Nepal Telecom Exam Preparation (Level 7)

Dipak Kumar Nidhi

Optical Communication
• An optical fiber can be understood as a dielectric waveguide, which operates at optical
frequencies .
• It is based on the principle that light in a glass medium can carry more information over longer
distances than electrical signals can carry in a copper or coaxial medium.
• With
➢ Few transmission losses,
➢ Low interference
➢ High bandwidth potential,
optical fiber is an almost ideal transmission medium.
Medium of light
It is a path through which light travels from one place to another.
Vacuum, Air, Water, Glass
1. Rare Medium
A medium in which speed of light is more is known as optically rarer medium.
2. Dense Medium
A medium in which speed of light is less is said to be optically denser medium.
For example in air and water, air is rarer and water is a denser medium.
Medium Speed of light(ms-1)

Vacuum 3.00108
Air 3.00108
Water 2.25108
Glass 2.00108
Law of Reflection

Refraction of light
Bending of light when it enters from one optical medium to another is called refraction of light

Page 1 of 30
REFRACTION THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB

Refractive Index
• It is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in medium
• The higher the value, the slower the speed

Page 2 of 30
Total Internal Reflection
• Light must strike with an angle
• Change of medium

Critical Angle
• The angle of incident in an optically denser medium for which angle of refraction is 90 degree

Total Internal Reflection

• It is the complete reflection of light ray inside an optically denser medium
• As the angle of incidence in an optically denser medium becomes equal to the critical angle of that
medium, the refracted angle approaches to 90 degree. When the angle of incidence is larger than
critical angle, the condition for total internal reflection is verified.

Page 3 of 30
Advantages:
• Long distance transmission • Increased signal security
• Large information carrying capacity (Wide • Non-corrosive
bandwidth) • Flexibility
• Small size and weight • Low power loss
• Immunity to electrical interference • Cost
Disadvantages:
• Splicing • Skilled manpower
• Installation • Can’t be curved
Snell’s Law (Law of refraction)
• Snell’s law, also called as law of refraction or Snell’s Descartes
• It is defined as the ratio of the sine of the angles of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant, for the given pair of media.
• Mathematically,

where, i = angle of incidence,

r = angle of refraction, and
μ = the constant value,
called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first.
• This can also be represented as
sin  n2 v1
sin 2
=n =v
1 2
Where,
n1 and n2 = Refractive indices of two different media
Θ1 = Angle of incident
Θ2 = Angle of refraction
v1 and v2 = Phase velocities of two different media
• Basically, Snell’s law formula is derived from Fermat’s principle.
• Fermat’s principle states that "the light travels in the shortest path and it has less travelling time".
• Now we consider a light ray travelling from point P to point Q in media with different indices of
refraction, as shown in the figure.

• The time to travel between the two points is the distance in each medium divided by the phase
velocity (speed of light in that medium).
• Phase velocities in the two medium are represented as-
Where,
C = velocity of light in vacuum
n1 and n2 = Refractive indices of two different media
v1 and v2 = Phase velocities of two different media
• Let's assume that T be the time required by the light to travel from P through point O to point Q

where a, b, l and x are as denoted in the figure given, x being the varying parameter.
Page 4 of 30
 • To minimize the time we set the derivative of the time with respect to x equal to zero.
• We also use the definition of the sine as opposite side over hypotenuse to relate the lengths to the
angles of incidence and reflection

Also

and

•
• By substituting the phase velocity equation, we get

• n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2 ……………This is the final derived Snell’s law

