Casting and Forging

Casting and Forging

Introduction:
Casting is a process in which a metal is heated to the molten state and is poured into a
cavity or a mould which is having the shape of the desired object. The molten metal fills the mould
and on solidification gives the metal object of the same shape. The solidified metal object is known
as the casting. The mould having the shape of the desired object is prepared using moulding sand
and a pattern and the process is more commonly known as sand casting. In sand casting the mould
is not permanent and it collapses when the casting is withdrawn. The moulding sand is then reused
to prepare the next mould. Casting plays an important role in manufacturing process. The process
is very helpful in producing intrinsic parts economically and in large scale. The metals used for
casting are iron, steel, aluminum, brass, bronze, zinc etc. of these iron is most commonly used.

Moulding:
A mould can be described as a cavity created in a compact sand mass which when filled
with molten metal will produce the desired casting. It is the impression left behind by a pattern
after the withdrawal of the same. It is very natural therefore that the said cavity will exactly
resemble the shape and size of the pattern used for producing it. The process of producing this
cavity or mould is called molding. Moulding can be done both by hand and by using machines. In
hand moulding ramming is done by hand which is a time consuming process as compared to
machine moulding. Hand moulding is used for odd shaped castings and when the castings are
small in number. Machine moulding is used for mass production work. Moulding Sand:
The principal material used in casting is the moulding sand which are generally classified into three
different types namely Natural moulding sand or Green sand, Synthetic sand and Special sand.
1. Natural Moulding Sand : This sand is also known as green sand. These are natural sands
and are generally taken from river beds. These sands contain sufficient amount of binding clay
which act as a bond between the sand grains. It can be used directly for making moulds by just
mixing it with water in proper proportion. They are less refractory as compared to synthetic sands.
They are cheap, easily available and have high operational flexibility. These are used for casting
cast iron and nonferrous metals.

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2. Synthetic Sand: These are basically high silica sands containing little or no clay, to which
binders and other ingredients are added to make them suitable for the casting process. They may
occur naturally or made in the foundry by crushing and washing quartz sand stones. The desired
strength and bonding properties of these sands are achieved by the addition of ingredients such as
bentonite, water and other materials. This allows greater flexibility in properties such as green and
dry strength, permeability etc. They are more expensive than natural sand. These are used for
casting steel, ferrous and nonferrous castings.
3. Special Sand: These are specially made to acquire special characteristics and for some
specific use. Different types of sands commonly used are Parting sand, Facing sand, Backing
sand, Loam sand and Core sand.

Moulding Sand Composition:

The principal ingredients of a moulding sand are silica sand grains, binder or clay, water or
moisture and special additives.
Silica sand grains: Naturally occurring or crushed granular particles of sand that is silicon dioxide
principally comprise nearly 75% of the total material in the moulding sand. Silica sand grains
impart refractoriness, chemical resistivity and permeability to the moulding sand. Clay or Binder:
Moulding sand contains about 8 to 15% of clay. With suitable water content clay imparts necessary
bonding strength between the silica sand grains so that the mould cavity retains its shape in both
wet and dry states. In natural moulding sands clay and silica occur mixed in proper proportions so
that it can be used directly for moulding. In other sands clay or any other binder such as bentonite
must be added to develop proper bonding strength and plasticity. Binders are less refractory and if
the binder content increases the permeability of moulding sand decreases.
Water or Moisture: The amount of water in the moulding sand ranges from 6 to 8%. Water is
responsible for the bonding action of clay. It activates the clay in the sand and the clay sand mixture
develops necessary plasticity and strength. Water added to the sand mixture also acts as a lubricant
and makes the sand more plastic and mouldable so that it properly gets packed around the pattern
during the ramming process.
Special Additives: In addition to the above three basic ingredients certain other materials known
as additives are added to the moulding sands in order to enhance certain properties. These include
limestone, soda potash, magnesia, certain oils etc.

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Properties of Moulding Sand:

The desirable properties possessed by moulding sand are
1. Permeability or Porosity
2. Refractoriness
3. Adhesiveness
4. Cohesiveness
5. Flowability

6. Collapsibility

1. Permeability or Porosity: It is that property of the sand which allows the gases and water
vapour to escape through the sand mould. When the molten metal is poured into the mould certain
gases and steam is generated due to the heating of moisture, coal dust and other materials present
in the mould. The sand therefore should have sufficient porosity to allow for the escape of these
gases, otherwise blow holes will be formed in the casting resulting in a defective casting.
Permeability depends upon sand grain size, percentage of clay and extent of ramming. In general
larger grain size, softer ramming and lesser clay percentage increases permeability.

