• Society (socius =

associate/companion) - a large group of

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY people who live together in an organized
#1 Esperanza St., Hilltop Mansion Subdivision Lagro, Quezon City way by common interest.
0917 139 0436 – [email protected] • Government - a legal institution or system
made of a group of people that takes care
or manages a country or a state.
UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, • Politics (politika = affairs of the cities) -
AND POLITICS the actions or activities concerned with
11 Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS)
achieving and using power in a country or
First Quarter a society.

Cultural Identity
Unit 1 – Lesson 1: Sharing of Social and
Cultural Backgrounds • Culture - the prevailing set of beliefs,
values, customs, traditions, laws,
Importance of Studying CSP and other aspects of life which bind a
1. Having knowledge and understanding of particular group of people in a
society, culture, and politics develops our place or community.
knowledge, understanding, skills, values, • Identity - involves the distinct
and attitudes to achieving social and characteristics, traits, and attributes which
cultural literacy. set a particular group apart from other
2. Studying society, culture, and politics people.
increases our knowledge and • Cultural Identity - feeling of belonging to
understanding about personal, social, and a group. In effect, it is considered as part
cultural identity and gives us the desire to of a person's self-conception and self-
initiate change. perception. (ex. one’s nationality, ethnicity,
3. Improve our skills to apply and evaluate religion, social class, generation, locality,
social and cultural research; and enables etc.)
us to communicate information, ideas and • Cultural Awareness - As to cultural
issues in appropriate forms to different awareness, it connotes to the ability of a
audiences in a variety of contexts. person to recognize the different beliefs,
4. A thorough knowledge and understanding values and customs that someone has
of the society, culture, and politics equips based on that individual's orig
us with informed and responsible values • Cultural Background - Cultural
and attitudes towards a just society, background, on the other hand, essentially
provides us with intercultural consists of the ethnic, religious, racial,
understanding, makes us informed and gender, linguistic or other socioeconomic
active citizens, develops in us ethical factors and values that shape an
research practices, and inculcates in us a individual‘s upbringing. The cultural
lifelong learning. background can be shaped at the family,
societal or organizational level.
Definitions of Culture, Society, and Politics • A common distinguishing factor of a
person‘s cultural background is gender
• Culture (cultura = cultivate) - the and sexuality.
prevailing set of beliefs, values, customs, • Gender - refers to the array of socially
traditions, laws, and other aspects of life constructed roles and relationships,
which bind a particular group of people in personality traits, attitudes, behaviors,
a particular place or community. values, relative power, and influence that
2 Types of Cultures: society ascribes to the two sexes on a
differential basis.
a. Material - This is a kind of culture that
• Biological Sex - determined by genetic
focuses on the physical objects that
and anatomical characteristics, gender is
represent a particular culture. (ex. tools,
an acquired identity that is learned,
clothing, art, buildings, etc.)
changes over time, and varies widely
b. Nonmaterial - This is a kind of culture that
within and across cultures. Gender is
focuses on creations and abstract ideas
relational and refers not simply to women
that are not embodied in physical objects.
or men but to the relationship between
(ex. languages, rituals, religion, laws,
them.
values, etc.)

