Video Lectures on Computer Graphics

Section – II:

CRT DISPLAY DEVICES

Examples of Computer Graphics Devices:

CRT, EGA/CGA/VGA/SVGA monitors,

plotters, data matrix, laser printers, Films,

flat panel devices, Video digitizers, scanners,

LCD panels, keyboard, joystick, mouse,

touch screen, track ball, etc.

The most commonly used display device is the

CRT monitor
 Types of CRT display devices
• DVST (Direct View Storage Tube)
• Calligraphic or Random Scan display system
• Refresh and raster scan display system

DVST - Direct View Storage Tube

• Storage Tube – it is a CRT with a long

persistence phosphor

• Provides flicker-free display

• No refreshing necessary
 DVST - Direct View Storage Tube (contd.)

• A slow moving electron beam draws a line

on the screen

• Screen has a storage mesh in which the

phosphor is embedded

• Image is stored as a distribution of charges

on the inside surface of the screen

• Limited interactive support

Operation of an electron gun with
an accelerating anode

Focusing Electron
Cathode Anode Beam Path

Heating
Filament Control Accelerating
Grid Anode
 Basic design of a
Magnetic deflection CRT
Magnetic
Focusing Deflection Coils
Base System

Electron
Gun Electron
Connector Beam
Pins Phosphor
Coated Screen
Electrostatic deflection of the
electron beam in a CRT Phosphor
Vertical Coated Screen
Deflection
Base Focusing Plates
System

Horizontal
Connector Electron Deflection
Pins Gun Plates
Electron
Beam
 DVST - Direct View Storage Tube (contd.)

Drawbacks
• Modifying any part of the image requires
redrawing the entire modified image

• Change in the image requires to generate a

new charge distribution in the DVST
• Slow process of drawing – typically a few
seconds are necessary for a complex picture

• Erasing takes about 0.5 seconds. All lines

and characters must be erased

• No animation possible with DVST

 Calligraphic or Random Scan display system

• Also called Vector, Stroke, Line drawing

displays

• Characters are also made of sequences of

strokes (or short lines)

• Vectored – electron beam is deflected from

end-point to end-point

• Random scan - Order of deflection is dictated

by the arbitrary order of the display commands

• Phosphor has short persistence – decays in

10-100 μs
 Calligraphic or Random Scan display system (contd.)

• The display must be refreshed at regular

intervals – minimum of 30 Hz (fps) for
flicker-free display
• Refresh Buffer – memory space allocated to
store the display list or display program for the
display processor to draw the picture

• The display processor interprets the

commands in the refresh buffer for plotting
• The display processor must cycle through the
display list to refresh the phosphor
• The display program has commands for
point- , line–, and character plotting
 Conceptual block diagram of
calligraphic refresh display - I

Host Picture Display

CPU processor buffer

Vector/ Display
CRT character controller
generator
 Conceptual block diagram of
calligraphic refresh display - II

Host Display Display

CPU buffer controller

Vector/ Picture
CRT character processor
generator
Calligraphic or Random Scan display system (contd.)

• The display processor sends digital and point

coordinate values to a vector generator
• The vector generator converts the digital
coordinate values to analog voltages for the
beam-deflection circuits
• The beam-deflection circuits displace the
electron beam for writing on the CRT’s
phosphor coating
• Recommended refresh rate is 40 – 50 Hz.
• Scope of animation with segmentation –
mixture of static and dynamic parts of a picture
 Random-scan display system
draws a set of lines in any order.
(a) Ideal line drawing (b) Vector scan
 Calligraphic or Random Scan display system (contd.)
• Phosphor’s Fluorescence is the light emitted
as electrons (unstable) lose their excess energy
while the phosphor is being struck by electrons
• Phosphorescence is the light given off by
the return of the relatively more stable excited
electrons to their unexcited state once the
electron beam excitation is removed
• Phosphor’s persistence is defined as the time
from the removal of excitation to the moment
when phosphorescence has decayed to 10% of
the initial light output (decay is exponential).
- long persistence : several seconds
- short persistence : 10-60 μs
(common in modern displays)
 Refresh and raster scan display system

