IGCSE MY NOTES

Chapter 2 Thermal Physics

Prepared by: Chern Jiek Lee

2.1 Molecules

Solid: fixed shape and volume

1) Strong forces of attraction between particles
2) Have a fixed pattern (lattice)
3) Atoms vibrate but can’t change position.

Liquid: has fixed volume but changes

shape depending on its container
1) Weaker attractive forces than solids
2) No fixed pattern
3) Particles slide past each other.

Gases: no fixed shape or volume, gases fill

up their containers
1) Almost no intermolecular forces
2) Particles are far apart, and move quickly, gases spread out to fill up the
container and exert equal pressure on all surfaces.
3) They collide with each other and bounce in all directions.

Evaporation

Evaporation: constantly occurs on the surface of liquids. It is the escape of the more
energetic particles. If the more energetic particles escape, the liquid contains fewer
high energy particles and lower energy particles so the average temperature
decreases. Evaporation can be accelerated by:

1) increasing temperature: more particles have enough energy to escape

2) increasing surface area: more molecules are close to the surface
3) reduce the humidity level in the air: molecules in the water vapour return to
the liquid at around the same rate that particles escape the liquid, when the
air is humid. If the air is less humid, fewer particles are condensing.
4) blow air across the surface: removes molecules before they can return to the
liquid

Hint: You should be able to tell the difference between temperature and heat.

The air is said to be saturated if it cannot hold anymore evaporated water. While the
air is said to be unsatured if it can still hold more water.
2.2 Expansion of solids, liquids and gases Object A and B are very close to each
other. Which direction does heat
Solids, liquids and gasses expand when they are heated as the atoms vibrate more transfer to if
and this causes them to become further apart, taking up a greater volume. Everyday
applications and consequences: Object A has a higher temperature
than object B?
1) hot water is used to heat up a lid of a jar, to make it expand, so that it is
easier to remove
2) the liquid in thermometers expand and contract when temperature Object A has a smaller mass but
changes, the volume of the liquid taken up in the tube can be used to find higher temperature than object B?
out the temperature
3) bimetal thermostat: when the temperature gets too high, the bimetal strip
bends, to make contacts separate until the temperature falls enough, then A has a bigger mass but the same
the metal strip will become straight again and the contacts touch, to temperature as B?
maintain a steady temperature
4) overhead cables have to be slack so that on cold days, when
they contract, they don’t snap or detach. A has a greater heat energy but the
5) gaps have to be left in bridge to allow for expansion (rollers same temperature as B?
allow the bridge to expand)

Expansion is highest in gases, then liquids and lowest in solids.

Do you Feel the Heat?

To do well in this chapter you must first understand the difference between
temperature and heat. Temperature is a numerical measure of hot and cold. It is
related to the average kinetic energy of individual atoms. The SI unit for temperature
is in . Heat is a form of energy (not a force). As such its SI unit is in
(similar to kinetic and gravitational potential energy). Two facts about
heat:

1) Heat transfers at a faster rate from a hot (higher temperature) to a cold object
(lower temperature).
2) Heat transfers at a slower rate from a cold to a hot object.

Thermal equilibrium is achieved when the rates of heat transfer from 2 objects are
equal meaning the net heat transfer is 0 Joules. Two things happen when thermal
equilibrium is achieved:

1) The temperatures of all objects are equal.

2) No net gain or loss of energy between the objects.
An application of thermal equilibrium can be seen in the thermometer. A
thermometer is an instrument used to measure the temperature. Mercury is usually
used because it is

1) Opaque: Easier to see.

2) Expands and contracts uniformly: Can use scales.
3) Does not stick to the glass: Can use scales.
4) Good thermal conductivity: Achieves thermal equilibrium at a faster rate.

The sensitivity of a mer cur y ther mo meter can be increased b y using

1) Smaller/ bigger bulb. Increases surface area for heat conduction.

2) G l a s s / w o o d b u l b . L o w e r s p e c i f i c h e a t c a p a c i t y .
3) Narrower/ wider capillary tube. Mercury does not have to expand as much
for a small change in temperature.

Steps to calibrate a thermometer

1) Placed in ice cube

2) Mark 0oC
3) Place above steam
4) Mark 100oC
5) Divide 100 equal divisions

Thermal Heat Capacity

Definition: Amount of heat required to change the temperature by 1oC or 1K.