1. Core
• A cylinder of glass that runs along the length of the fiber
• Light travels in the core by using principle of TIR
• TIR is possible between core and cladding due to change in refractive indices
• Condition for TIR
➢ Light has to pass from denser medium to rarer medium
(ncore > ncladding)
➢ Angle of incident has to be greater than the critical angle
• The limiting angle is called the acceptance angle and the locus traced out by the acceptance angle
forms the acceptance core
• Refractive index of the core can be increased by using dopants like
➢ Germania (GeO2)
➢ Phosphorous Pentoxide (P2O5)
➢ Aluminia (Al2O3)
• The commonly used glass for optical fiber core is silica (SiO2)
2. Cladding
• A layer of lower refractive index in intimate contact with the core.
• The refractive index of the cladding is reduced by using index reducing dopants like
➢ Fluorine
➢ Boron Oxide (B2O3)
3. Buffer Coating
• Encapsulates the fiber core and cladding
• Protects the core and cladding by acting as a shock absorber
• Some materials used as the buffer include
➢ Fluoropolymer
➢ Polytetrafluorine (Teflon)
➢ Polyurethane
➢ Polyvinylidene
Page 5 of 30
 4. Strength Material
• It surrounds the buffer and adds tensile strength to the fiber optic cable.
• Prevents damage from pull-push forces
• Some materials used as the strength material include
➢ Stranded steel
➢ Nylon
➢ Kevlar
5. Jacket
• It surrounds the strength material and protects the inner layer from environmental damage
• Some materials used as
➢ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
➢ Polyethylene
➢ Polybutylene
Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture
• The acceptance angle is the largest angle a ray can make with fiber axis while hitting the fiber core
and allowing the incident light to be guided by the core
• The acceptance angle is a measure of the fiber’s light gathering ability

Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

Consider the light ray propagate in an optical fiber. The incident ray AO enters into core at an angle θ0 to
fiber axis. Let n1 , n2 and n0 be the refractive indices of the core, cladding and surroundings.
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at the point O, we have
n0 sin 𝜃0 = n1 sin 𝜃r
sin 𝜃0 = (n1/ n0) sin 𝜃r
sin 𝜃0 = (n1/ n0) (1- cos2 𝜃r) -------- (i)
At the point B on the interface of core and cladding,
Angle of incidence 𝜃c = 90 − 𝜃r
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at the point B we have
n1 sin(90˚ − 𝜃r) = n2 sin 90˚
Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture
n1 cos 𝜃r = n2
cos 𝜃r = n2 /n1 -------------- (ii)
Substituting equation (ii) in equation (i) we have
sin 𝜃0 = (n1/ n0) (1- n22 /n21 )
sin 𝜃0 = (n21 - n22) / n0
the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then n0 = 1
sin 𝜃0 = (n21 - n22)
𝜃0 = sin-1 ((n21 - n22)) ------- (iii)
NA= sin 𝜃0 -------------------- (iv)
This is the final expression of acceptance angle and numerical aperture
The condition for propagation of light within the fiber is
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽i < NA
Acceptance Angle
The maximum angle at or below which a ray of light can enter through one end of the fiber still satisfy TIR
is called as acceptance angle
𝜃0 = sin-1 ((n21 - n22))

Page 6 of 30
Numerical Aperture
Sine of the acceptance angle of the fiber is known as numerical aperture. It denotes the light gathering
capability of the optical fiber.
NA= sin 𝜃0
Fractional Index Charge (Δ)
It is the ratio of refractive index difference in core and cladding to the refractive index of core.
∆ = (n1 − n2) / n1
Types of optical fiber
a) Step Indexed fiber
• An optical fiber of constant refractive index core (n1) and a cladding of slightly lower refractive
index (n2)
• The refractive index profile for this type of fiber makes a step change (abrupt change) at the core
cladding interface
• The refractive index profile is defined as following,
n(r) = n1 , r < a (core)
= n2 , r >= a (cladding)
• Types
i. Single mode step index
ii. Multi-mode step index
i. Single mode step index

• The typical core diameter for a single mode step index fiber is 8 m to 12 m
• The typical cladding diameter for a single mode step-index fiber is about 125 m
ii. Multi-mode step index

• It allows the propagation of a finite number of guided modes along the fiber core
• The number of modes is dependent upon the physical parameters (relative index difference ∆),
core diameter (d) and the wavelength of the transmitted light
• No. of modes (M) = V2/2 , where V = normalized frequency
ii. Multi-mode step index
𝑑
V =  (n 1-n 2)
2 2