• Used in television screens

• Unlike DVST and random-scan which were

line-drawing devices, refresh CRT is a
point-plotting device

• Raster displays store the display primitives

(lines, characters, shaded and patterned areas)
in a refresh buffer

• Refresh buffer (also called frame buffer)

stores the drawing primitives in terms of
points and pixels components
 Architecture of a simple
raster graphics system

System Video Monitor

CPU Memory Controller

System Bus

I/O Devices
 Architecture of a raster system with
a fixed portion of the system memory
reserved for the frame buffer

System Frame Video

Memory Buffer Monitor
Controller

System Bus

CPU I/O Devices

Refresh and raster scan display system (contd.)
• Entire screen is a matrix of pixels
• Each pixel brightness can be controlled
• Refresh buffer can be visualized as a set of
horizontal raster lines or a row of individual
pixels
• Each point is an addressable point in
screen and memory
• Line cannot be drawn directly from one
point to another
• This causes the effect of ‘aliasing’, ‘jaggies’
or ‘staircase’ effect
• Refresh/Frame buffer is also called Bit-plane
 Raster-scan display system
draws a discrete set of points
 Rasterization: (a) General line ;
(b) special cases
Picture
element,
or pixel Addressable
point
C D
B

A B
A (a) Rasterized (b)
approximation
to line AB
 Refresh Rate, Video basics
and Scan Conversion
• Raster is stored as a matrix of pixels
representing the entire screen area

• Entire image is scanned out sequentially by

the video controller (one raster line at a time)
• The raster lines are scanned from top to
bottom and then back to the top
• The intensity of the beam decides the
brightness of the pixel

• At least one memory bit for each pixel

(called bit-plane)
 Architecture of a raster-graphics
system with a display processor

Display Frame Video

Processor Buffer Controller
Memory

Display
CPU Processor Monitor

System Bus

I/O Devices System

Memory
Basic video-controller refresh operations

Raster-Scan Horizontal and

Generator Vertical
deflection Voltages

X y
Register Register

Memory Pixel Intensity

Address Register

Frame Buffer
 Architecture of a raster display

Interface with host computer

(Display commands) (Interaction data)

Refresh Display Keyboard

buffer controller
000000000000000000000000110000000000
000000000000000000000001100000000000
(DC) Mouse
000000000000000000000111000000000000
000000000000000000000011000000000000
000000000000000000000000110000000000
000000000000000011100000000000000000
000000000000111111111110000000000000
000000011111111111111111111100000000
000000011111110000000111111100000000
000000011111111111111111111100000000
000000011111111100011111111100000000
Video
controller
000000011111111100011111111100000000
000000011111111100011111111100000000
000000011111111100011111111100000000
000000011111111111111111111100000000
000000000000000000000000000000000000
Raster scan with
outline primitives
Raster scan with
filled primitives
Refresh Rate, Video basics and Scan Conversion (contd.)
A typical example:

If one uses a 512x512 element raster

display, then 218 bits are necessary in a single
bit plane. Memory size required: 32 KB
A DAC (digital-to-analog converter) is used to
convert the bit value (0, 1) to analog signals
for refreshing the screen

Memory size required N Size in KB

for N-bit plane gray
level frame buffers:
3 96
8 256
24 768
Refresh Rate, Video basics and Scan Conversion (contd.)

Refresh rate to avoid flickering – 60 Hz

If one uses a 1024x1024 high resolution CRT:

N Display Color Memory Size

1 Black & White 128 KB
8 256 colors 1 MB
24 16 million colors 3 MB
32 16 million colors 4 MB

Even 32 bits per pixel with 1280x1024 pixels

raster are available.
Refresh Rate, Video basics and Scan Conversion (contd.)
• Refresh rate of a CRT is the number of times
the image is drawn on the screen per second.
• Reducing refresh rate increases flicker.
• Horizontal scan rate is the number of scan
lines the circuit drives a CRT display per second
= refresh rate x number of scan lines
• Resolution of the screen depends on spot size
• CRT resolution is not a function of bitmap
resolution
• For larger spot size, resolution decreases
• Horizontal resolution depends on spot size
and beam switching (ON/OFF) speed
Refresh Rate, Video basics and Scan Conversion (contd.)
Bandwidth of the display:

The rate at which the beam can be turned

OFF to ON and vice-versa.

For N pixels per scan line, it is necessary

to turn the electron gun at a maximum rate of:
N/2 times ON and
N/2 times OFF;

This will create alternate black and white lines

on the screen.

