WHERE DO GEOLOGISTS WORK
Jobs in geology are found in government
agencies, private companies, and non-
profit and academic institutions.
Internal Processes
Surface Processes
Plants, animals, and one-celled organisms are all part of the biosphere.
Most of the planet's life is found from three meters below the ground to thirty
meters above it and in the top 200 meters of the oceans and seas.
UNIFORMITARIANISM AND CATASTROPHISM
The formation of river valleys due to the action of running water or the
movement of the continents are examples of very slow and gradual changes
UNIFORMITARIANISM AND CATASTROPHISM
A rock consists of smaller crystals or grains called minerals. Minerals are chemical
compounds (or sometimes single elements), each with its own composition and
physical properties. The grains or crystals may be microscopically small or easily
seen with the unaided eye.
The nature and appearance of a rock is strongly influenced by the minerals that
compose it.
A rock’s mineral composition and texture, in turn, are a reflection of the geologic
processes that created it
Geologists divide rocks into three major groups: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
Rock Cycle is the fundamental concept of Geology that describes the dynamic
transition through geologic time among the three rock types Each type of rock
is altered or destroyed when it is forced out of equilibrium condition.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Magma is the molten material which is
formed when the pressure and
temperature conditions are high enough
to melt the rocks.
The terrestrial planets are the four closest to the sun and are
all similar to the Earth in density. They include Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars. All four terrestrial planets are small,
rocky and dense (3 g/cm3 or more).
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The Jovian planets are those farther from the sun than Mars
They include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They are much
larger than the Earth but their densities are very low.
They are made up of light elements most Hydrogen and Helium
and hence their densities are low,
FORMATION OF THE EARTH
The Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old and is believed that it was
formed by accretion of small particles.
The Earth has a layered structure. The center is a dense, hot core composed
mainly of iron and nickel .
A thick mantle, composed mainly of solid rock, surrounds the core and contains
80 percent of the Earth’s volume.
A mineral is a naturally
occurring, inorganic
solid with a
characteristic chemical
composition and a
crystalline structure.
Chemical composition
and crystalline structure
are the two most
important properties of
a mineral: They
distinguish any mineral
from all others.
WHAT ARE MINERALS
Naturally occurring
Solid substance
Ice (frozen water) fits this criterion and is considered a mineral, whereas liquid
water and water vapor do not.
Organic carbon which is found in all living organisms bonds with hydrogen to form compounds.
Inorganic carbon is formed when carbon combines with elements other than hydrogen.
Thus coal is not a mineral because it contains organic carbon derived from plant remains.
Most minerals are chemical compounds having compositions that can be expressed by a
chemical formula.
For example, the common mineral quartz has the formula SiO2, which indicates that quartz
consists of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) atoms in a ratio of one-to-two.
This proportion of silicon to oxygen is true for any sample of pure quartz, regardless of its origin.
However, the compositions of some minerals vary within specific, well-defined limits.
This occurs because certain elements can substitute for others of similar size without changing
the mineral’s internal structure.
An example is the mineral olivine in which either the element magnesium (Mg) or the element
iron (Fe) may occupy the same site in the crystal structure.
Therefore, olivine’s formula, (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, expresses variability in the relative amounts of
magnesium and iron. However, the ratio of magnesium plus iron to silicon (Si) and oxygen (O)
remains fixed at 2:1:4.
ELEMENTS & ATOM
Oxygen,
Silicon,
Aluminum,
Iron,
Calcium,
Magnesium,
Potassium and
Sodium
THE PERIODIC TABLE
As of June 2011, the periodic table includes 118 chemical elements whose
discoveries have been confirmed. Of these, 91 are regularly occurring primordial or
recurrently produced elements found naturally on the Earth,
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
An atom is the basic unit of an element.
1. Ionic,
2. Covalent
3. Metallic
1. Crystal habit
2. Cleavage
3. Fracture
4. Hardness
5. Specific gravity
6. Color
7. Streak
8. Luster
CRYSTAL HABIT
Crystal habit is the characteristic
shape of a mineral and the
manner in which aggregates of
crystals grow.
Accessory minerals
Gem
Ore minerals
Industrial Minerals
ROCK FORMING MINERALS
Rock Forming Minerals
make up the bulk of most
rocks in the Earth’s crust.