1
• Sexuality - Sexuality is the state of being by birth or naturalization. It constitutes a
either masculine or feminine. legal relationship between an individual
• SOGIE - Sexual orientation, gender person and a state.
indentity, gender expression
• LGBTQIA+ - Lesbian, gay, bisexual, Unit 1 – Lesson 2: Observations on Social,
transgender, queer, intersex, asexual. Political, and Cultural Behavior and
• Socio-economic status - a personal or Phenomena
family's financial and social esteem on the
basis of income, education, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena
occupation. • Food Taboos - foods being forbidden or
• Socio-economic class - refers to the are prohibited as nourishment.
status of every individual from the • By religion or religious practice.
sociological and economic points of view. • By laws.
• Economic status - means a person‘s • By dietary or sanitary rules.
place in the society‘s economic • On extraordinary occasions, such
stratification based on wealth, property, as childbirth, pregnancy, etc.
and total assets.
Food Taboos in the Philippines
• Social Status - a person‘s standing or
rank in the social ladder of stratification 1. Any dish that has dog or cat meat.
based on prestige, power, popularity, etc. • Republic Act No. 8485, AN ACT
TO PROMOTE ANIMAL
WELFARE IN THE PHILIPPINES,
OTHERWISE KNOWN AS “THE
ANIMAL WELFARE ACT OF
1998” declares that it is completely
illegal to slaughter a dog or cat for
personal trade, or slaughtering a
dog or cat for commercial trade
and consumption.
2. Any meat of creatures considered as
• Ethnicity - a condition in which a social imperiled (endangered).
group belongs to a common national or • Meat of monkeys, tortoise
cultural tradition. The adjective ethnic (pawikan), screen reptiles
relates to large groups of people who (bayawak), or uncommon
have certain racial, cultural, religious, or feathered creatures are
other traits in common. unsatisfactory to eat either by open
• The Philippines is inhabited by different benchmarks or by law.
ethno-linguistic groups, the majority of
whose own languages are Polynesian in 3. Any nourishment that damages human
origin. Many of these groups converted to respect since they are not any longer
Christianity, particularly the lowland- worthy for human utilization by
coastal groups, and adopted many foreign common sense.
elements of culture. Ethno-linguistic • (example: double-dead meat or
groups include the Ivatans, Ilocanos, botcha, pagpag, etc)
Pangasinenses, Kapampangans, 4. Other dishes within the Philippines
Tagalogs, Bicolanos, Visayans which are prevalent to many but are
(Masbateños, Hiligaynons/Ilonggos, denied to others on the reason of
Cebuanos, Boholanos, Warays and devout convictions.
Surigaonons) Maranaos, Subanons and • Muslims are not allowed to eat
Zamboangueños. pork, but Christians can.
• Ethnicity refers to the identification of a • Members of the INC may eat pork
group based on a perceived cultural but not pig’s blood.
distinctiveness that makes the group into • Protestants also don’t eat pork.
a “people.” • These contrasts among individuals of
• Race - refers to a category of people who society must be recognized and regarded
share certain inherited physical as ordered by the 1987 Philippine
characteristics. Constitution Article III Section 5
• Nationality - refers to the status of vouching religious freedom and the
belonging to a particular nation, whether liberty to exercise it.

2
• SECTION 5, Article III of our Bill of • At the turn of the 20th century, world-wide
Rights states, “No law shall be made financial, social, and political changes
respecting an establishment of religion or happened in numerous countries in
prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The complex ways. These changes include
free exercise and enjoyment of religious population explosion, international
profession and worship, without migrations, and other social changes
discrimination or preference, shall forever influencing nearly all segments of
be allowed. No religious test shall be society.
required for the exercise of civil or political • Examples of some trends in technologies:
rights.” • Texting Technology
• Standby (Istambay) Phenomenon - • Selfie Phenomenon
Such description moreover recommends
the Filipino terms “paglalakwatsa” Unit 1 – Lesson 3: Nature & Definition of
(traipsing), “taong tamad” (sluggish Anthropology, Political Science, and
individual), and “di ginagamit” (not being Sociology
utilized) as synonymous to istambay.
Nature and Scope of Sociology
Political Behavior and Phenomena • Sociology - deals with the study of
• Political Dynasty - usually refers to society and social interactions taking
families whose individuals are locked in in place. It also deals with the origin,
politics, and whose family members are evolution, and development of human
within the Philippine political structure society.
since time immemorial. • Father of Sociology: August Comte
• Sec. 26, Article II Declaration of Areas of Sociology
Principles and State Policies, 1987
Philippine Constitution, states that "the 1. Social Organization - includes the study
State shall guarantee equal access to of social groups, social institutions, social
opportunities for public service and stratification, mobility, ethnic relations, and
prohibit political dynasties as may be bureaucracy.
provided by law'. 2. Social Psychology - tackles human
• Philippine Elections behavior or nature as a result of group life,
• The president, vice-president, and personality formation, social attitude and
the senators are elected in a collective behavior.
national or popular election and 3. Social Change - deals with the study of
serve for a six-year term. changes in society and culture, and the
• The members of the house of factors resulting from such change.
representatives, and the local 4. Social Organization and
government officials, namely: Disorganization - study the emergence of
governors, vice-governors, societies, their structural formation and the
members of the provincial board, ways they are strengthened. (current
mayors, vice-mayors, the social issues)
city/municipal councilors are 5. Human Ecology - studies the behavior of
elected for a term of three years a given population and its relationship to
and are eligible for re-election. present social institutions.
• During election in the Philippines, 6. Population - is concerned with population
the common phrase, in the size, composition, change and quality and
vernacular, is ―kaya siya nanalo on how they influence the economic,
kasi nandaya siya; kaya siya political and social systems.
natalo kasi dinaya siya. 7. Sociological Theory and Method - is
• Political Turncoatism - party switching or concerned with the application of the
when a person shifts allegiance from one results of sociological studies to solve
political party to another. various human problems.
• As a common adage goes, ―In politics, Nature and Scope of Anthropology
there are no permanent friends/allies,
only permanent selfish interests. • Anthropology - the study of human‘s past
and present. Its goal is to describe and
Social Behavior and Phenomena explain human variation or the observed
similarities and differences in people
through time and across space.
• Father of Anthropology: Franz Boas

