Laboratory Manual

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

PROGRAM - B.E
OPTICS AND SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS (22PYC03)
(Common for CSE, CSE-AI&ML, CSE-IoT, AI&ML, IT, AI&DS)
SEMESTER - I

R-22 Regulation

Prepared by: …………………………………. Verified by: ……………………………

CHAITANYA BHARATHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Osmania University, Approved by AICTE,
Accredited by NAAC with A++ Grade and Programs Accredited by NBA)
Kokapet (Village), Gandipet, Hyderabad - 500 075, Telangana
www.cbit.ac.in
CHAITANYA BHARATHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Osmania University, Approved by AICTE,
Accredited by NAAC with A++ Grade and Programs Accredited by NBA)
Kokapet (Village), Gandipet, Hyderabad - 500 075, Telangana
www.cbit.ac.in
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
OPTICS AND SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS LAB (22PYC03)
INDEX
Exp. Date of Date of Page Record Signature
Name of the Experiment
No Experiment Submission No. Marks/Grade of Faculty
1 Error Analysis

2 Thermistor

3 Solar Cell

4 P-N Junction Diode

5 Energy Gap

6 Optical Fiber

7 Planck’s Constant

8 LED

9 Laser

10 Newton’s Rings

11 Diffraction Grating

12 Single Slit Diffraction

13 Hall Effect
Code: 22PYC03
Optics and Semiconductor Physics Laboratory
(Common for CSE, CSE-AI&ML, CSE-IoT, AI&ML, IT, AI&DS)

Instruction 3P Hours per week

Duration of External Assessment 3 Hours
External Assessment 50 Marks
Internal Assessment 50 Marks
Credits 1.5
Course Objectives: The objectives of the course is to make the student
1. Apply theoretical physics knowledge in doing experiments
2. Understand the behaviour of the light experimentally
3. Analyze the conduction behaviour of semiconductor materials and optoelectronic devices
Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, the student will be able to
1. Interpret the errors in the results of an experiment.
2. Demonstrate physical properties of light experimentally
3. Make use of lasers and optical fibers for engineering applications
4. Explain the V-I characteristics of some optoelectronic and semiconductor devices
5. Find the applications thermistor

Experiments
1. Error Analysis : Estimation of errors in the determination of time period of a
torsional pendulum
2. Fresnel’s Biprism : Determination of wavelength of given monochromatic source
3. Newton’s Rings : Determination of wavelength of given monochromatic source
4. Single Slit : Determination of wavelength of given monochromatic source
Diffraction
5. Diffraction Grating : Determination of wavelengths of two yellow lines of light of
mercury lamp
6. Laser : Determination of wavelength of given semiconductor laser
7. Holography : Recording and reconstruction of a hologram
8. Optical Fiber : Determination of numerical aperture and power losses of given
optical fiber
9. Energy Gap : Determination of energy gap of given semiconductor
10. P-N Junction Diode : Study of V-I characteristics and calculation of resistance of
given diode in forward bias and reverse bias
11. Thermistor : Determination of temperature coefficient of resistance of given
thermistor
12. Hall Effect : Determination of Hall coefficient, carrier concentration and
mobility of charge carriers of given semiconductor specimen
13. LED : Study of I-V characteristics of given LED
14. Solar Cell : Study of I-V characteristics of given solar cell and calculation
of fill factor, efficiency and series resistance
15. Planck’s Constant : Determination of Planck’s constant using photo cell

NOTE: A minimum of TWLVE experiments should be done.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

1. Come to the physics practical class with your observation book and
completed record book.

2. Read the instructions for the experiment to be performed in advance and

prepare for the practical before coming to the lab.

3. The procedure will be explained in the lab and the student has to complete
the experiment in time.

4. Know your apparatus and experimental arrangement.

5. Do not misuse the apparatus and take care of it.

6. Understand the experiment, complete it in all respects and take signature of

the concerned faculty, before leaving lab.

7. The doubts & difficulties, if any, should be discussed with the concern staff
immediately.

8. Complete the required number of experiments and maintain good record

book
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1. ERROR ANALYSIS USING TORSIONAL PENDULUM

AIM: To estimate the time period of a Torsional pendulum using theory of errors (Gaussian
distribution) and to determine the rigidity modulus of the given wire.

APPARATUS: A circular disc with a chuck nut at the centre, a steel wire of length 100 cm,
stop clock, meter scale and screwguage.

THEORY & PRINCIPLE: Let the metallic disc be suspended by a thin wire attached at the
centre of the disc, so that the disc is free to oscillate in horizontal plane. If the disc is given a
small angular displacement from its equilibrium position and then left free to itself, it makes
torsional oscillations which are simple harmonic. The time period of these torsional
oscillations is given by the equation

𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐶

Where I is the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of rotation

C is the tortional rigidity of the suspended wire and

T is the period of oscillation.

Thus T2 = 4 π 2 I / C = 4 π 2 I / [( π na4)/2l] = [8 π I l / na4]

(C = Π na4 / 2 l where ‘a’ is the radius of the wire and l is its length and n is the rigidity
modulus of the material of the wire )

8𝜋𝐼 𝑙
𝜂=
𝑎4 𝑇 2
Where I = MR2 / 2
M = mass of the disc
R = radius of the disc
PROCEDURE: One end of the wire is attached to chuck at the centre of the disc and other
end is attached to the chuck fixed to the clamp of the wall and length of the wire is adjusted
to a fixed value. The disc is rotated in a horizontal plane to a small angle from its rest
position and left free to itself when it begins to make oscillations about the suspended wire
and determine the time period for various oscillations.

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ESTIMATION OF ERROR IN TIME PERIOD:

According to Guassian law of errors, out of n measurements, the number of

measurement dn having an error between x and x+dx is given by

dn  Ae h
2 2
x
dx
x  
h
The probability density
e h
2
x2

So if the probability density of the number of times a particular error is repeated in specified
interval is plotted as a function of error, the graph is peaked where the error is minimum.
The graph is plotted between error and ‘n’ as shown in fig-(1). With the help of the graph the
time period for a particular length can be estimated

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TABLE FOR TIME PERIOD:

No. of Total time Time period Error

S. No.
Oscillations taken in sec xi (s) x – xi (s)

Mean time period(x) =

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Frequency
Class
(The number of times a particular error is
repeated in specified interval ‘n’ )

*Note: The interval of the class has to be selected in such a way that every class must have at
least one error.