Olivine Pyroxene
They are important to
geologists simply because
they are the most common
minerals. They include Mica
Amphibole
1. olivine,
2. pyroxene,
3. amphibole, Quartz Clay
4. mica, minerals
5. the clay minerals,
6. feldspar,
7. quartz,
8. Calcite and Feldspar
Dolomite Calcite
9. dolomite
ACCESSORY MINERALS
Accessory minerals
are minerals that are
common but usually Garnet
are found only in
small amounts.
Chlorite, garnet,
hematite, limonite,
magnetite, and pyrite
are common Chlorite
accessory minerals.
GEMS
A gem is a mineral that is
prized primarily for its beauty,
although some gems, like Diamond
diamonds, are also used
industrially.
Alternatively, two or more atoms can bond firmly together and acquire
a negative charge to form a complex anion. Two common examples
are the silicate, (SiO4)4-, and carbonate, (CO3)2-.
Each mineral group (except the native elements) is named for its
anion. For example, the oxides all contain O2-, the silicates contain
(SiO4)4-, and the carbonates contain (CO3)2-.
MAJOR MINERAL GROUPS
NATIVE ELEMENTS
About 20 elements occur naturally in Diamond
their native states as minerals.
Apatite
CARBONATES
The complex carbonate
anion (CO3)2- is the basis
Limestone
of two common rock-
forming minerals, calcite
(CaCO3) and dolomite
[CaMg(CO3)2].
Dolomite
Limestone is mined as a
raw ingredient of cement.
Aragonite is a polymorph
of calcite that makes up Aragonite
the shells of many marine
animals.
SILICATES
The rock-forming
silicates (and most
other silicate minerals)
fall into five classes,
based on five ways in
which tetrahedra
share oxygens.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
ROCK TYPES
The Earth is almost entirely
rock to a depth of 2900
kilometers, where the solid
mantle gives way to the liquid
outer core.
Igneous rocks,
Sedimentary rocks, and
Metamorphic rocks
ORIGIN OF THE MAGMA
1. rising temperature,
3. addition of water
FORMATION OF MAGMA
Rising Temperature
Most magma originates when essentially solid rock, located in the crust and
upper mantle, melts. The most obvious way to generate magma from solid
rock is to raise the temperature above the rock’s melting point.
If temperature were the only factor that determined whether or not rock
melts, our planet would be a molten ball covered with a thin, solid outer
shell.
This, of course, is not the case. The reason is that pressure also increases
with depth.
Deeply buried “wet” rock has a much lower melting temperature than
“dry” rock of the same composition.
The melt is mostly made up of the ions of Silicon and Oxygen which readily
combines to form Silica (SiO2). Less amounts of Aluminum, Potassium, Calcium,
Sodium, Iron and Magnesium are also found.
The solid component if any are silicate minerals that have already crystallized
from the melt. As the magma cools, the size and the number of crystals
increase. During the last stage of cooling, the magma body is mostly a
crystalline solid with only minor amounts of melt.
Water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) are the most
common gases found in the magma. Theses gaseous components also known
as the volatiles are dissolved within the melt.
Volatiles remain a part of the magma until the magma body crystallizes or it
moves near the surface (low pressure), at which time any remaining volatile
freely moves away.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAGMA
Temperature: The temperature of magma varies from about
600ºC to 1400ºC, depending on its chemical composition
and the depth at which it forms.
The order of crystallization of the different minerals from the magma came to be known as the Bowen Reaction series
which allows geologists to predict chemical composition and texture based upon the temperature of a cooling
magma.
EVOLUTION OF MAGMA
Bowen's reaction series is usually diagramed as a "Y" with horizontal lines drawn across the "Y
The horizontal temperature lines divide the "Y" into four compositional sections.
Between 600°C and 900°C, rocks are intermediate in composition. Below 600°C, felsic rocks form.
The upper arms of the "Y" represent two different series. By convention, the left upper arm represents
the discontinuous series. The upper right arm represents the continuous series.
The continuous series describes the evolution of the plagioclase feldspars as they evolve from being
calcium-rich to more sodium-rich.
The discontinuous series describes the formation of the mafic minerals olivine, pyroxene, amphibole,
and biotite mica. These minerals are associated with the mafic and intermediate types of rocks.
At lower temperatures, the branches merge and we obtain the minerals common to the felsic rocks -
orthoclase feldspar, muscovite mica, and quartz.
BOWEN REACTION SERIES
EXTRUSIVE AND INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks which are formed when the molten magma solidifies at the earth’s
surface are known as Extrusive Igneous Rocks or Volcanic Rocks.