2𝑎 n1−n2
V= (n21-n21(1- ∆)2 ) [ ∆ = ]
 n1
2𝑎
V =  n1 (2∆ - ∆2 )
For ∆ << 1
2𝑎
V =  n1 (2∆ )

Page 7 of 30
 S. No. Single mode fiber Multimode fiber

1. Suitable for longer distance and Higher data gathering because of large core
higher capacity diameter of 50 m
2. Uses LASER Uses LEDs
3. Expensive Suitable for short distance, less expensive
4. Operates at 1310 nm, 1550 nm Operates at 850 nm, 1310 nm

b) Graded Index fiber

• Constant refractive index in the core
But a decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance from a maximum value of n1 at the fiber axis to a
constant value n2 in the cladding
𝑟 𝛼
n(r) = n1 (1-2∆(𝑎) )1/2 r < a (core)
= n1 (1 − 2Δ)1/2 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎 (cladding)
∆ = relative index difference
 = profile parameter which gives the shape of the refractive index in the core
b) Graded Index fiber

b) Graded Index fiber

• Typical core diameter = 50 m to 100 m
• Typical cladding diameter = 125 m
𝛼 𝑣2
• No. of modes M = (𝛼+2) 2

For a parabolic profile  = 2

𝑣2
M= 4
• Graded index fiber may be designed for single mode operation.
• An empirical expression for the normalized frequency 𝒗 for single mode operation in a graded
index fiber is

𝒗 ≤ 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟒𝟎𝟓√𝟏 + 𝟐⁄𝜶

Page 8 of 30
Numerical aperture of Graded Index Fiber :

NA(r) = NA(0) √1 − (𝑟⁄𝑎)𝛼 , core

=0 cladding
where, NA (0) = axial numerical aperture
= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
Cutoff Wavelength :
• It is defined as the maximum wavelength at which that mode propagates.
2𝜋𝑎
we have, 𝑣𝑐 = 𝜆 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑐
2𝜋𝑎
𝜆𝑐 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑣𝑐
b) Graded Index fiber
For step index fiber the cutoff value of the normalized frequency 𝒗𝒄 to support a single mode is given by
𝒗𝒄 = 2.405
Optical Fiber Sizes
• The international standard for outer cladding diameter of most single-mode optical fibers is 125
microns (µm) for the glass and 245 µm for the coating.
• This standard is important because it ensures compatibility among connectors, splices, and tools
used throughout the industry.
• Standard single-mode fibers are manufactured with a small core size, approximately 8 to 10 µm in
diameter.
• Multimode fibers have core sizes of 50 to 62.5 µm in diameter

Transmitter

• Consists of an optical source and associated electronic circuitry. The optical source can be LASER or
LED
• The drive electronics are used to vary the optical o/p in proportion to an electrically formatted
information i/p signal (message signal)
• The modulation varies either the amplitude, frequency, phase or polarization of the optical
carrier signal in accordance to the message signal.

Page 9 of 30
Channel Coupler
• At the transmitting end, the channel coupler is used to focus the optical signal into the entrance of
the optical fiber with maximum frequency
• At the receiving end, the channel coupler is used to focus the received optical signal onto the
photo detector.
Optical fiber
• Forms a guided means of signal transmission from Tx to Rx.
Optical Amplifier
• When an optical signal has travelled a certain distance it becomes weak (gets attenuated) at this
point, the optical signals need to get a power boost
• Traditionally, the optical signal was converted to an electric signal amplified electronically and
again converted back to optical signal(O-E-O)
• The invention of the optical amplifier boosts the power level in the optical domain (EDFA)
Receiver
• Inside the receiver, the photodetector/photodiode detects the weak optical signal and convert it to
electronic signal based on the principle of photoelectric effect.
• Two types of photodetection are used,
➢ PIN photodiode
➢ Avalanche photodiode
• Once the photodetector converts the optical signal to electronic form, it gets amplified by an
electronic amplifier.
• The demodulator extracts the message signal from the carrier
Optical Connectors
• A wide variety of optical fiber connectors has evolved for numerous different applications.
• Their uses ranges from simple single-channel fiber-fiber connections in a benign location to multi-
channel connectors used in harsh military field environments.
• Optical connector terminates the end of an optical fiber.
• It enables quick connection and disconnection than splicing
Principal Requirements
1. Low coupling losses
• The connector assembly must maintain stringent alignment tolerances to assure low mating losses
2. Interchangeability
• Must be compatible from one manufacturer to another
3. Ease of Assembly
• A technician should be able to install the connector easily in a field environment
Principal Requirements
4. Low environmental sensitivity
• Conditions such as temperature, dust, and moisture should have a small effect on connector loss
variations
5. Low Cost and reliable construction
• The connector must have a precision suitable to the application, but its cost must not be a major
factor in the fiber system
6. Ease of connection
• Generally, one should be able to mate and demate the connector, simply by hand
Types of Fiber Optical connectors
1. FC(Ferrule Connector)
• A brief history:
It was the first optical connector using a ceramic ferrule, developed by Nippon Telephone and Telegraph
(NTT).
• Features:
• The screwed fitting of the connector is vibration-proof; therefore it is used in applications under
motion.
• It is also used in precision instruments (such as OTDR) and it is very popular in community
antenna television (CATV).
• Optical features:

Page 10 of 30
For single mode fibers. Its insertion losses reach the 0.3 dB.

2. ST Connector (Straight Tip)

• A brief history:
Developed in the USA by AT&T and used in professional environments such as corporate networks as
well as the military field
• Features:
Its shape reminds of the Japanese FC connector, except for its BNC-type fitting system (twist lock also
called bayonet style fitting).
• Optical features:
For multimode fibers. Losses of about 0.25 dB

3. LC(Lucent Connector or Little Connector)

• A brief history:
Developed by Lucent Technologies and released in 1997.
• Features:
Push-and-pull fitting (it reminds an RJ45). Safer and more compact that the SC-type, allowing even more
density of connectors in racks, panels and FTTH.
• Optical features:
For monomode and multimode fibres. Losses of 0,10 dB

4. SC(Subscriber/Square Connector)
• A brief history:
Developed by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT), it has become the most popular because of its
decreasing production costs.
• Features:
Quick push-and-pull fitting. It is compact, allowing a big density of connectors per instrument. It is used in
FTTH, telephony, CATV, etc.
• Optical features:
For single mode and multimode fibers. Losses of 0.25 dB.

5. MT-RJ Connector (Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack)

• Small Form Factor (SFP) duplex connector
• It holds two fibers at the same time in a small body.
• Its body and ferrule are made of plastic and it has male and female versions that stay in place with
metal pins.
• Insertion loss <0.3dB

Page 11 of 30
 6. MU Connector (Miniature Unit or mini SC)
• produced by NTT
• It has push-pull mechanism, utilizing a 1.25mm ferrule the same as LC connector.
• Used in high-speed data communications, voice networks, telecommunications, and dense
wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM).
• They’re also utilized in multiple optical connections so that as a self-retentive mechanism in
backplane applications.
• MU connectors can be found in simplex and duplex versions

Types of Fiber Optical connectors

7. MPO/MTP(Multiple-Fiber Push-On/Pull-off)
• The purpose of MPO/MTP technology is that you can pull just one single cable with 8 (for
example) fibers.
• So instead of patching 8 separate fiber cables, you only need patch one cable with one connector.
• MPO/MTP Fiber Cable is used in various applications for all networking and device needs like
100 Gigabit modules.

Fiber Splicing
• Fiber splicing is the process of permanently joining two fibers together
• Fiber splicing is frequently used to establish long-haul optical fiber link where smaller fiber
lengths need to be joined, and there is no requirement for repeated connection and disconnection
• In making and evaluating such splices, one must take into account the geometrical differences in
the two fibers, fiber misalignment at the joints and the mechanical strength of the splice.
• There are two types of fiber splicing
➢ Mechanical splicing
➢ Fusion splicing
Mechanical splicing
• Mechanical splicing doesn’t physically fuse two optical fibers together, rather two fibers are held
butt-to-butt inside a sleeve with some mechanical mechanism.
• You will get worse insertion loss and back reflection in mechanical splices than in fusion splices
(the second type we are introducing below).
• Mechanical splicing is mostly used for emergency repairs and fiber testing.
• Typical loss of around 0.3 dB or 10%