ESTIMATION OF TIME PERIOD:

From the above table select the class which contains the more ‘n’ values and take its class
average. Add this average value to mean time period (x).

The time period of a tortional pendulum for length = cm as estimated from

Gaussian distribution function = sec

This time period can be used to estimate the rigidity modulus of the material.

OBSERVATIONS:

Mean radius of the wire (a) = cm

Mass of the disc (M) = gm
Radius of the disc(R) = cm
Length of the pendulum (l) = cm
Moment of Inertia (I) = M R2 / 2 = gm.cm2
RESULT:

The rigidity modulus of the given wire (ή) is found to be dyne-cm-2.

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is rigidity modulus? What are its units?

2. Define stress & strain.

3. Define simple harmonic motion.

4. Define moment of inertia? Mention the factors on which MOI depends.

5. What is an error ? Mention the types of errors.

6. What is Torisional pendulum?

7. Define Hook’s law.

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2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMISTOR

AIM:

To study the temperature characteristics of a thermistor and to evaluate the temperature co-
efficient of resistance of a thermistor.

APPARATUS:

ETB panel which consists of a thermistor, potentiometer of DC voltage 0-10 volts, micro and
milliammeter of ranges 2.5mA and 0-250µA, oven to heat the thermistor.

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

Thermistors are semiconductor devices. The conductivity of semiconductors is due to the

electrons and holes present. When the temperature is increased, then due to thermal energy,
new hole-eectron pairs are generated by breaking the covalent bonds. This increment of
charge carrier icreases the conductivity and decreases the resistivity of the semiconductor
devices.

Thermistors have large negative temperature coefficient of resistance. This property

enables them to be used as ‘Thermometers’ over restricted ranges and makes them valuable
as resistance control devices in the condition of changing temperature.

The equation governing the variation of resistance R of a thermistor with

temperature T may be written as:
 B
 
R  Ae T
----- (1)
Where A and B are constants depending upon size and mode mounting and material of
Thermistor respectively. By the definition the temperature coefficient of resistance α is given
as
1  dR 
α   ----- (2)
R  dT 
Since R = Aex where x = BT-1
dR dx B
 Ae x and  2
dX dT T
Therefore

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 B
dR  dR   dx  x B  AB   
      Ae   2    2 e T 
dT  dx   dT   T  T 
Therefore
  B
 1   AB   
α    B     2 e  T 
  T    T 
 Ae 
B
α ----- (3)
T2
take natural log on both sides of equation (1), we have
B
log e R  log e A 
T
Hence a graph of logeR against 1 gives a straight line whose slope yields the value of
T

constant B and whose intercept on the Y-axis enables ‘A’ to be found. Hence the temperature
coefficient of resistance α is given by equation (3).

PROCEDURE:

First let oven supply be off and fix the thermistor in the respective place and connect the
thermistor lead to the point. Indicate ‘Thermistor’ input and put on the D.C power supply
and set constant DC voltage by adjusting the nob and take down the reading of D.C.
milliammeter on the appropriate scale (i.e. either on 250µA or 0-25mA whichever is
suitable). This observation will give thermistor resistance at room temperature. Note down
the current readings in regular intervals say for every 5oC while increasing and decreasing
the temperature.

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TABLE:
Voltage = ………….. V

Temperature Current (I) µA

1
S. 𝑇 While While Resistance logeR
No. °C K increasing decreasing Mean
𝑉
(R= )
(K-1) 𝐼
temp temp ohms

5
6
7

10

GRAPH:

1. Plot a graph by taking temperature (T) on X-axis and resistance (R) on Y-axis.
1
2. Plot a graph by taking on the X-axis and logeR on the Y-axis.
T
The graph so obtained is a straight line not passing though the origin.

Constant B = The slope of the straight line of 1/T vs logeR

Resistance

logeR

Temperature (K)

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CALCULATIONS:
B
Constant A is to be obtained from the formula: log e R  log e A  .
T
The value of T is to be noted at the tangent point from the graph T vs R ( T = K)
Constant B is to be obtained from the graph 1/T vs logeR.

The value of is to be calculated from the formula α   B2 .

T
RESULTS:
A= ohms

B= K

= K-1

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Take the current readings when the temperature is constant

2. Also take the current readings along with increased and decreased temperature.
3. Temperature must not be raised beyond 75oC.

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Viva-Voce Questions
1. What is a thermistor.

2. What does a thermistor do?

3. How many types of thermistors are available?

4. What are the shapes of thermistor?

5. How thermistors are fabricated?

6. Define temperature coefficient of resistance.

7. What is the principle of Wheatstone bridge?

8. How to find constants of thermistors?

9. What is the relation between resistance and temperature of thermistor?

10. Mention a few uses of thermistor.

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3. SOLAR CELL

AIM:

To draw the I-V characteristics of a solar cell and calculate the (a) Fill factor (FF), (b)
Efficiency () and (c) Series resistance (Rs)

APPARATUS:

Solar cell, illuminator, voltmeter, ammeter and potentiometer etc.

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

Solar cell is a p-n junction diode. We know that a built- in- voltage exists across a p-n
junction, but this voltage cannot deliver current in an external circuit. However, if light is
illuminated on the junction, there flows current in the circuit. This effect is called the
Photovoltaic effect.

To understand the principle underlying the Photovoltaic effect, let the junction be
illuminated. Under this condition, many excess electron-hole pairs are generated in the
regions on either side of the junction via absorption of photons. As the field within the
junction is from n-side to p-side, the excess minority carriers thus generated diffuse to the
junction where they are carried across and become majority charge carriers- the holes
generated on n-side move to p-side and the electrons generated on p-side move towards n-
side. If the junction is now open circuited, the majority carriers charge will build up on both
sides of the junction (positive charge on p-side and negative charge on n-side) tending to
lower the built-in-voltage. This change in built-in-voltage, (Vo) appears as a measurable P.D.
across the junction, which there by behaves as a source of voltage Vo.

If the external circuit is closed, the current will therefore flow therein. This current
will continue as long as there is diffusion of excess electrons from n-side and of excess holes
from p-side. This means that the current will flow as long as the semiconductor junction
regions are illuminated. This explains how the incident light sets up the current flow in the
external circuit.