Let us now look at some concepts of

Video basics and Scan conversion.
 Raster Scan

Horizontal Scan line

retrace

Vertical
retrace
Refresh Rate, Video basics and Scan Conversion (contd.)
NTSC (American Standard Video) has 525
horizontal lines with a frame rate of 30 fps.

Viewing aspect ratio is 4:3

• Each frame has two fields, each containing

half the picture.
• Fields are interlaced or interwoven
• Fields are presented alternately every other
1/60-th of a sec.
• One field contains odd scan lines (1,3,5,…)
• The other contains even scan lines (2,4,6,…)
• Two types of retrace after every field
Interlacing scan lines on a raster scan display;
First, all points on the even-numbered (solid)
scan lines are displayed; then all points along
the odd-numbered (dashed) lines are displayed
 Schematic of a 7-line interlaced scan
line pattern.
The odd field begins with line 1. The horizontal
retrace is shown dashed. The odd field vertical
retrace starts at the bottom center. The even
field vertical retrace starts at the bottom right.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Refresh Rate, Video basics and Scan Conversion (contd.)

Horizontal retrace - As the electron beam

reaches the right edge of the screen, it is made
invisible and rapidly returns to the left edge
• Time taken for horizontal retrace is typically
17% allotted for a scan line.
• After odd field scan conversion is complete,
the beam is at the bottom center of the screen.
• After even field scan conversion is complete,
the beam is at the bottom right of the screen.
• Odd field vertical retrace returns the beam
(switched OFF) to the top center of the screen
• Even field vertical retrace returns it to the
upper left corner of the screen
Refresh Rate, Video basics and Scan Conversion (contd.)
• Two fields are presented alternately for each
frame. So we present 60 frames per second.

• In NTSC, generally 483 lines are visible.

• This is because, the vertical retrace after

each field requires a time equivalent of 21 scan
lines
• So for each field we have time to display:
262.5 (=525/2) – 21 = 241.5 lines.
• So with both fields together, we have:
241.5*2 = 483 lines to display.
• This is the reason for 42 (= 525-483)
invisible lines.
Refresh Rate, Video basics and Scan Conversion (contd.)
• Let the time available for each scan line be T.
• Thus, we have: T * 525 * 30 = 1 sec.
• Thus, T = 63.5 μs/scan-line
• This includes the vertical retrace time.
• When we consider the horizontal retrace
time, the actual time to display all pixels in a
scan line (time to scan from left to right only):
T’ = 0.83*T = 53 μs.
• Considering 4:3 aspect ratio, the number of
pixels per scan line = 483*4/3 = 644
• Thus, time available for the beam to access
and display a pixel = 82.3 ns (nano-second).
Refresh Rate, Video basics and Scan Conversion (contd.)

Some examples of pixel access times:

Frame Display Pixel access

Rate Resolution time
30 512 x 512 105 ns
25 500 x 625 105 ns
60 1000 x 1000 26 ns
60 1024 x 1024 24 ns
90 3840 x 2400 ?? ns
QXGA, or Quad eXtended Graphics Array, display standard
Computer Ratio
Resolution Ratio Pixels
Standard (Decimal)

QWXGA 2048×1152 16:9 1.78 2.4M

QXGA 2048×1536 4:3 1.3333 3.1M

WQXGA 2560×1600 16:10 1.6 4.1M

QSXGA 2560×2048 5:4 1.25 5.2M

WQSXGA 3200×2048 25:16 1.5625 6.6M

QUXGA 3200×2400 4:3 1.3333 7.7M

WQUXGA 3840×2400 16:10 1.6 9.2M

WQUXGA, or Wide Quad Ultra eXtended Graphics Array.

 CAS
Peak Bandwi
latency Burst Data Internal
Data dth
(read) in length Word Clock
Rate (GB/S)
ns
2.1
DDR3 7-10 4-8 64 1G 80
GT/s
Two 32-
GDDR 1.25-3
10 6 Gb/s 8 (=64 176
5 Ghz
bit)

Data transfer rate is:

Channel width (bits/transfer) × transfers/second = bits transferred/second.