Page 12 of 30
Fusion splicing
• In fusion splicing, two fibers are literally welded (fused) together by an electric arc.
• Fusion splicing is the most widely used method of splicing
• It provides for the lowest insertion loss and virtually no back reflection.
• Fusion splicing provides the most reliable joint between two fibers.
• Fusion splicing is done by an automatic machine called fusion splicer (fusion splicing machines)

There are five basic steps to fusion splicing with a splicing machine
1. Put on the fusion splice protection sleeve
2. Strip the fiber. Strip back all fiber coatings down to the 125um bare fiber. Clean the bare fiber with
99% isopropyl alcohol
3. Cleave the fiber
4. Put the fibers into the fiber holders in the fusion splicer. Press the start button to start the fusion
splicing
5. Heat shrink the protection sleeve to protect the splicing joint

Difference between Mechanical splicing and Fusion splicing

S. No Mechanical splicing Fusion splicing

1 Just a mechanical alignment Fiber ends are aligned and then fused
together
2 Holds the two fiber ends in a precisely Permanently fused using heat or electric
align position arc
3 Still two separate fiber, not continuous Two fibers are combined and are
continuous
4 Fibers are not permanently joined Fibers are permanently joined

Page 13 of 30
Fiber geometry
The three fiber geometry parameters that have the greatest impact on splicing performance include the
following:
• Cladding diameter
The outside diameter of the glass
• Core/clad concentricity (or core-to-cladding offset)
How well the core is centered in the cladding glass region
• Fiber curl
The amount of curvature over a fixed length of fiber.
It is a result of thermal stresses that occur during the manufacturing process
These parameters are determined and controlled during the fiber-manufacturing process
Fiber geometry

Couplers
• Fiber optic coupler is a device that allows for the redistribution of optical signals.
• It covers a wide range of fiber optic devices such as optical splitters, optical combiners, and optical
couplers.
• A fiber optic coupler is a device that can distribute the optical signal from one fiber among two or
more fibers.
• It can combine the optical signal from two or more fibers into a single fiber.
Couplers
• Usually, optical signals are attenuated more in an optical coupler than in a connector or a splice
because the input signal is not directly transmitted from one fiber to another, but divided
among the output ports.
• For instance, with a 1 x 2 fiber optic coupler, each output is less than one-half of the power of the
input signal (over a 3dB loss).
• A basic fiber optic coupler has N input ports and M output ports depending on the applications. N
and M typically range from 1 to 64
• Couplers

Page 14 of 30
Couplers Classified by Manufacturing Technologies
1. Micro-optics
• Micro-optics couplers use individual optical elements such as prisms, lens, mirrors, etc. to construct
an optical route.
• These elements divide the input optical signal into two or more separated light beams.
2. Fused-fiber
• Fused-fiber couplers used the most basic material–optical fiber.
• Two or more fiber cores are twisted, fused and tapered together in a length.
3. Planar waveguide
• Planar waveguides are more like a semiconductor.
• A planar wafer is used to make a waveguide coupler, and the reflections occur only in y-directions.
• Planar waveguides are more often used to make high port count couplers, such as 1 x 12 PLC
splitter, 1 x 24 PLC splitter.
Couplers Classified by Shape
There are
1. Y coupler 3. X coupler 5. tree coupler
2. T coupler 4. star coupler
1. Y coupler
• A Y coupler resembles the letter Y.
• Y coupler also called optical tap coupler.
• The input signal is split into two output fibers.
• For specific applications, the power distribution ratio also can be controlled precisely.

2. T coupler
• T coupler has an uneven power distribution.
• The power of one output signal is greater than the other output signal.
• Popular splitting ratios include 10:90 percent and 20:80 percent.
• This optical coupler is often used in small networks with less port counts.