3
Major Branches of Anthropology positive research, unlike normative
1. Cultural Anthropology - studies human research.
cultures, beliefs, ideas, technologies,
economies, practices, values, and other Unit 2 – Lesson 1: Society
spheres of social and rational • A society is a group of people interacting
organization. with each other and having a common
2. Physical Anthropology - deals with the culture; sharing common geographical or
biological and behavioral aspects of territorial domains, and having relatively
human beings. It focuses on their common aspirations.
relationships to nonhuman primates and Theories on human society
their extinct hominid ancestors. • In his Republic Plato (427-347 BC) laid
3. Archaeology - studies both the ancient his standards for an ideal society ruled by
and recent past of humans through the philosopher-kings assisted by equally
material remains, such as artifacts, fossils and intellectually gifted “guardians.”
and bone fragments. • In his work Politics Aristotle (384-322 BC)
4. Linguistic Anthropology - studies the stated that man is self-sufficient and that
relations between language and culture in those who are unable to live in society and
relation to human biology, human have no needs in life must be either
reasoning and human language. “beasts” or “gods.”
5. Applied Anthropology - deals with the • According to St. Augustine (354-430 AD)
application of anthropological facts, as stated in his City of God he described
perspectives, theories, and procedures in society’s ultimate pilgrimage towards
identifying, assessing, and solving social the kingdom of God which is closely
problems. identified with the church, the community
that worshipped God.
Nature and Scope of Political Science
• In his masterpiece Utopia, (1516), Sir
• Political Science - deals with the study of Thomas More (1468-1535) coined the
the state and government. It is concerned word "utopia" that refers to the ideal,
about politics and policies of the imaginary island nation whose political
government. system he described.
• Father of Political Science: Aristotle Types of societies
Major Subdivisions of Political Science • Pre-industrial societies - During the pre-
industrial society, the main economic
1. Political Theory - focuses on the ideas of activity is food production carried out
classical thinkers, such as Aristotle, through the utilization of human and
Niccolò Machiavelli, Cicero, and Plato animal labor. Particularly, these
among others. societies are subdivided according to
2. Comparative Politics - deals with the their level of technology and their
incisive evaluation and comparison of the METHOD OF SUBSISTENCE – the ways
doctrines of various constitutions, of by which humans apply technology to
political actors, legislature and other allied meet their own needs. These are the
fields. hunting and gathering societies, pastoral
3. Public Administration - focuses on the societies, horticultural societies,
implementation of government policies, agricultural societies, and feudal societies.
the academic disciplines involved and the • Hunting and gathering society
principles governing civil servants working > Nomadic, migrating in search for
in the government. food, water and shelter.
4. International Relations - delve on nation- > Invented the first tools, including
state‘s interactions including simple weapons.
intergovernmental and transnational > Learned how to make use of fire.
organizations. > Lived in clans
5. Law - governs the relationships between > Created cave art
individuals and the government, and the > (In the Philippine context:
relationships of individuals among Hydraulic Societies)
themselves directly affecting society. • Pastoral society
6. Political Methodology - focuses on the > Method of subsistence:
quantitative methods used in the study of Patoralism
politics combining Statistics, Mathematics,
and formal theory. It is often used in