Sometimes the magma loses its mobility before reaching the surface and
crystallizes at depths. Igneous rocks which are formed by the crystallization of the
molten magma beneath the earth’s surface or at depths are known as Intrusive
Igneous Rocks or Plutonic Rocks.
TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
The texture of a rock refers to the size, shape, and
arrangement of its mineral grains, or crystals.
Igneous rocks are composed up of silicate minerals. Chemical analysis shows that
Silica (Si) and Oxygen (O) is the most abundant constituent of igneous rocks.
As the magma cools it solidifies to form the two major group of silicate minerals.
The dark or (ferromagnesian) silicates are rich in iron, magnesium and are low in
silica.
Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole and biotite mica is common dark silicate minerals
found on the earth.
These minerals are also rich in silica content. The light silicate minerals include
feldspars, muscovite mica and quartz.
FERROMAGNESIAN AND NON-FERROMAGNESIAN
MINERALS
NAMING IGNEOUS ROCKS
Geologists use both the minerals and texture to classify
and name igneous rocks.
Rhyolite has an
aphanitic texture and
frequently contains
glass fragments and
voids indicating rapid
cooling in the surface
environment.
FELSIC (GRANITIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS
Obsidian is a dark colored
glass rock that usually
forms when silica rich lava
is quenched quickly.
It is composed primarily of
pyroxene and calcium-rich
plagioclase feldspar, with
lesser amounts of olivine and
amphibole present.
Gabbro is uncommon at
the Earth’s surface,
although it is abundant in
deeper parts of oceanic
crust, where basaltic
magma crystallizes slowly.
ULTRAMAFIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
Peridotite is an
ultramafic igneous rock
that makes up most of
the upper mantle but is
rare in the Earth’s crust.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
WHAT ARE SEDIMENTS
Sediments are loose Earth materials (unconsolidated materials) such
as sand which are transported by the action of water, wind, glacial ice
and gravity.
Then they are eroded from the site of weathering and moved downslope by gravity, a
process termed mass wasting and are transported by wind, water, ice, and mass
wasting.
Transportation moves these materials from the sites where they originated to
locations where they accumulate.
Finally sediment settles out and accumulates after transport : This process is known
as deposition.
As deposition continues, older sediments are buried beneath younger layers and are
gradually converted to sedimentary rock by compaction and cementation. This and
other changes are referred to as diagenesis (Changes that take place in texture,
composition, and other physical properties after sediments are deposited).
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
WEATHERING
TRANSPORTATION
DEPOSITION
DIAGENESIS
COMPACTION
CEMENTATION
WHAT ARE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The loose sediments after
their deposition become
compact and hard to form
sedimentary rock.
As the overview reminded us, sediment has two principal sources. First, it may be an
accumulation of material that originates and is transported as solid particles derived
from both mechanical and chemical weathering. Deposits of this type are termed
detrital, and the sedimentary rocks that they form are called detrital sedimentary
rocks.
The third category is organic sedimentary rocks. The primary example is coal. This
black combustible rock consists of organic carbon from the remains of plants that
died and accumulated on the floor of a swamp.
CLASTIC/DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Detrital sedimentary rocks consists of grains and particles that were eroded
from weathered rocks and then were transported and deposited in loose,
unconsolidated layers at the Earth’s surface.
Clay is less than 1/256 millimeter in diameter. Mud is wet silt and clay.
PARTICLE SIZE
CLASSIFICATION OF DETRITAL
ROCKS
COMMON DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Conglomerate consists largely
of gravels.
In a conglomerate the
particles are rounded.
Arkose is a sandstone
comprising 25 percent or more
feldspar grains, with most of
the remaining grains being
quartz.
Particle shape in detrital sedimentary rocks determines how far the particles travelled before getting
deposited to form sedimentary rocks.
Round particles will indicate long transportation where as angular particles indicate a short
transportation history.
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
In contrast to detrital sedimentary rocks which form from the solid
product of weathering, chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from
materials that is carried in solution to lakes and seas.
It is composed mainly of
the mineral calcite
(CaCO3) and can be
formed either by inorganic
means or as a result of
biochemical processes.
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Dolostone is closely related to
limestone and consists mainly
of the mineral dolomite which
is calcium magnesium
carbonate.
Microscopic examination
of bedded chert often
shows that it is made up
of the remains of tiny
marine organisms that
make their skeletons of
silica rather than calcium
carbonate.
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
WHAT IS METAMORPHISM
Metamorphism (from the Greek words for “changing form”) is the process by
which rising temperature and changes in other environmental conditions
transform rocks and minerals.