3. X Coupler (2x2)
• X couplers carry out the function of a splitter and a combiner in one package.
• The X coupler combines and divides the optical power from the two input fibers between the two
output fibers.
• Another name for the X coupler is 2 x 2 coupler.

Page 15 of 30
 4. Star Coupler
• A star coupler generally has several input and output port combinations.
• The number of input and output ports may or may not be equal in star couplers such as 2×4, 4×4,
8×16, etc.
• The distribution of power among the output ports remains equal.

5. Tree Coupler
• A tree coupler is also a multiport coupler.
• It splits optical power from one input fiber to more than two output fibers and vice-versa

The power transfer takes place in optical coupler either:

a) Core-interaction type
• Optical power transfer takes place through the fiber core cross-section either by butt-joining the fiber
or by using some for of imaging optics between the fibers

The power transfer takes place in optical coupler either:

b) Surface interaction type
• Optical power transfer takes place through the fiber surface and normal to it’s axis by converting the
guided core modes to both cladding and refracted modes

Page 16 of 30
Method of fabricating optical couplers
1. Lateral offset method
2. Semi-transparent mirror method
3. Microlens and mirror method
4. Fused biconical taper method

Fiber Optics Network

• An optical fiber network commonly referred to as optical network is a telecommunication
network with optical fiber as the primary transmission medium which is designed so that it makes
full use of the unique attributes of the optical fiber.
• Fiber optics network can help delivers the modern networks demand speed, security and reliability
with additional benefits.
• An optical network will contain both active and passive elements.

Fiber Optics Network

• Backbone Network
• Access Network

• A fiber optic network is a collection of electronic and optical nodes separated by optical links.
• Opaque optical networks contain electronic nodes where optical signals are converted into the
electrical domain and then back into the optical domain, a process called OEO conversion.
• Optical networks that contain no OEO conversion are called transparent networks or all-optical
networks.
• All-optical networks contain optical nodes that are used to route, restore, or convert the
frequency of light signals without the use of electronics.
• Access Network

Page 17 of 30
FTTX
• FTTx is a access network technology that uses optical fiber directly from the central point to the
Home.
• FTTx offers triple play services voice, video and data
➢ FTTC : Fiber to the Cabinet
➢ FTTW : Fiber to the Wireless
➢ FTTH/FTTP : Fiber to the Home
➢ FTTB : Fiber to the Building
➢ Data Requirements

Page 18 of 30
ODN Architecture

Why FTTH?
• High Data rate
• Easy to install
• Easy to upgrade
• Cover Long distance (More than 20 Km)
• No EMI
• Low maintenance Cost
• Low installation cost.

Fiber Optic Access Mode

Active Optical Network (P2P)
• Dedicated higher bandwidth
• Long distance upto 100 Km
• Active equipment required (Router or switch)
Passive Optical Network (P2 Multi)
• Efficient (Each fiber serve many users)
• Limited distance upto 20 Km.
• No active component.
• Low cost

Page 19 of 30
Page 20 of 30
PON Architecture

OLT
A Central Office (CO) equipment provides PON with the various network interfaces. One OLT serves
multiple ONTs
Splitter
A passive equipment used to split optical signal with a ratio of 1:2 and 1:32
ONU/ONT
Customer premises equipment provides User interface
Optical Distribution Network
In a PON Technology towards downstream side, all passive components from the PON Port of OLT to the
PON Port of ONT come under Optical Distribution Network.
Optical Access Network
The Optical Access Network is an access network towards the network side, it is also known as SNI
(Service Network Interface).