2. Refractoriness: It is that property of the moulding sand which enables it to withstand the
high temperature of the molten metal without fusing. Moulding sand of inferior refractoriness will
fuse on coming in contact with the molten metal and forms a slag on the surface of the casting
thereby resulting in a defective casting. Moulding sand possesses this property due to the presence
of silica in it. Higher the percentage of silica greater will be the refractoriness.
3. Adhesiveness: It is that property of the sand because of which it is capable of adhering to
the surfaces of other materials. It is due to this property the rammed sand mass sticks to the surfaces
of the moulding boxes and does not fall when the boxes are lifted and placed upside down.

4. Cohesiveness: It is the ability of the sand particles to stick to one another. Because of this
property the pattern can be withdrawn from the mould without damaging the mould surfaces and
edges and also the erosion of the mould wall surface does not occur during the flow of molten
metal. This property of the sand in its green or moist state is known as green strength. It depends
upon the grain size, clay and the moisture content.
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When the molten metal is poured into the mould the sand gets dried due to the evaporation of
moisture. But the cohesiveness of sand is still required to give sufficient strength to the mould to
retain its shape. This property of the sand in its dry state is called dry strength.
5. Flowability: It is the ability of the sand to behave like a fluid so that, when rammed it will
flow to all portions of the mould and packs properly around the pattern to acquire the desired shape
and distributes the ramming pressure evenly to all parts of the mould. Flowability increases as clay
& water content increase.
6. Collapsibility: It is the property due to which the sand mould automatically collapses after
solidification of the casting to allow for the free contraction of the metal. This property prevents
the tearing and cracking of the contracting metal.

Pattern:
A pattern may be defined as the replica or the model of the desired casting which is used for
producing the cavity or the impression called the mould in the moulding sand. When the mould is
filled with molten metal and allowed to solidify it forms the reproduction of the pattern which is
known as the casting. The commonly used pattern materials are wood, metals, plastics and plaster
of paris.
Wood: Wood is the most commonly used material for pattern making. It is cheap and is readily
available. It is easy to work with and can take up any shape easily and is light in weight. The
disadvantage of wood is it is readily affected by moisture and can change its shape and wears out
quickly as a result of sand abrasion.
Metal: Metal is used as pattern material when large number of castings are desired or when the
conditions are too severe for wooden patterns. Metal patterns are very useful in machine moulding
since they are capable of withstanding jolts or sudden jerks. They are also used when close
dimensional accuracy is required since they do not change their shape under moist conditions. The
disadvantage of metal patterns are their high cost, greater weight and tendency to rust. The
commonly used metals are cast iron, brass and aluminium. Metal patterns are prepared from
wooden master pattern which has to be provided with double shrinkage allowance and suitable
machining allowance so that the final casting conforms to the required size.
Plastics: Plastics are often used as pattern material since they do not absorb moisture, are strong
and dimensionally stable, resistant to wear, have a very smooth and glossy surface and are light in

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weight. Because of their glossy surface they can be withdrawn from the mould very easily without
injuring the mould.
Plaster of paris: Plaster of paris also known as gypsum cement can also be used for making patterns.
It has high compressive strength and intricate shapes can be easily made using wooden tools. The
disadvantage of plaster of paris is it gets affected by moisture and hard ramming.

Types of Patterns:
The type of pattern to be used for a particular casting depends upon many factors like the size of
casting, type of moulding process, number of castings required and the anticipated difficulty of
moulding on account of the shape or design of casting. The most commonly used patterns are
Single Piece or Solid Pattern and Split pattern

1. Single-piece or solid pattern: A pattern which is made without any joints, partings or loose
pieces in its construction is called a single-piece or solid pattern as shown in the figure below. This
is the simplest of all the patterns and is generally contained only in the drag during the moulding
process. These patterns are cheaper. When using such patterns, the molder has to cut runners,
feeding gates and risers. Single-piece patterns are usually used for large castings of simple shapes.