When the p-n junction is used in open circuit mode, the current flowing through the
junction, I=0, the junction voltage, V = Voc (open circuit voltage).

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When the output is short circuited, V=0 then I = I sc (Short circuit current).

Vm = maximum voltage, Im = maximum current

Then ideal output power PL=VocIsc ; Maximum useful power Pm= VmIm

Knowing the above, we can calculate the following parameters like Fill factor, Efficiency
and Series Resistance.

Pm
Fill factor =
PL

Poutput Vm I m
Efficiency () = , where Poutput = , and where A = ---- m2
Pinput Area of the cell (A)

and Pinput is constant for a particular distance

ΔV
Series resistance (R)  , where V and I can be obtained from the I-V
ΔI
characteristic curve.

+ –
mA

+
+
RL
mV
S. S.C.
–
–

Circuit Diagram

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PROCEDURE:

Complete the circuit connections as shown in the figure. Then place the light source ‘S’ at a
distance of 15 cm from the solar cell (S.C.). Adjust the potentiometer R L until you obtain the
zero voltage in the voltmeter and maximum current in the ammeter. This maximum current
is called the short circuit current Isc. Then, with the help of potentiometer increase the
voltage in steps of 0.2V and note down the corresponding current, till you get maximum
voltage in the voltmeter. Now remove all the connections of the circuit and find out open
circuit voltage (Voc) [i.e. connecting +ve of the cell to the +ve of voltmeter and -ve of the cell
to the -ve of voltmeter]. Repeat the experiment for another intensity by placing the light
source at 25 cm. Note the Pinput values corresponding to the distance between source and
solar cell from the data sheet.

GRAPH:

Plot the graph between V and I. Select a point P on each curve and draw perpendicular lines
from P onto both the axes such that the area (Vm Im) covered by the rectangle is maximum.
Note the Im and Vm from each curve and calculate fill factor and Efficiency. To find out the
series resistance, find the differences between the consecutive Vm’s (V) and Im’s (I) from
the graph.
Im1 Im2
I(mA)

Vm1 Vm2
V (mV)

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TABLE

d1 = cm d2 = cm

Voc = mV Voc = mV
Isc = mA Isc = mA
Pinput = W/m2 Pinput = W/m2

Voltage (V)
Current (I) Voltage (V) Current (I)
S. No
S. No mA
mV mV mA

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RESULT:

For a solar cell the values for various parameters found to be:

1. Fill factor =

2. Efficiency =

3. Series resistance = 

PRECAUTIONS:

1. See that the light from the source falls normally on the solar cell.
2. Make sure that the connections are made properly and ensure good contact.

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Viva-Voce Questions
1. What is a solar cell?

2. What are the materials used for preparing solar cells?

3. What is Voc and Isc ?

4. What is fill factor?

5. What is the efficiency of a solar cell?

6. What is the effect of series resistance of solar cell?

7. How to improve the efficiency of solar cell?

8. In a p-n junction solar cell, which layer is very thin? Give reason.

9. What is photo voltaic effect?

10. Mention few differences between photo voltaic effect & photo electric effect.

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4. P–N JUNCTION DIODE

AIM:

To study the I-V characteristics of P–N Junction diode and to calculate resistance of a diode
in forward and reverse bias.

APPARATUS:

Power supply, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Diode and connecting wires

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

When a P–type material joined with N–type a P–N Junction is formed. The plane dividing
the two zones is known as a junction. Due to diffusion some of the electrons from N–region
cross over to P–region where they combine with holes and holes from P–region cross over to
N–region where they combine with electrons and become neutral. Thus a layer is formed
which is known as depletion layer or charge free region or space charge region because there
is no charge available for conduction. The diffusion of the electrons and holes across the
junction continues till a potential barrier is developed in depletion layer or space charge
regions which prevents further diffusion or neutralization. The potential barrier can be
increased or decreased by applying an external voltage.

Forward Bias:

When the junction is forward biased i.e., when the +ve terminal of the battery is connected
to the P-type and –ve terminal is connected to the N–type material, the holes from P–type
semi conductor are repelled by positive of the battery towards the junction and
simultaneously the electrons in N–type semi conductor are repelled by negative terminal
of the battery towards the junction. Here battery voltage should be high to impart, sufficient
energy to these carriers to overcome the potential barrier at the junction and enable them to
cross through it. Hence large current flows so long as the battery voltage is applied.

Reverse Bias:

The effect of reverse bias is to increase the potential barrier thus allowing a very little current
to flow. When the junction is reverse biased i.e., when the +ve terminal of the battery
connected to the N–type and –ve terminal is connected to the P-type material, the electrons
in N–type semi conductors and holes in P–type semi conductors are attracted away from the

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junction under the action of applied voltage. Since there is no recombination of electron-hole
pairs, the current is negligibly small.

V V
From V-I graph, R F.B = , R R.B =
I I

PROCEDURE:

a) Forward bias:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig. (1)

2. Vary the potential difference and note the corresponding current value.
3. Draw the graph by taking potential or voltage (V) on X-axis and current (I) on Y-axis.
b) Reverse bias:

1. Make the connections as shown in fig (2).

2. Vary the potential difference and note the corresponding current value.
3. Draw the graph by taking potential or voltage (V) on X-axis and current (I) on Y-axis.

p n RL n p RL

+ V – + + V – +
A A
– –

+ – + –

Fig. (1) Fig. (2)

ImA
Forward bias

I
V

Reverse bias
IA

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CALCULATIONS: From the graph

V V
R F.B = , R R.B =
I I

PRECAUTIONS:

1. See that all the connections given properly

2. Identify the position of the diode, whether it is in forward or reverse bias.
3. Do not apply voltage beyond certain values in either bias.
TABLE:

Forward bias Reverse bias

S.No. V (Volts) I (mA) S.No. V (volts) I (A)

RESULT:

The characteristics of P-N junction diode have been studied and the resistance is found to be
……………… in forward bias and …………….  in reverse bias.

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is potential barrier?

2. What is depletion layer?

3. Why diode has low resisstance in forward bias & high resistance in reverse bias?

4. What is cut-in voltage or knee voltage?

5. What is breakdown voltage?

6. What are p type & n type semiconductors?

7. What are the applications of diode?

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5. ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

AIM:

To determine the forbidden energy gap (Eg) of a given semiconductor.