In response to these new conditions the rock gradually changes until it reaches
a state of equilibrium with the new environment.
If the rocks melts at a certain point, then we enter the zone of igneous activity.
ENVIRONMENT OF METAMORPHISM
Most metamorphism occurs in one of the three settings:
Some minerals may be converted to minerals with similar composition but different
atomic packing simply because pressure is increased.
The exact nature of the pressure is not important in this case. Only the amount is
important. Thus the confining or lithostatic pressure created by deep burial of rocks
under sediment may have this effect as well as the directed pressure during
mountain building processes.
The second effect of pressure is to reorient minerals with linear or platy structure or
to create a preferred orientation of them as they form.
This only happens when there is directed pressure; confining pressure does not
accomplish it.
AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM
The changes that occur during metamorphism are recorded in the form of
texture and mineral assemblages.
High grade metamorphic rocks are greatly altered from its original form and
often have a completely different mineralogy than the parent rock.
INDEX MINERALS
Through the study of metamorphic rocks it has been found that some minerals are good indicators of
the metamorphic environment in which they formed. These minerals are known as index minerals.
Using these index minerals, geologists distinguish among different zones of regional metamorphism.
For example, the mineral chlorite begins to form when temperatures are relatively low, less than 200
°C Thus, rocks that contain chlorite are referred to as low-grade.
By contrast, the mineral sillimanite only forms in extreme environments where temperatures exceed
500 °C, and rocks containing it are considered high-grade.
Metamorphic Rocks
are divided into two
basic divisions
1. Foliated/Banded
2.Non-Foliated (also,
granular or
equidimensional)
FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Slate is a fine grained (less than 0.5 mm)
foliated rock composed of mica flakes.
Like slate, the parent rock for many schists are also
shale which has undergone medium to high grade
metamorphism during the process of mountain
building.
The parent rocks from which marbles are formed often contain
some impurities and this imparts color to marble.
PLATE TECTONICS
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Alfred Wegner proposed the theory that the
crustal plates are moving over the mantle.
Ancient Climates
DRAWBACKS OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT
HYPOTHESIS
One of the main objections to Wegener’s hypothesis was his inability to identify a
credible mechanism for continental drift.
Wegener proposed that gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun that produce
Earth’s tides were also capable of gradually moving the continents across the globe.
However, the prominent physicist Harold Jeffreys correctly countered that tidal forces
of the magnitude needed to displace the continents would bring Earth’s rotation to a
halt in a matter of a few years.
Wegener also incorrectly suggested that the larger and sturdier continents broke
through thinner oceanic crust, much like ice breakers cut through ice.
However, no evidence existed to suggest that the ocean floor was weak enough to
permit passage of the continents without the continents being appreciably deformed
in the process.
THE PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
By 1968, a far more encompassing theory than continental drift, known as plate tectonics.
According to the plate tectonics model, the uppermost mantle and the overlying crust behave as a
strong, rigid layer, known as the lithosphere, which is broken into segments commonly referred to as
plates.
The lithosphere is thinnest in the oceans where it varies from as little as a few kilometers along the
axis of the oceanic ridge system to about 100 kilometers in the deep-ocean basins.
By contrast, continental lithosphere is generally thicker than 100 kilometers and may extend to a
depth of 200 to 300 kilometers beneath stable continental cratons.
The lithosphere, in turn, overlies a weak region in the mantle known as the asthenosphere.
The temperatures and pressures in the upper asthenosphere (100 to 200 kilometers in depth) are
such that the rocks there are very near their melting temperatures and, hence, respond to stress by
flowing.
As a result, Earth’s rigid outer shell is effectively detached from the layers below, which permits it to
move independently.
THE EARTH LAYERS
THE EARTH LAYERS
Crust: The crust is the outermost and thinnest layer. Because the crust is relatively cool, it consists of
hard, strong rock. Crust beneath the oceans differs from that of continents.
Oceanic crust is 5 to 10 kilometers thick and is composed mostly of a dark, dense rock called basalt.
In contrast, the average thickness of continental crust is about 20 to 40 kilometers, although under
mountain ranges it can be as much as 70 kilometers thick.
Continents are composed primarily of a light-colored, less dense rock called granite.
THE EARTH LAYERS
Mantle: The mantle lies directly
below the crust.
The asthenosphere
extends from the base
of the lithosphere to a
depth of about 350
kilometers.