Page 21 of 30
GPON Architecture

ITU-T standard is G.984. It delivers 2.488 Gbits/s downstream and 1.244 Gbits/s upstream
The typical split of a single fiber is 1:32 or 1:64. That means each fiber can serve up to 32 or 64 subscribers.
Split ratios up to 1:128 are possible in some systems
It can cover maximum distance of 20 Km.
GPON
GPON uses optical wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) so a single fiber can be used for both
downstream and upstream data. A laser on wavelength () of 1490 nm transmits downstream data. Upstream
data transmits on wavelength of 1310 nm.
To separate upstream/downstream signal of multiple users over a single fiber, GPON adopts two
multiplexing mechanisms
• In downstream direction, data packets are transmitted in a broadcast manner (AES(Advanced
encryption standard) encryption is used)
• In upstream direction, data packets are transmitted in a TDMA manner

Page 22 of 30
 GPON Downstream

GPON Upstream

XGPON
The latest version of GPON is a 10-Gigabit version called XGPON or 10G-PON. XGPON’s maxim rate is
10 Gbits/s (9.95328) downstream and 2.5 Gbits/s (2.48832) upstream. Different WDM wavelengths are
used, 1577 nm downstream and 1270 nm upstream. This allows 10-Gbit/s service to coexist on the same
fiber with standard GPON. Optical split is 1:128, and data formatting is the same as GPON. Maxim range
is still 20 km.
Optical Switching
• Optical Switching is the process by which destination of a individual optical information signal
can be controlled.
• Using this, high bit rate transmission can be switched between various optical lines.
• The main component which helps in optical switching is known as "Optical Switch".

Page 23 of 30
Switch control can be any one of the following:
• Purely electronic
• Purely optical
• Hybrid of both optical and electronic
Optical Switching types
• Space Division Switching
• Wavelength Division Switching
• Time Division Switching
• Hybrid of Space, Wavelength and Time
Optical Space Division Switching
• Supports switching speed of less than 1 ns.
• Supports very high bandwidth
• low insertion loss
• It is transparent to bit rate

• The figure depicts optical space division switching type.

• It is a simple form of optical switching based on matrix.
• Figure depicts 3 x 3 based Space Division Switching.
• Optical Wavelength Division Switching
• It is very suitable optical switching type for DWDM based networks.

• The figure depicts optical wavelength division switching type.

• Based on programming at wavelength interchanger, optical lines are connected.

Page 24 of 30
 • Hence wavelength interchanger plays critical role here in this type of switching.
• Optical Time Division Switching

• The figure depicts Optical Time Division Switching type.

• The element optical time slot interchanger (TSI) plays critical role
• TSI re-arranges physical channel positions in the OTDM frame.
• This helps in simple routing.
Optical Hybrid Switching
• It is combination of all the above switching types i.e. time, wavelength and space.

Submarine cable
• It is a cable laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to carry telecommunication signals
across stretches of ocean and sea
• These cables normally are exposed to high water pressure, they have much stringent (rigid)
requirements than underground cables.
• They have various water blocking layers, one or more protective inner polyethylene sheaths, and
a heavy outer armor jacket
• They are laid using special cable layer ships.
• Submarine cable

Page 25 of 30
A cross section of the shore-end of a modern submarine communications cable.
ADSS
• All-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable is a type of optical fiber cable that is strong enough to
support itself between structures without using conductive metal elements.
• It is used by electrical utility companies as a communications medium, installed along existing
overhead transmission lines and often sharing the same support structures as the electrical
conductors.

• An optical ground wire (also known as an OPGW or, in the IEEE standard, an optical fiber
composite overhead ground wire) is a type of cable that is used in overhead power lines.
• Such cable combines the functions of grounding and communications
• The OPGW cable is run between the tops of high-voltage electricity pylons
• The conductive part of the cable serves to bond adjacent towers
• to earth ground, and shields the high-voltage conductors from lightning strikes