APPARATUS:

Semiconductor (P-n junction diode in reverse bias, Si or Ge), voltmeter, ammeter and
0-100°C thermometer.

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

The energy gap (Eg) of a material is defined as the minimum amount of energy required for
an electron to get excited from the top of the valance band to the bottom of the conduction
band. The energy gap for metals is zero since the valance band and conduction band overlap
each other whereas the energy gap for the insulators is very high. The energy gap for the
semiconductors lies between the values for metals and the insulators.

The resistance of a semiconductor varies with the temperature as

Eg
R  R o e 2KT ----- (1)

Where Ro is the resistance of the semiconductor at absolute zero,

K is the Boltzman constant and

T is the temperature of the material.

By applying logarithms on both sides of the equation (1), we get

 E  e
log10 R  log10 R o   g  log10 ----- (2)
 2KT 

1
This is a linear equation between log10R and and its slope is obtained from:
T

slope  E g
 log 
e
10

2K

2K
E g  (slope) e
log10

Eg = (3.9666  10-4  slope) eV ----- (3)

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+ –
A

+
+
V

–
–

Circuit Diagram

PROCEDURE:

Make the necessary electric connections. Apply the constant voltage (V) across the
semiconductor and switch on the heater, measure the current (I) values as the temperature
(T) is increasing at regular intervals (say in steps of 5oC) till the temperature reaches 70oC.
Switch off the heater and again measure the current in regular intervals as temperature is
decreasing till the room temperature is reached. Tabulate the values of current and
temperature. Repeat the experiment for two or three different voltages.

GRAPH:

1
Draw the graph taking on the X-axis and log10R on the Y-axis. One should get a straight
T log10R
line which does not pass through the origin. Find the slope of the straight line.

CALCULATIONS:

Eg = (3.9666  10–4  slope) eV

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The diode should not touch the heating coil.

2. The temperature and the current should be noted down simultaneously
3. The temperature should come down to room temperature naturally.

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TABLE: V = ………. Volts

Temperature (T) Current (µA) Resistance

S.No. While While Mean V

R in 1 -1
oC K increasing decreasing I
R
log 10 K
T
temperature temperature ohms

RESULT:

The energy gap (Eg) of a given semiconductor is found to be ___________ eV

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is energy band? What are conduction and valence bands?

2. What is forbidden energy gap?

3. What is Fermi level?

4. What is Fermi energy?

5. What are extrinsic & intrinsic semiconductors?

6. What is the effect of temperature on conductivity of semiconductor?

7. Define one electron volt (ev). What is the relation between ev and joule?

8. What are the energy gaps of Si & Ge?

9. Why diode is connected in reverse bias to find energy gap?

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6. FIBRE OPTICS
AIM:

To determine the numerical aperture (NA), power losses due to macro bending and adaptor
of given optical fibre.

APPARATUS:

LED, NA Jig, D.M.M, scaled screen, adaptor, one and three meter length of optical fibre,
mandrel

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

1. The Numerical Aperture (N.A) of an optical fibre (step index) is given by

 
1
N.A.  N 2
core N 2
clad 2 ----- (1)

= Sin imax

i.e., imax = Sin-l ( N.A) ----- (2)

ncore = refractive index of core,
nclnd = refractive index of clading
imax = acceptance angle
As shown in the figre, light from the end of the optical fibre ‘A’
falls on the screen BD. Let the diameter of light falling on the screen BD=W, Let the distance
between end of the fibre and the screen AO=L

A
i max
FO LED O W
OPTICAL FIBER

D
L

SCREEN
W
N.A. 
4L 
1
2
W 2 2

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Knowing W and L, the N.A can be calculated and substituting this N.A value in Eq(2),
the acceptance angle ‘θ’ can be calculated.

2. Losses of power in fibre optic cable is mainly due to absorption or scattering of light
with Optical fibre, macro bending and joints between cable (adaptor). This loss of power
‘P’ from input (Po) to output (PL) at a distance ‘L’, can be written as PL = Poe–α L
Where ‘α’ is the attenuation coefficient in decibles (dB) per unit length.

(generally dB/KM)

P 
10.log 10  o 
α  PL 
L

αL

PL  PO 10 e 10

PROCEDURE:

1. Insert one end of either one or three meter length optical fibre cable the LED and NA jig..
Switch on LED, then red light will appear at the end of the fibre on the N.A Jig. Turn SET
P0/IF knob the intensity will increase. Arrange the scaled screen at a distance L, then
view the red spot on the screen. Measure the diameter of the spot (w). Note the
measured values L and W in the table. Repeat the experiment with different distances
and note the readings.
S. No L ( mm ) W ( mm ) N.A i max

2. Insert one end of the three meter length plastic optical fibre cable to the FOLED and
connect another end to the power meter module. Connect D.M.M test leads to Pout, red
lead to red socket and black lead to black socket respectively. Set D.M.M to 2000 mV
range. Switch on LED, adjust the Set Po/IF knob to set output power of the FOLED to
the value -22.0 dBm or minimum (milli decibles) and note this as PO, wind the fibre on
the mandrel and note the reading as POw1, similarly for two and three turns. Note the
readings as POw2 and POw3 respectively.

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O/P power (µW) Loss due to turns (µW)

Po0 -

POw1 - ( PO0 - POw1 ) =

POw2 - ( PO0 - POw2 ) =

POw3 - ( PO0 - POw3 ) =

3. Connect one meter OF cable as given above and set D.M.M for a constant value (-120mV
or minmum) and note the reading as P1. Similarly take P2 by replacing one meter cable
with 3 meter cable without disturbing SET PO/If knob. Now join the 1 and 3 m cables
with the adopter as shown in the figure and note DMM reading as P 3.

OBSERVATIONS:

P1 = µW

P2 = µW

P3 = µW

CALCULATIONS:

Take P1, P2 and P3 as shown in Fig., without disturbing the SET Po / If knob.
P2  P1
Loss in one meter cable (X) = 
2
Loss due to adopter = P3 – P1 – 3X =

RESULT:

1. N.A of given Optical fibre is ---------------

2. Power loss due to one turn------------- µW, two turns ----------- µW and three turns -----
µW
3. Power loss due to one meter cable------------ µW and due to adaptor ------ µW

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PRECAUTIONS :

1. Gently insert the optical fibre cable is to LED by turning clockwise direction of its clinch
nut. (until you feel the fibre touches the micro lens)
2. Do not push applying over force which may damage micro lens
3. Gently tight the clinch nut that holds the inserted fibre firmly.
4. Before taking reading check out fibre is free of all twists and strains.
5. Two cables must meet at the center of the adopter while taking P 3 reading.