THE EARTH LAYERS
The Core: The core is the innermost
of the Earth’s layers.
The lithosphere is broken into seven large tectonic plates and several
smaller ones.
The plates move slowly, at rates ranging from less than 1 to about 16
centimeters per year.
The great forces generated at a plate boundary build mountain ranges and
cause volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
Convergent boundary of an
oceanic and continental plates
forms a volcanic mountain range
and trenches. e.g. Andes
Mountains
CONVERGENCE OF TWO PLATES CARRYING
CONTINENTS
If two converging plates carry
continents, neither can sink into
the mantle because of their low
densities.
A plate floats on the underlying hot, plastic asthenosphere and glides horizontally
over it.
A plate behaves like a large slab of ice floating on a pond. In general, however, each
plate moves as a large, intact sheet of rock.
Tectonic plates move at rates that vary from less than 1 to 16 centimeters per year.
CONSEQUENCES OF MOVING PLATES
Volcanoes
A volcanic eruption occurs where hot magma rises to the Earth’s surface.
Volcanic eruptions are common at both divergent and convergent plate boundaries.
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are common at all three types of plate boundaries, but less common within the
interior of a tectonic plate.
Quakes concentrate at plate boundaries simply because those boundaries are zones of deep
fractures in the lithosphere where one plate slips past another.
Mountain Building
An oceanic trench is a long, narrow trough in the sea floor that develops where a
subducting plate sinks into the mantle.
A trench can form wherever subduction occurs—where oceanic crust sinks beneath the
edge of a continent, or where it sinks beneath another oceanic plate.
Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean basins.
The deepest point on Earth is in the Mariana trench in the southwestern Pacific Ocean,
where the sea floor is as much as 10.9 kilometers below sea level (compared with the
average sea-floor depth of about 5 kilometers).
Continents migrate over the Earth’s surface because they are integral parts of the moving
lithospheric plates.
Measurements of these movements show that North America is now moving away from
Europe at about 2.5 centimeters per year, as the mid-Atlantic ridge continues to separate.
South America is drawing away from Africa at a rate of about 3.5 centimeters per year.
As the Atlantic Ocean widens, the Pacific is shrinking at the same rate.
Thus, as continents move, ocean basins open and close over geologic time.
FORCE BEHIND PLATE TECTONICS
Mantle convection may cause plate
movement.
EARTHQUAKES
WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling of the Earth
caused by the abrupt release of energy that is stored in
rocks.
Seismology is the study of earthquakes and the nature of the Earth’s interior based
on evidence from seismic waves.
Surface waves
R and L
BODY WAVES: P WAVES
Two main types of body waves travel
through the Earth’s interior.
The goal of a seismograph is to accurately record the motion of the ground during a
quake.
A seismograph has a pen that is hanging in the air. The pen touches a roll of paper called
a drum. When an earthquake happens, the roll of paper shakes. The pen does not. A
weight holds the pen still.
The marks on the paper show the size of the earthquake. A small motor rolls the drum of
paper. This lets the seismograph record what happens as time passes.
Modified Mercalli Scale is use for measuring the intensity of earthquakes, adapted from the
original Mercalli scale.
The Mercalli scale was devised in 1902 by Italian seismologist Giuseppe Mercalli.
American seismologists Harry O. Wood and Frank Neumann created the Modified Mercalli scale
in 1931 to measure the intensity of earthquakes that occur in California.
Each level is defined by a group of observable earthquake effects, such as shaking of the
ground and damage to structures such as buildings, roads, and bridges.
Levels I through VI are used to describe what people see and feel during a small to moderate
earthquake.
Levels VII through XII are used to describe damage to structures during a moderate to
catastrophic earthquake.
MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE STRENGTH
MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE STRENGTH
Earthquake Magnitude is a measure of the strength of an earthquake, or the amount of strain that
rocks in Earth’s crust release when an earthquake occurs.
The Richter scale and the moment magnitude scale are used to measure the magnitude of
earthquakes.
The Richter scale, also known as the local magnitude scale, was devised in 1935 by the American
seismologist Charles F. Richter to rank earthquakes occurring in California.
Richter and his associates later modified it to apply to earthquakes anywhere in the world.
The Richter scale ranks earthquakes based on how much the ground shakes 100 km (60 mi) from
the earthquake’s epicenter, the site on the earth’s surface directly above the earthquake’s origin.
The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale—each increase of 1 on the Richter scale represents a
tenfold increase in movement.