On February 20, 2013, it was announced that the PlayStation 4

will utilize 16x4 Gbit (i.e. 16x512 MiB) GDDR5 memory chips for 8 GiB
of GDDR5 @ 176 GB/s (CK 1.375 GHz and WCK 2.75 GHz) as combined
system and graphics RAM for use with its AMD-powered APU.
 N-bit plane gray level Frame buffer
• Choice of the number of gray scales and
colors depend on the value of N (bit plane size)
• N=1 – two colors (B&W)

• N=3 – 8 gray scales or colors

• N=8 – 256 gray scales or colors

• N = 24 – 16 million colors

• For colored displays (raster-scan), three

separate color guns must be used.

• Each bit/byte plane drives a color gun.

 A single bit-plane black&white
frame buffer raster
CRT graphics device.

Electron
gun
Register
1 DAC
Frame
buffer CRT
raster
An N-bit plane gray level frame buffer

N
Register
0 1 0

Frame 2N
buffer 2N DAC
levels
Electron CRT
gun Raster
 Simple color frame buffer
Color
Registers guns
3 0 DAC Blue

1 DAC Green
0 DAC Red

Frame buffer
CRT
raster
N-bit plane gray level Frame buffer (Contd.)
• In case of one-bit for each color frame
buffer, we get 8 colors as:
COLOR RED GREEN BLUE
BLACK 0 0 0
BLUE 0 0 1
GREEN 0 1 0
CYAN 0 1 1
RED 1 0 0
MAGENTA 1 0 1
YELLOW 1 1 0
WHITE 1 1 1
 Operation of a delta-delta, shadow-mask CRT.
Three electron guns, aligned with the triangular
color-dot patterns on the screen, are directed
to each dot triangle by a shadow mask.
Electron Guns
B Magnified
G Phosphor-Dot
Triangle

Selection of
Shadow Mask
Screen
 Color CRT electron gun and
shadow mask arrangement

Shadow CRT face:

mask red, green, blue,
Green
phosphor dots
beam
Blue
beam
Red R
beam
B
G
Beam
convergence
 Phosphorus dot pattern
for a shadow mask CRT

R G B R G B R G B
G B R G B R G B R G

R G B R G B R G B
G B R G B R G B R G
R G B R G B R G B
Shadow mask arrangements
 Computer Dot Pitch Pixels per
Resolution Ratio Pixels
Standard (mm) inch

QWXGA 2048×1152 16:9 0.249 2.4M 102.2

QXGA 2048×1536 4:3 3.1M

WQXGA 2560×1600 16:10 0.25 4.1M 101.6

QSXGA 2560×2048 5:4 5.2M

WQSXGA 3200×2048 25:16 6.6M

QUXGA 3200×2400 4:3 7.7M

WQUXGA 3840×2400 16:10 0.125 9.2M 203.2

The dot pitch of FLC displays (Ferro Liquid

Crystal) can be as low as 0.012 mm
Aperture-grille- Shadow
based CRT Mask
Moire Lines
Moire Circle
Moire Patterns on screens
 N-bit plane gray level Frame buffer (Contd.)

• Typically 8-bit planes per color is used,

which gives a 24-bit plane frame buffer

• Each group of bit-planes drives an 8-bit DAC

• Each group generates 256 shades of

intensities of red, green or blue

• Hence we obtain 224 = 16,777,216 possible

colors.

• This is called a FULL COLOR FRAME BUFFER

 A 24-bit-plane color frame buffer

8
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
8-bit
8 Blue - 75 DAC

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 8-bit
Green - 172 DAC
8
8-bit
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
DAC
Red - 10

Frame Red
buffer Green
CRT
raster
Color Blue
guns
 N-bit plane gray level Frame buffer (Contd.)
Use of
• LUT (Look-up-table)
• N-bit plane gray level/color frame buffer
with W-bit wide LUT
• Typically W > N
• The N-bit register content acts as an index
into the lookup table
• Thus out of 2W possible intensities, that are
available, only 2N different intensities are
usable at any time
• The programmer must choose 2N different
intensities, based on his requirement, and load
the LUT (addressable in memory) before use
 An N-bit-plane gray level frame buffer
with a W-bit-wide lookup table.
W
N=3 Lookup
N Table
0 1 0
1 0 1 1

2W
DAC
2N
entries
Frame W=4
buffer
CRT
raster
Electron
2w intensity levels, Gun
2N at a time (W>N)
A 24-bit-plane
color frame
buffer, with
10-bit-wide
LUT N W=10