PO P1 PO P2
1m cable
3m cable

PO P3
1m cable
3m cable
Adapter

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is an Optical fiber?

2. Define numerical aperture & acceptance angle.

3. What is fractional refractive index change?

4. What are the different types of Optical fibers?

5. Write the applications of Optical fiber in Communications.

6. Define critical angle.

7. What are the conditions to get total internal reflection TIR?

8. Which factors affect the light gathering ability?

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7. PLANCK’S CONSTANT
AIM:

(i) To draw I-V characteristics of a given photo cell and

(ii) (ii) to determine the Planck’s constant (h).

APPARATUS:
Power supply, ammeter, lamp house and photocell etc.

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

The Planck’s constant is given by maximum energy of any of the electrons is equal to:

E=h =hc/ eVs

hc
i.e., 1 = eV1
hc
2
= eV2
1
1 2
e (V1-V2) = hc ( 1 - )
 2 - 1
1  2
e (V1-V2) = hc ( )
or

eV2  V1  λ 1  λ 2
h joule - sec
Cλ 1 - λ 2 

where e = charge of electron

V2 = stopping potential, corresponding to wavelength 2
V1 = stopping potential, corresponding to wavelength 1
C = velocity of light
1 2 are wavelengths of the incident light on the photocell

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PROCEDURE:

1. The lamp house arrangement is adjusted to get a well-focused spot. The photocell is
placed 15 to 20 cms away from the light house.

2. Vary the input voltages and note the corresponding current readings.
3. Set the switches to low voltage and sensitivity mode to get the stopping potential.
4. Note the corresponding voltage (stopping potential) where current reduces to zero.
5. This is repeated using filters of different colours i.e. different wavelengths.

+ –
Photo cell

+ + +
V A
–
– –

Forward bias

TABLE-I

d1 = cm d2 = cm

S. No. Voltage (V) Current (mA) S. No. Voltage (V) Current (mA)

Stopping potential using white light source: = ------------- V

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GRAPH:

Now plot the graphs by taking potential on X-axis and current on Y-axis for white light

V0
V
with different intensities.

TABLE-II

S.No. Colour Wavelength () Stopping potential (V)

(volts)
(Å)
1 Blue 4725

2 Green 5290

3 Orange 6150

CALCULATIONS:

eV2  V1  λ 1  λ 2
h joule – sec
Cλ 1 - λ 2 

RESULT:

1. The Planck’s constant is found to be: ----------------------------- joule-sec

2. Write inference from the graph:
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not place the light source very close to the photocell.

2. Handle the photocell carefully
3. Stopping potential should be read carefully.

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Viva-Voce Questions
1. What is photo electric effect?

2. What is stopping potential?

3. What is threshold frequency?

4. What is Einstein’s photo electric equation?

5. What is work function?

6. What is photo diode?

7. How does photo current varies?

8. What is plank’s constant?

9. What is the difference between photo diode (LED) and solar cell?

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8. LED Characteristics
Aim: - To plot I-V Characteristics of a L E D.

Description: -

LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them. LED is connected in the
circuit as shown in figure. LED operates only in forward biased condition. Under
forward bias condition the anode is connected to the positive terminal and the cathode is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery. It is like a normal pn junction diode
except the basic semiconductor material is GaAs or InP which is responsible for the color
of the light. When it is forward biased the holes moves from p to n and electrons flow
from n to p. In the junction the carriers recombine with each other and released the
energy in the form of light. Thus LED emits light under forward biased condition.
Under reverse biased condition, there is no recombination due to majority carriers, so
there is no emission of light.

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or + for
anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the
short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see
inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification
method). LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you
are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.

Testing an LED

Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply! It will be destroyed almost instantly
because too much current will pass through and burn it out. LEDs must have a resistor in series to
limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs
if your supply voltage is 12V or less. Remember to connect the LED the correct way round!

Calculating resistor value of LED

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An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LED; otherwise
it will burn out almost instantly. The resistor value, R is given by: R = (VS - VL) / I

VS = supply voltage

VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)

I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted.

If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is greater,
so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to choose a greater
resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example) but this will make the
LED less bright.

For example

If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current

I = 20mA = 0.020A,

R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350, so choose 390 (the nearest standard value which is greater).

Connecting LEDs in series

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If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to connect them in
series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one LED.
All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all the same type.
The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue
and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you must
add up all the LED voltages and use this for VL.

Example calculations:

A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a supply voltage of at least 3 × 2V + 2V = 8V, so
a 9V battery would be ideal.

VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages added up). If the supply voltage V S is 9V and
the current I must be 15mA = 0.015A,

Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (9 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 / 0.015 = 200, so choose R = 220 (the nearest
standard value which is greater).

Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel. Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor
shared between them is generally not a good idea. If the LEDs require slightly different voltages
only the lowest voltage LED will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing
through it. Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with one resistor
this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are very cheap and the current used is the
same as connecting the LEDs individually.

Procedure:-

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Forward bias:

Graphs:-

I (mA)

Tabular Column: V (volts)

S. No Voltage (V) Current (mA)

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Result:

The I-V characteristics of LED were studied and the following observations are made.

S. No. Colour and Wavelength Threshold Voltage (V)

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is the acronym of LED?

2. What is the principle of LED ?

3. What is the difference between ordinary light and LED ?

4. What are the applications of LED in Medicine ?

5. Name some materials for LED.

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9. WAVELENGTH OF LASER

AIM:
To determine the wavelength of given semiconductor red laser

APPARATUS:

Laser source, optical bench, grating device, screen and scale.