LANDSLIDES
80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt. Most of these result from convergent margin activity~15%
occur in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt.
Remaining 5% occur in the interiors of plates and on spreading ridge centers. More than 150,000 quakes strong
enough to be felt are recorded each year
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
Long term prediction: Earthquakes occur over and over in the same
places because it is easier for rocks to move along an old fracture
than for a new fault to form in solid rock.
On the other hand, if a seismograph is located far from the epicenter, the S
waves arrive at correspondingly later times after the P waves arrive, and the
surface waves are even farther behind.
LOCATING THE SOURCE OF AN EARTHQUAKE
Geologists use a time-travel curve to
calculate the distance between an
earthquake epicenter and a
seismograph.
VOLCANOES
WHAT IS A MAGMA
Magma is a mixture of
molten rock, volatiles and
solids that is found
beneath the surface of
the Earth.
In some instances, it
solidifies within the crust
to form plutonic rocks. In
others, it erupts onto the
Earth’s surface to form
volcanic rocks
MAGMA BEHAVIOUR
The magma cools as it
enters shallower and
cooler levels of the Earth.
55-65 SiO2 %,
Andesitic Andesite intermediate in 800 - 1000oC Intermediate Intermediate
Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
65-75 Sio 2 %,
Rhyolitic/ low in Fe, Mg,
Rhyolite 650 - 800oC High High
Granitic Ca,
high in K, Na.
•Higher SiO2 (silica) content magmas have higher viscosity than lower SiO2 content
magmas (viscosity increases with increasing SiO2 concentration in the magma).
•Lower temperature magmas have higher viscosity than higher temperature
magmas (viscosity decreases with increasing temperature of the magma).
PLUTONS
SILL
VOLCANIC ROCKS AND VOLCANOES
The material erupted from volcanoes creates a
wide variety of rocks and landforms, including lava
plateaus and several types of volcanoes.
LAVA
VOLCANIC ROCKS AND VOLCANOES
VOLCANO
TYPES OF LAVA
The vent joins the crater which is a bowl shaped depression present
at the top of the volcano.
VOLCANO TYPES BASED ON ACTIVITY
An active volcano is one that is erupting or is
expected to erupt
BASLAT PLATEAU
SHIELD VOLCANO
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
COMPOSITE VOLCANO
GEOLOGIC TIME
GEOLOGIC TIME
FOLDED ROCKS
GEOLOGIC TIME
ABSOLUTE AGE
Absolute age is age in years
It states that a rock must first exist before anything can happen to it.
Dike B cuts dike C, and dike A cuts dike B, so dike C is older than B, and
dike A is the youngest. The sedimentary rocks must be older than all of
the dikes.
RELATIVE GEOLOGIC TIME
The principle of unconformities
For example, trilobites lived from 535 million to 245 million years
ago, and the first dinosaurs appeared about 220 million years
ago.
CORRELATION
To assemble a complete and continuous a
record, geologists combine evidence from many
localities. To do this, rocks of the same age
from different localities must be matched in a
process called correlation
The K-T boundary layer which is marker bed found almost all over the
world.The layer shows high concentration of the element iridium.
iridium does not occur naturally on Earth in high concentrations, but it
does occur in higher concentrations in certain types of meteorites. It
points to a metorite impact 65 million years ago which was responsible
for the extiction of the dinosaurs
ABSOLUTE GEOLOGIC TIME
•Potassium-40 decomposes
naturally to form two other
isotopes, argon-40 and calcium-
40
ABSOLUTE GEOLOGIC TIME
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
AND
EVOLUTION OF CONTINENTS
ROCK DEFORMATION
STRESS
Tectonic forces exert different
types of stress on rocks in
different geologic
environments.
STRESS
In contrast directed stress or directed pressure, acts only in one
direction.
Tectonic processes create three types of directed stress.
ROCK DEFORMATION
DIRECTED PRESSURE
Tectonic forces create three types of geologic structures: folds, faults, and
joint.
Folding always
shortens the horizontal
distances in rock.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
PARTS OF A FOLD
The sides of a fold are called
the limbs.
An asymmetrical fold is
one in which the axial
plane is inclined.
Normal Fault
Hanging wall moves down relative to footwall.
Results in extension.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
Reverse Fault
Hanging wall moves up relative to footwall.
Results in shortening.
Thrust Fault
A thrust fault is a special type of reverse fault
that is nearly horizontal
Fault plane is at less than 30 degrees
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
Horsts and Grabens