Fig. 8.2: Types of Patterns

2. Split pattern: Many patterns cannot be made in a single piece because of the difficulties
encountered in molding them. To eliminate this difficulty whenever the desired casting has a
contour or an intricate shape, split patterns are employed to form the mould. These patterns are
usually made in two parts, so that one part will produce the lower half of the mould and the other
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the upper half as shown in the figure above. The lower half is contained in the drag and the upper
half in the cope. The two parts which may or may not be of the same size and shape, are held in
place by means of dowel-pins fastened in one piece and fitting holes bored in the other. The surface
formed at the line of separation of the two parts, usually at the centerline of the pattern is called
the parting surface. It will also be the parting surface of the mould.

Pattern Making Allowances:

A pattern is always made larger than the required size of the castings in order to allow for
various factors such shrinkage, machining, distortion, rapping etc. The following allowances are
provided in a pattern: 1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Machining Allowance
3. Draft Allowance
4. Rapping or Shake Allowance
5. Distortion Allowance
6. Mouldwall Movement Allowance

1. Shrinkage Allowance: As the molten metal cools and solidifies it shrinks and contracts in
size. If the pattern is of the same size as that of the desired casting, then the resulting casting would
be smaller in size as compared to the desired size. To compensate for this the pattern is made larger
than the desired casting so that the solidified casting conforms to the required size. This increase
in size which has to be incorporated in the pattern is called shrinkage allowance. Different metals
have different shrinkage rates. The pattern maker uses a pattern makers scale in which the
graduations are oversized by a proportionate amount to compensate for the shrinkage of the metal.

2. Machining Allowance: When the solidified casting is withdrawn from the mould it has a
rough surface contaminated with sand particles. This will have to be removed by machining in
order to improve the surface finish and to bring the casting to the required dimensions. This extra
amount of metal which has to provided on the surfaces, that is to be machined off is called
machining allowance. The amount of this allowance depends upon the type of metal used in casting
process, method of machining to be employed, size and shape of the casting and the degree of
finish required on the surface.

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3. Draft Allowance: When the pattern is withdrawn from the mould there is always a
possibility of damaging the vertical surfaces and edges of the mould. This difficulty can be
overcome if the vertical surfaces of a pattern are tapered slightly. This taper on the vertical surface
of a pattern is known as draft allowance which facilitates easy withdrawal of pattern from the
mould. It may be expressed either in degrees or in terms of linear measures. Draft allowance may
be provided both on internal and external surfaces.

4. Rapping or Shake Allowance: When a pattern is to be withdrawn from the mould, it has to
be first rapped or struck lightly in ordered to free it from the sand. As a result of this the size of
the mould cavity increases slightly. To compensate for this a negative allowance is provided in the
pattern by making it smaller than the actual size. However, it may be considered negligible for all
practical purposes in small and medium sized castings.

5. Distortion Allowance: Some castings because of their size and shape tend to get distorted
during solidification period due to the thermal stresses developed in them. The shape of the pattern
is thus bent in the opposite direction to overcome this distortion. This is called distortion
allowance. For example, a casting in the form of U shape will get distorted with the legs diverging
instead of being parallel. To compensate for this the pattern is made with its legs converging
slightly, so that as the casting cools and after its removal from the mould the legs straighten and
remain parallel.

6. Mouldwall Movement Allowance: Movement of mould walls in sand moulds takes place
on account of the excessive heat and the static pressure exerted on the surface layer of sand which
comes in contact with the molten metal. This movement of mould walls affects the ultimate size
of the castings and needs to be compensated by providing corresponding allowance in the pattern
and by controlling the density and temperature of the molten metal and composition of the
moulding sand.

Two Box Moulding Procedure:

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Two Box Moulding Procedure

The step by step procedure involved in two box moulding is as follows.
1. First the drag is placed in the upside down position on the moulding board, and the bottom
half of the pattern is placed centrally inside the drag.
2. The drag is completely filled with molding sand. The sand is rammed around the pattern.
After ramming the excess sand is leveled off with a strike rod. Venting holes are made
through sand.
3. The drag is then turned over and the cope is placed on the drag. The upper half of the
pattern is placed over the bottom half of the pattern. Two sprue pins are placed on either
side of the pattern. These pins which are withdrawn later from the cope leave two passages
known as the runner and riser. Runner is used for pouring the molten metal into the mould
and riser will ensure that the mould cavity has been filled up. After that cope is filled with
moulding sand and is properly rammed. Excess sand from the top surface is removed and
vent holes are made to provide for the escape of hot gases
4. The sprue pins are withdrawn, a funnel shaped opening is scooped out at the top surface
near the runner to form the pouring basin. The cope is lifted from the drag and is placed
separately with its parting surface in the upward position. Next both the halves of the
pattern are withdrawn and a gate is cut in the drag to connect the runner to the mould cavity.