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

The wavelength of laser light using a grating is given by

Sin θ
λ Å
Nn

Where n = order of diffraction

 = Wavelength of the laser light (Å)

 = Diffraction angle

N = Number of lines per cm. on the grating

The radiation given out by the laser is in mutual agreement not only in phase but also
in the direction of emission and polarization.
Usually the number of particles N2 i.e. the population of higher energy level is less
than the population N1 in lower energy level. Making N2 > N1 i.e. the number of particles N2
more in higher energy level than the number of particles N1 in lower energy level, is called
as population inversion. It is one of the basic requirements of laser action. The method of
rising the particles from lower energy state to higher energy state is called as pumping.
Particles can pass from the exited state to a normal state by emitting a light quanta (Photon)
not only spontaneously but also when forced to do it, under the effect of another external
quanta. This means that the incidence of radiation on the particle which is in exited state
stimulates the emission of a similar radiation by the particle which is in exited state, this
emission is called stimulated emission. The remarkable feature of the stimulated emission is
that it is coherent with the stimulating incident radiation. It has the same frequency and
phase as the incident radiation.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Arrange the laser and grating on the optical bench in the same line.
2. Focus the laser beam on the grating and observe the spectrum on the screen.
3. Measure the distance between the screen and grating (Y)
4. Measure the distance between the corresponding maxima of the same order (2X)
5. Repeat the experiment with different distances and find the mean ().
TABLE:

Distance
Order of Distance
x between
diffraction between x Sin θ
S. No. screen & Tan θ  Sin  λ Å
corresponding cm y Nn
n grating (y)
orders (2x) cm
cm

Mean

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RESULT:

The wavelength of the given semiconductor red laser is found to be _______________ Å.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not look at the laser beam directly.

2. Measure the distances correctly (from the centre of spot).

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is a LASER? Expand laser?

2. What is stimulated emission?

3. How laser light is different from incoherent light source.

4. What is population inversion?

5. What is the life span of electron in excited and metastable states?

6. What is the function of resonator?

7. What is coherence?

8. Mention few applications of laser.

9. What are the main parts of the laser?

10. Explain the working of semiconductor laser.

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10. NEWTON’S RINGS

AIM:

To determine the Radius of Curvature of the given plano-convex lens by forming the
Newton’s rings.

APPARATUS:

Optical arrangement for Newton’s rings, traveling microscope, sodium lamp, short focus
convex lens, reading lens and spherometer.

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

Consider a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature placed on a circular plane glass
plate. A thin film of air is formed between the glass plate and the lens as shown. At the point
‘O’ where the lens is in contact with the glass plate, the thickness of the air film is zero and
as we proceed away from O, the thickness of the film gradually increases. At the points
around ‘O’ and at equal distance from it, the thickness of the film is same since the bottom
surface of the lens is spherical.

Now suppose that monochromatic light is incident normally on the air film at X at a
distance of ‘a’ from ‘O’. This light is partially reflected at the top surface of the air film at ‘X’
and after refraction in air partially at ‘Y’. The two reflected beams will have certain path
difference depending upon the thickness of the film (XY). Interference of these two reflected
beams takes place which can be observed through a microscope placed vertically above the

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lens. The point X will be bright or dark, depending upon whether the path difference is odd
or even number of half wave length of incident light. Similarly interference of light occurs at
all other points of the film and a set of rings which are alternately bright and dark will be
observed with a dark spot at the centre of the rings. Each ring is the locus of all points in the
film which are at the same distance from the centre O of the ring system. If d m and dn are the
diameters of the mth and nth dark rings respectively and R is the radius of curvature of the
curved surface of the plano-convex lens, it can be shown that the wavelength of light is
given by

d2m  d2n
R Å
4 (m  n)
Thus by forming these rings called Newton’s rings and by measuring their diameters, the
radius of curvature of the given plano-convex lens can be determined.

PROCEDURE:

STEP-1: Place the plano-convex lens on the circular plane glass plate such that the convex
surface of the plano-convex lens is in contact with the plane glass plate. Place this
combination in the wooden box, which contain a plane glass plate inclined by 45 o to the
incident light from the short focus convex lens. Place the wooden box under the traveling
microscope and adjust it until sharp rings are seen.

STEP-2: Bring the point of the cross wires to the centre spot of the ring system. Starting from
the centre of the ring system move the microscope cross wires to the left upto the 19 th dark
ring. (This number selected arbitrarily).

STEP-3: Set the vertical cross wire tangential to the 19th dark ring at the left and note the
reading on the horizontal scale of the microscope. Repeat the same for alternate dark rings
until cross wire reaches 1st dark ring. Similarly take the readings of alternate rings at the
right side starting from 1st ring.

GRAPH:

Draw a graph with the ring number on X-axis and d2m

Diameter 2

(diameter)2 on Y-axis. By joining the points a straight d2n

line passing through the origin is obtained. Find the

slope of the straight line, which is

d  d2n
2
m
.

m  n  O
n m
Ring number

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TABLE:

Microscope Reading (cm) Diameter

d2
S. No. Ring No. d=L ~ R
Left side (L) Right side (R) (cm2)
(cm)

10

CALCULATIONS:

Wavelength of the light = 5890 Å

Slope of the straight line

d  d2n
2
m  = cm2
m  n 
d2m  d2n
Radius of curvature (R) = = cm
4 (m  n)

RESULT:
Radius of Curvature of the plano-convex lens = cm

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The lens surface as well as circular glass plate must be well cleaned.
2. The centre spot of the ring system should be dark.

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is the principle involved in Newton’s rings?

2. What is interference of light?

3. What are the conditions for interference?

4. What are coherent & incoherent sources?

5. What is constructive & destructive interference?

6. What are Newton’s rings?

7. How are the Newton’s rings formed?

8. What is the relation between path difference and phase difference?

9. What are the two ways of obtaing interference?

10. What are the examples for division of wavefront and division of amplitude?

11. What type of plano-convex lens is preferred for Newton’s rings formation?

12. What is the need of glass plate in the Newton’s rings experiment? What is the angle
that it makes with the source?

13. If white light is used instead of yellow light, what kind of rings are obtained?

14. Under what condition central spot is dark? How do you get a bright central spot?

15. What is the least count of travelling microscope?

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11. DIFFRACTION GRATING – NORMAL INCIDENCE

METHOD
AIM:

To determine the wavelengths of the mercury yellow (y1, y2) light by normal incidence
method, using diffraction grating.

APPARATUS:

Spectrometer, Diffraction grating, Sprit level, Mercury vapour lamp and Magnifying lens.