Page 26 of 30
Optical Losses
• Fiber optic cable is lighter, smaller and flexible than copper cable. It can transmit optical signal with
faster speed over longer distance.
• Many factors can influence the performance of fiber optic.
• When light travels through the core of fiber optic, the strength of the light decreases gradually.
• This loss of light power is called attenuation in fiber cable
Attenuation
• Attenuation is the reduction in power of the light signal as it is transmitted.
• Attenuation is the loss of optical signal due to absorption, scattering, bending, and other
parameters of optical fiber over a long distance.
• when light is transmitted through OFC, light intensity through the fiber optic decreases between
transmitter and receiver.
• Optical losses are measured by using Optical measuring instruments like OTDR and Optical
power meter.
• Loss in fiber is measured in decibels per km (db/Km)
Absorption Loss
• Light absorption is a major cause of loss in optical fiber during optical communication.
• Fiber cable is manufactured by using ultra pure glass.
• It is impossible to manufacture materials that are total pure.
• During fabrication metal impurities are introduced in the fiber material.
• Absorption loss is due to the presence of metal particle in the glass components of a fiber optic
cable.
• These impurities absorb the light travelling through the material.
• Modern fabrication techniques can reduce impurity levels.
Scattering Loss
• Scattering losses occur when light ray interacts with a particle with different density level and
sent in all direction without any absorption.
• These density differences are produced when optical fibers are manufactured.
• Scattering is a wavelength dependent loss.
Dispersion
• Dispersion is the spreading of the signal over time.
• When light emit from the source, it contains multiple wavelength and speed.
• Spreading of the signal is due to the different speeds of light rays.
• These dispersed rays do not arrive at same time and result in chromatic distortion.
• Dispersion loss can be minimized by using certain wavelengths say 870nm, 1300 nm and 1550 nm.
Modal dispersion
• Inter modal dispersion occur due to multiple mode of propagation in multi mode fiber.
• Since, many modes are propagating, different wavelengths & different velocities will take
different time to propagate through the fiber, which leads to inter modal dispersion.
• Modal dispersion limits the maximum bit rate and link length.
• It causes the distorted pulse.
• For single mode transmission, MD is not a factor.
• However, at higher bit rates and over longer distances, modal dispersion limits maximum
communication link length.
Bend / Radiation Loss
• Bend loss is generated by improper handling of fiber optic cable.
• It is caused by fiber optic bend.
• There are two basic types of bend loss.
➢ Defects of manufacturing.
➢ local mechanical handling of the fiber.
Micro bending:
• Micro bending are small microscopic bends that occur mainly in the core-cladding interface.
• Micro bend change the path of light wave up to a few microns.
Macro bending:
• Happens when the fiber is bent into a large radius .
• It is found in a splice tray.

Page 27 of 30
 • when fibers are bent below a certain radius, radiation causes big light power loss.
How to reduce optical losses
• Purchase high-quality cables as much as possible.
• Minimize tight bends and keep the coil radius as large as possible.
• Avoid any stress on the fiber, during installation.
• Push is recommended when you needs pulling.
Optical Power Budget Calculation
Link Power Budget

Link Loss Budget

Power Margin
Power margin help us determine the sufficient power to operate the receiver’
Power margin = Power budget – Loss budget
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
OTDR
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is used to check the performance of fiber optic link and
detect problems.
It is used to create a virtual picture of a fiber optic cable route. It is used to measure:
• Fiber attenuation.
• Overall length of the fiber.
• The distance to faults.
• Splices and connections.

Page 28 of 30
OTDR
An OTDR contains
• A laser diode source to insert light in optical fiber
• A photo diode detector to detect refracted light

• A highly accurate timing circuit.

OTDR
• An OTDR tester works as optical radar.
• The laser emits a pulse of light at a specific wavelength, this pulse of light travels along the fiber.
• When the pulse reaches the portion where the fiber is damaged, emitted light refracted back to the
photo detector in the OTDR.

OTDR
• Dead Zone
• Launch Cable

Page 29 of 30
OTDR Dead Zone
• This length of fiber close to the OTDR is called the Dead Zone because the faults are masked in this
length.
• This occurs when trying to look at a very long length of optical fiber.

• It is necessary to launch a lot of power to see the end.

Optical Power Meter

• An optical power meter is an instrument used to measure the optical power in a light beam.
• Optical power meters use optical detectors (photo diode) to detect light energy and power levels.
• Mostly detectors are based on:
➢ silicon (Si)
➢ Germanium (Ge).
➢ Indium-Gallium-Arsenide (InGaAs).
➢ Optical Power Meter
➢ Photo-diode
➢ A PN junction device that conduct current when exposed to light energy. It converts light energy into
electrical energy.

Optical Power Meter

Page 30 of 30