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5. If a core is used , using the core box and core sand the core is separately made and placed
in position in the drag. The cope is then placed in position over the drag so that the mould
is closed. The two boxes are then clamped with each other. Before pouring the molten
metal a weight is placed over the cope to prevent the metal from flowing at the parting
surface.
6. After the molten metal solidifies the casting is withdrawn by collapsing the sand, the runner
and riser extensions are sheared using a saw and cleaning and machining operations are
carried out to finish the casting.

Cores:
Whenever hollow portions are desired in the casting the molten metal must be prevented from
occupying those portions, which can be done by placing cores at those particular locations in the
mould. A core is a body of sand prepared separately in a core box which is used to form cavity of
desired shape and size in the casting.
Cores are subjected to severe conditions because after pouring the molten metal the cores are
surrounded on all sides by molten metal. Therefore they must be strong enough to resist erosion
by the molten metal, must have adequate permeability to permit the escape of hot gases, should be
highly refractory in nature to withstand the high temperature of molten metal and must have good
collapsibility to minimize strains on the casting and to facilitate their removal from the casting.
The sand used for making cores is clay free silica sand which should be smaller in grain size and
should have a high degree of refractoriness. Linseed oil is generally used as the binder.

Defects in Casting:
Blowholes:

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Blow holes are the cavities in the casting. These are entrapped bubbles of gases with smooth
walls. They are caused due to excessive moisture in the sand or when the porosity of the
sand is low or when the sand is rammed too hard or when the venting is insufficient.

Scabs:

Projection on the casting that occur when a portion of the mould lifts and metal flows.
Drop:

Drop occurs when upper surface of the mold cracks and pieces of sand falls in to the molten
metal. This is caused by low strength and soft ramming of the sand.

Shrinkage cavity:

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Void created in the casting mainly due to uncontrolled solidification of the metal.

Shifts:

An external defect caused due to core misplacement or mismatching of top and bottom parts
of the casting. This may occur due to improper clamping of the moulding boxes.
Hot tears (Pulls):

They are internal or external cracks having ragged edges occurring immediately after the metal
has been solidified. Hot tears may be produced if the casting is poorly designed and abrupt
sectional changes take place, no proper fillets and corer radii are provided, incorrect
pouring temperatures and improper placement of gates and risers and hard ramming can
also create hot tears.

Fin: A thin projection of the metal at the parting surface. It is caused due to incorrect
assembling of molds or cores.

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Swell: Enlargement of mould cavity by molten metal pressure. This is caused by improper
ramming.

Warpage: Unintentional and undesirable deformation in a casting that occurs during or after
solidification due to internal stresses developed or different rates of solidification in
different sections of the casting.

Misrun and Cold Shut: A misrun casting is the one which lacks completeness due to failure of
the metal to fill the mould cavity.
When two streams of molten metal approach each other in the mould from opposite directions,
establish a physical contact between them, but fail to fuse together resulting in discontinuity
between them, it is known as cold shut. The defect may appear like a crack or seam with
round edges. Both these defects occur due to lack of fluidity of the molten metal.

Introduction to Forging

Forging involves heating a metal stock to a desired temperature, enabling it to acquire sufficient
plasticity, followed by operations such as hammering, bending, pressing etc. to give it the required
shape. These operations can be carried out either by hand hammers or by power hammers.

Smithing is a hand forging operation wherein small parts are produced by heating the metal stock
in an open fire or hearth and then working on it with hand hammers to give the desired shape.

Forging involves heating the metal stock in a closed furnace and working on it with the help of
power driven hammers to give the desired shape. It is generally used in the production of heavy
parts

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Fig. 8.5. Forging

Characteristics of Forging:
• Forging refines the structure of the metal by smashing up large grain formations and closing
up any cavities that may be present in the metal.
• In forging the grains rearrange themselves according to the shape of the object hence,
forged components exhibit directional properties indicated by the flow lines which
increases the strength of the component.
• In forging certain mechanical properties, resistance to shock and vibration are improved
and cracks and blow holes are welded up, hence the component will be free from internal
defects
• Forging produces poor surface finish due to scale or oxide formation at high temperatures
with the result the dimensional accuracy of the components is difficult to maintain.
• Forging is a costlier process requiring expensive tools and dies, hence it is suitable only for
mass production work

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