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light around the obstacle specially when
passed close to sharp edges or through apertures or narrow openings. Consider a plane
transmission grating with alternate opaque and transparent lines. Let a parallel beam of
light rays are incident normally on the grating. Most of these rays are transmitted in the
direction of the incident light through transparent portions of the grating and if a
converging lens is placed in their path, they are brought to focus at O. there will be a very
bright image. Some of the incident light is diffracted at the edges such as B,D and F etc., at
different angles as shown in fig.. If we consider these rays (bend at B and D at an angle 
from the direction of the incident light) all such rays form a parallel beam and after passing
through the lens, they are brought to focus at I. The intensity at I will be maximum or
minimum depending upon the path difference between the diffracted rays from B and D. If
‘d’ is the grating element (distance between two consecutive lines on the grating), path
difference is equal to d sin.

Wave front Slit Lens

B  O

D
Screen

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Thus if d sin=n (an integral number of wave lengths) the bright images are formed in
the focal plane of the lens. These are called first order, second order(n=1,2,3,……) etc.,
images. Thus one set of images will be formed on one side of the central bright image at
O. also the diffraction or bending of light rays takes place to the other side of the incident
direction and corresponding images of different orders are formed on the other side of
the central image O. Thus in the field of view of a telescope of which the lens L forms the
objective, a central bright image and the diffracted images of different orders (n=1,2,3,
etc.) are observed. If the incident light is monochromatic, each order of diffracted image
will be of the same color, but if white light(mercury) is incident on the grating, each
diffracted image consists of a whole spectrum. Thus spectra of different orders are
formed on either side of the central white image.

FORMULA:

d Sin = n (Condition for maximum Intensity)

nλ
or Sin  =  Nnλ
d
1
Where N  = Number of lines per unit length on the grating i.e. lines/cm
d
 is the angle of diffraction
n is the order of diffraction
 is the wavelength of the diffracted light

PROCEDURE:

STEP-1: Make preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer.

STEP-2: Clamp the grating on the prism table with the

Source
help of a clamp. Bring the grating for normal incidence
Slit
by the following method (as shown in Fig.)

i) Set the telescope for direct reading position and Collimator

note the reading V1.

ii) Add 90o to the above reading and rotate the

telescope to this reading and fix it.

45o 90
o
iii) Now rotate grating until the image of the slit is
at cross wires of the telescope and fix the prism 45o
Grating
table. Now the incident light is making 45o with Telescop

the grating plane. Prism table

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iv) Release the vernier scale knob and rotate the vernier scale through an angle of 45 o so
that the grating maintains exactly normal to the incident light. Fix the vernier table in
this position; now grating is at normal incidence position.

STEP-3: Release the telescope and rotate it to left side of the direct reading position until the
2nd order spectrum is seen. Now coincide the vertical cross wire to the yellow spectral lines
(say y1 and y2) and note down the readings in the two verniers as V1 and V2. Rotate the
telescope till 1st order spectral lines are visible, coincide the cross wire and note down the
readings in two verniers as V1 and V2 against 1st order.

STEP-4: Now rotate telescope to the right side of the direct reading position until the first
order spectrum is seen. Coincide the cross wires with the same yellow spectral line and note
down the readings in the two verniers as V1 and V2. Rotate the telescope further until the
2nd order spectral lines are seen, then coincide the vertical cross wires with lines and note
down the readings as V1 and V2. The angle of diffraction is given by half the angle between
corresponding lines.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Optical adjustment of the spectrometer should be made directly.

2. The slit should be as narrow as possible.
3. Grating surface should not be touched with fingers as the slit might get damaged.
4. The grating should be exactly normal to the incident beam.

Incident Light wave

Grating surface

y1 y1
y2 y2
2nd Order 2nd Order
y1 y1
y2 y2
1st Order Zeroth order
1st Order

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CALCULATIONS:

No. of lines per unit length on the grating (N) = cm -1

TABLE
Position of the telescope

Order
Spectral
2θ 
V1 ~ V1  V2 ~ V2  λ
Sinθ
Å
of
L.H.S R.H.S. 
lines 2 Nn
diffraction

V1 V2 V1 V2

y1
2nd order
y2

y1
1st order
y2

RESULT:

Wavelength of the mercury yellow1(y1) & Yellow2(y2) spectral lines is found to be

_________________ Å and _________________ Å respectively.

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is diffraction grating?

2. How many types of gratings are there?

3. How the transmission gratings are prepared?

4. What is grating element?

5. What are the conditions for maxima and minima in diffraction grating?

6. What are the main parts of spectrometer, adjustments of them?

7. What is the least count of spectrometer?

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12. DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT

AIM:

To determine the width of the given slit using sodium light by diffraction.

APPARATUS:

Monochromatic light source (sodium vapour lamp), adjustable single slit, spectrometer,
spirit level, magnifying lens and traveling microscope

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

When light waves pass through narrow aperture/slit whose size is comparable with the

wavelength of the light, the light propagation deviates and encroaches into the geometrical

shadow region. This bending of light is called diffraction. Diffraction phenomenon is due to

mutual interference of secondary wavelets originating from various points of the wavefront,

which are not blocked off by the aperture. Diffraction produces bright and dark fringes

known as diffraction bands. The condition for minimum intensity positions is given by

e Sinn = n  n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . n is an integer (order of the fringe )

Where n gives the direction of the nth minimum.

e is slit width (cm)

and  is wavelength of the light used (Å)

The condition = 0 means that this is formed by those secondary wavelets which travel
normally to the slit and this corresponds to the principle maximum.

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Fig. 1: Intensity pattern of diffraction at single slit

PROCEDURE:

1) Do all the preliminary adjustments for the spectrometer.

2) Mount the single slit on the prism table with a screw

3) The plane of the slit must be adjusted such that it must be perpendicular to the incident
light from collimator.

4) View the slit through telescope, a diffraction pattern as shown in fig.is observed. The
pattern consists of a centered bright band followed by weaker maxima alternating with
dark bands on either side.

5) Positions of the minima for the Fraunhofer’s diffraction pattern of a single slit of width
‘e’ are shown in fig. If the slit is narrowed the pattern expands and the accuracy
increases.