N
W=10

N
Frame Blue
W=10
buffer Color
look-up
Green table
2N
Entries
Red (CONTD.) 
A 24-bit-plane color W=10
frame buffer, with
10-bit-wide lookup Color
tables W=10 look-up
table
W=10
Blue
W-bit DAC Blue
Green
Red
W-bit DAC Green
Red
W-bit DAC Red CRT
Raster
Color guns
 LCD and FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS
• LCD is made up of 6 layers – vertical polarizer
plane; layer of thin grid wires; layer of LCDs;
layer of horizontal grid wires; horizontal
polarizer; and finally a reflector.
• LCD material is made up of long crystalline
molecules; When the crystals are in an electric
field, they all line up in the same direction.
• Active matrix panels have a transistor at each
grid point (X, Y). Crystals are dyed up to provide
color. Transistors act as memory, and also cause
the crystals to change their state quickly.
• LCD displays are low cost, low weight, small
size and low power consumption
 LCD and FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS
• The display contains two polarizers, aligned
900 to each other.
• With the display in its OFF (or twisted) state,
light entering the display is plane polarized by
the first polarizer.
• This polarized light passes through the liquid
crystal sandwich and then through the second
polarizer and is reflected back to the display.
• Turning the pixel ON (by applying and electric
field) causes the crystal to untwist.
• Light now passing through the liquid crystal
sandwich is now absorbed by the second
polarizer. The pixel now appears dark.
 LCD and FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS
• Displays are of two types – plasma/gas
discharge or Electroluminescent.
• All flat panel displays are raster refresh
displays.
• A flat CRT is obtained by initially projecting
the beam parallel to the screen and then
reflecting it through 900.
• Reflection of the electron beam reduces the
depth of the CRT bottle and hence the display.
• Plasma displays like LCDs are also called active
matrix displays.
• The required voltage or current to control the
pixel illumination is supplied using a thin-film
transistor or diode.
 Some questions and take-home tasks - I
• What are the drawbacks of DVST displays ?

• List a few non-CRT based display devices.

• What is the difference between

Phosphorescence and Phosphor’s Fluorescence.

• Let the average time to execute an

instruction in the display list be 33.33 μsec. If
the frame rate is 30 fps, obtain the maximum
number of instructions that may be present in
the display list (for random-scan displays).

• Learn about flat-panel displays, mouse,

scanners, track ball and keyboard.
 Some questions and take-home tasks- II

• Use a graph paper to illustrate the staircase

effect of a line drawn on a screen.

• Consider three different raster systems with

resolutions of 640x480, 1280x1024 and
2560x2048. Obtain the size of the frame buffer
necessary in each system to store (a) 12 bits
and (b) 32 bits per pixel.

• Consider a display area of a video monitor to

be 12”x9.6”. If the resolution of the monitor is
1280x1024, what is the diameter of each pixel
(assume aspect ratio = 1)?
 Some questions and take-home tasks- III
• Compute the access time per pixel, for systems
with resolutions (a) 640x480 and
(b) 1280x1024. Assume a refresh rate of 60fps.

• Consider a single field refresh scan display

system with just two(2) horizontal scan lines. Let
the vertical retrace start when the beam is at the
bottom-right of the screen. Draw both the
horizontal and vertical deflection voltages
(combined plot) as a function of time, for a single
refresh cycle.

• Use a graph paper to plot pixel points to draw a

character A. Try to enlarge the character by a
factor of 2, by multiplying the pixel coordinates by
the same factor. What do you get?
 Some questions and take-home tasks-IV
• Assuming a transfer rate of 0.1 MB/sec, how
much time would be necessary to load pixmaps
with resolutions: (a) 512x512x1, (b) 1024x1280x1.
• We require large refresh rate mainly due to the short
persistence of the phosphor. Why not use a long
persistence instead, to reduce the frame rate ?
• Obtain the percentage of time (per frame) when the
beam does not trace any image, in these cases:
Visible FPS Inter Retrace Retrace
Area lace Time (VER) Time (HOR)
640x485 30 No 1250 μs 11 μs
1280x1024 60 No 1250 μs 7 μs
1280x1024 60 Yes 600 μs 4 μs
 End of

Lectures on

CRT Display Devices