A lower heat capacity means the object heats up easier. While a higher heat capacity Find the specific heat capacity given
means an object heats slower. You should not confuse temperature with heat. A spoon 3kg of x with a temperature change
in hot glass of water may have the same temperature when thermal equilibrium is from 28oC to 63oC assuming it was
achieved. However, the amount of heat energy of the hot water in the cup is larger supplied with 94500J of heat.
than that on the spoon because the mass of the water is a lot larger! Hint: 1) Identify m, C and θ
2) Which direction is heat
? 𝑄 transferring to?
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝜃

The units for heat capacity are .

Note: In physics, every time you see the word specific you can change it to per unit
mass

Specific Heat Capacity

Definition: Amount of heat required to change the temperature by 1oC or 1K for a

mass of 1kg of the substance.

? 𝑄
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑐 = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝑚

The units for specific heat capacity are .

Melting and Boiling 500g of copper @ 90oC placed in
300g of water at 30oC. Assume
When melting or boiling a substance, energy is put in, but there is no change in adiabatic find the final temperature of
temperature. The energy absorbed is called the latent heat of fusion/vaporization. the water.
A change of state happens when the particles have enough energy to overcome the Hint:
forces between them. In melting, the solid vibrates so much that the particles can 1) Identify which direction the
break away from their positions. heat transfer is
1) The heat loss from the
copper is gained by the
Melting point is the temperature at which a substance (in solid state) melts (it is water.
equal to the freezing point)
Boiling point is the temperature at which a substance (in liquid state) boils (“you
don’t say”)

Latent Heat

Definition: Energy absorbed or released during constant temperature.

As more heat is applied the temperature stops rising and the heat energy is used to
break intermolecular forces.

Latent heat of fusion – solid liquid

Latent heat of vaporization – liquid gas

Temperature (oC)

A 1kw heater is used to heat 250g of

Time
(second) water for 1 minute. The temperature
of the water changes by 51oC.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of
Specific Latent heat water. Hint: Convert electrical power
to heat energy.
Amount of heat required to change 1kg of substance at constant temperature

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝑙 = =
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

The units for specific latent heat are .

1) Specific latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to change 1kg
of substance from solid to liquid without changing the temperature.
2)
The 3 Gas Laws Do this in reverse………
Temperature (oC)
1) Boyle’s Law

1
Temperature is constant, 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ∝ for a fixed mass of gas.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Remember that in order for two variables to be proportional (in this case pressure and
the inverse of volume) there must be a constant between them.
Time
(second)
𝑘
𝑃1 =
𝑉1

Calculate the total heat to change 1kg

k is called the constant of proportionality (Imagine that k is the slope between the two of ice to steam. Hint: The diagram
variables). If the volume, V1 is changed to V2 the value of P would have to change as below might help to visualize the
well following the constant. problem.

-5 OC 0 OC O
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 0 C

Again rearranging O
100 C 100 C
O

𝑃1 𝑉2
=
𝑃2 𝑉1
Cwater = 4200 Jkg-1Co-1
Cice = 2100 Jkg-1Co-1
Specific latent heat of fusion =
2) Charles Law
3.36x105 Jkg-1
Specific latent heat of vaporization =
Pressure is constant, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∝ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 for a fix mass of gas.
2.26x106 Jkg-1

Important: Always use the units in Kelvin for temperature involving the 3 Laws.

To convert oC to K, always add 273:

𝐾 = 𝑇 𝑜𝐶 + 273
For example

0oC
100oC

3) Pressure Law

Volume is constant,𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ∝ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 for a fix mass of gas

o o
30 C 50 C

What is the final volume of the ball if

its initial volume is 20 cm3?
2.3 Transfer of Thermal Energy A tyre has air pressure 23 kPa when
the temperature is 27oC. What is the
Thermal energy is transferred via 3 mechanisms (notice that everything is in 3s?): pressure of the tyre if the temperature
is increased to 57 oC?
1) Conduction

In non-metals - when heat is supplied to something, its atoms vibrate faster and pass
on their vibrations to the adjacent atoms. In metals – conduction happens in the
previous way and in a quicker way – some electrons are free to move, they travel
randomly in the metal and collide with atoms and pass on the vibrations

2) Convection

As a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles which are warmer become less dense
and rise. They then cool and fall back to the heat source, creating a cycle called
convection current. As particles circulate they transfer energy to other particles. If a
cooling object is above a fluid it will create a convection current (like the freezing
compartment at the top of a fridge) 3
10 cm

3) Radiation h

Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot objects also give out light 1 cm3
waves. Infra-red radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Find the height of the aquarium, h if 1
Matt White Silver atm = 10 m H2O
Black

Emitter Best Worst

Reflector Worst Best

Absorber best worst

An emitter sends out thermal radiation. A reflector reflects thermal radiation,

therefore is a bad absorber. An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat
up more quickly and a reflector will not heat up quickly