6) Count the number of minima (i.e., dark fringes) on either side of the central maxima.
Move the vertical cross wire to the extreme left end dark fringe and note down the
readings on both the verniers. Note down the readings by coinciding the vertical cross
wire with the center of all the dark fringes ending with extreme right dark fringe by
making use of the tangential screw of the telescope.

7) Remove the slit carefully and measure the slit width “e” using micrometer.

RESULT:

The slit width obtained by diffraction method is _______________ cm.

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PRECAUTIONS:

1) Care has to be taken in doing preliminary adjustments for the spectrometer.

2) Avoid backlash errors while taking readings

3) Adjust the width of the slit slightly till you observe at least three orders in the field of
view of the telescope.

4) Adjust the vertical cross wire exactly at the centre of the dark fringe.

5) While measuring slit width, you must get fine image of the slit.

λ = _______ Å

TABLE
No. of the Position of the dark fringes* 2 n n Slit width
S. No. dark
fringe ‘n’ Left (L) Right (R) =LR in degrees e (cm)

Mean

* Follow any window of the spectrometer throughout the experiment for readings.

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is diffraction of light?

2. What is the difference between interference and diffraction of light

3. Mention few differences between Fresnel & Fraunhoffer diffractions.

4. What is wavefront?

5. Which phenomena proves the wave nature of light?

6. Which phenomena proves the particle nature of light?

7. What are the main parts of spectrometer, adjustments of them?

8. What is the least count of spectrometer?

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13. HALL EFFECT

AIM:

To determine the Hall coefficient (Hall Constant), carrier concentration and mobility of
charge carriers of a semiconducting material.

APPARATUS:

Hall effect setup, hall probe, constant current source/voltmeter and a variable current
source.

PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:

If a magnetic field is applied perpendicularly to the current carrying conductor, then a

voltage develops in a direction perpendicular to both the current and applied magnetic field
directions. This voltage is called Hall voltage and the phenomenon is known as Hall effect.

Consider a rectangular specimen, carrying a current (I x) along the lengthwise

direction (i.e. X-axis) of a specimen. If an uniform magnetic field BZ is applied along the Z-
axis, then emf develop along the Y-axis as shown in fig.(1). This voltage is called Hall
Voltage.

As constant current flows through the specimen along positive X-direction,

conducting electrons move with velocity vd in opposite direction. Now, if the magnetic field
is applied in direction perpendicular to the current direction, then due to Lorentz force (F L),
the moving charges deflect downwards of the specimen as shown in fig. (1). As a result,
positive charges accumulate on one surface and automatically opposite surface acquires
negative charge. This results in setting an electric field along Y-axis of specimen called Hall
Field. The force due to this electric field opposes the Lorentz force and at steady state these
two forces become equal and opposite.

i.e. e(v  Bz) = e EH

Therefore EH = (v  Bz) = vBZ ----- (1)
We know that current density J is given by
J = - nev ----- (2)

Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get

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E H  BZ
 or
J ne

-1 E H
 ----- (3)
ne JB Z
Where R.H.S. in above equation is called Hall Constant (R H)
EH
i.e. R H  or
JB Z

VH d
RH  ----- (4)
BZ Ix

Hall voltage depends on applied magnetic field, and current flowing through the specimen.

 VH 
The graph between VH and BZ is linear and slope of this gives  
 BZ 
d
Therefore R H  (Slope) ----- (5)
IX
Where d is the thickness of the sample and I x is the current passing through the specimen.

-1
Therefore from equation (3)  RH ----- (6)
ne
Negative represents the type of current carriers or type of semi-conducting material. Here it
is negative type (n-type).

1
Therefore =-RH e or
n
1
n ----- (7)
RH e
Equation (7) gives the carrier concentration where e in the charge of the electron we know
that conductivity is given by

 = ne or

σ
μ  RH σ ----- (8)
ne

Where  is the mobility which is the drift velocity of the charge carrier per unit electric field
and  is the conductivity ( = 0.1 coulomb/volt sec. cm for Ge crystal).

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PROCEDURE:

Connect the widthwise connections of the Hall probe to the terminals marked as ‘voltage’
and lengthwise connections to the terminals marked as ‘current’ and switch ‘ON’ the Hall
effect setup. Turn the nob towards current side and slowly adjust the current to few mA say
2 or 3 mA (which is constant, flows through the sample). Then turn the nob towards the
voltage side. This voltmeter measures the Hall voltage. Hall voltage (VH) appears in the
voltmeter only when magnetic field is applied. But sometimes voltmeter may show some
value (Vo) even in the absence of applied magnetic field. This voltage is due to the
misalignment of width wise connections in the sample. V1 is the total voltage in the
voltmeter which includes VH & Vo. Then Hall voltage for particular magnetic field, is (V1-
Vo). Now introduce the Hall probe in between the electromagnet’s pole pieces (whose
separation is kept constant) and slowly increases the current through the solenoids which
increases the magnetic field strength through the specimen and note down the
corresponding Hall voltage. Repeat the experiment for different values of magnetic field.
Then plot a graph between BZ vs. VH and find out the slope.

OBSERVATIONS:

Thickness of the sample (d) = cm

Current supplied to the electromagnet = A
Applied magnetic field = gauss
Current passed Hall Voltage VH (mV)
S. No. through the specimen
Ix (mA) Observed Corrected

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GRAPH :

Hall Voltage (mV)

0

Ix (mA)

RESULTS:

𝑑
1. Hall Coefficient 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 × × 108 cm3/C
𝐵𝑧

RH = cm3/C

1
2. Carrier concentration n = cm-3
𝑅𝐻 𝑒

n= cm-3

3. Mobility  =  RH cm2V-1sec-1

 = cm2V-1sec-1
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Keep the sample perpendicular to the magnetic field

2. Before switching on the Hall effect set up, see that all knobs are set to read zero
3. Hall probe must be handled carefully
4. Do not send the high currents through the electromagnetic for longer times

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Viva-Voce Questions

1. What is Hall effect?

2. What is Hall coefficient (RH)?

3. What are the uses of Hall effect?

4. What is mobility? What is the relation between mobility and Hall coefficient?

5. What is current density?

6. What is Lorentz force?

7. What is Hall voltage? How it is developed?

8. What are units of Hall coefficient?

9. Where does the excess negative charge accumulate, when current flow is along X-
direction?

10. Can Hall effect be used for only semiconductors? Give reason.

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