4
 > Depend oon domesticated herd • Cultural and liberal growth economy
of animals to meet their need for • Shift to money-based economy
food.
• Horticultural society Unit 2 – Lesson 2: Culture
> Method of subsistence: raising • Culture is "that complex whole which
fruits and vegetables includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
> Some practice slashand-burn laws, customs and any other capabilities
method or kaingin system. and habits acquired by man as a member
• Agrarian society of society." (Edward B. Tylor)
> Agricultural revolution – • The Cambridge English Dictionary states
technological changes occurred that culture is "the way of life, especially
leading to extensive cultivation of the general customs and beliefs, of a
crops and raising of farm animals. particular group of people at a particular
> Larger population time."
> Trade centers emerged from • What is not cultural? - Even though
greater surplus culture is all about man, it has nothing to
> Degree of social stratification do with his biological characteristics or his
appeared. natural instincts. In all, what culture is not
• Feudal society is that it does not have anything to do with
> Based on ownership of land. nature. The tree, the animals, the sky,
sun, moon, stars are therefore not cultural.
However, once man thinks about nature
and even does things to it, create or alter
it, improve or destroy it, that thought or act
becomes cultural.
Characteristics of culture
• Culture is learned - The different habits,
skills, values and knowledge are acquired
or learned in the course of a person’s life.
This is what we call enculturation, the
acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes,
• Industrial societies - New economic and values that enable men to become
system – CAPITALISM - emerged (15th - active members of their communities.
16th century) that replaced feudalism. • How culture is learned
• Industrial societies which rely heavily on • Through language and symbols
machines powered by fuels in the • formal, informal, and technical
production of goods became dramatically learning
increased and efficient. The increased • Enculturation
efficiency of production of the industrial • Acculturation
revolution produced an even greater • Socialization
surplus than before. Hence, the surplus
was not just agricultural goods but also
manufactured goods.
• Post-industrial societies - More
advanced societies, called post-industrial
societies, dominated by information,
services, and high technology, surfaced.
These hallmarks of these societies were
beyond the production of goods.
Advanced industrial societies are shifting
toward an increase in service sectors over
manufacturing and production. These
service industries have been used in
government, research, education, health,
sales, law, and banking and in almost all
sectors of society.
• Modern society - Products are sold in
markets in large quantities

5
• Culture is transmitted - Culture within a courses of action or decisions he has to
social group is transmitted to succeeding take. Values are a reflection of a person’s
generations through imitation, instruction sense of right and wrong. A person’s
and example. Cultural transmission is values sociologically influence his
the process through which cultural attitudes and behavior.
elements, in the form of attitudes, values, • Norms - Norms are society’s standard
beliefs, and behavioral scripts, are passed of morality, conduct, propriety, ethics,
onto and taught to individuals and groups and legality. Norms vary according to
• Culture is adaptive - All culture changes. age, gender, religion, politics, economics,
Changes in the environment are caused ethnicity, or race of the group.
by inventions and discoveries. Man is • Folkways - Folkways are fairly weak
capable of adjusting to his environment. forms of norms, whose violation is
Adaptation is the process of change in generally not considered serious within a
response to a new environment. It is one particular culture. They are the habits,
component of acculturation, which relates customs, and repetitive patterns of
to the change in a group’s culture or the behavior. (No formal punishment, but
change in individual psychology in disapproval from others)
response to a new environment or other • Ideas - Ideas comprise man’s concepts of
factors. his physical, social and cultural world as
• Culture is gratifying - Culture provides manifested in people’s beliefs and values.
satisfaction for man’s biological and socio- • Knowledge - Knowledge can natural,
cultural needs, foods, clothing, and shelter supernatural, magical or technical. These
and for various relationships with other are the body of facts and beliefs that
individuals and groups. Culture provides people accumulate over time.
proper opportunities for the satisfaction of Perspectives/Approaches in the study of
our needs and desires. culture and society
• Culture is symbolic - Through culture • Symbolic Interactionism - Symbolic
man can communicate with other people interactionism is a theoretical perspective
using language. Symbols must be that examines the way participants in the
understood by all to be an effective tool of socialization choose and agree on the
communication; to allow people to develop meaning of symbols. This perspective
complex thoughts and to exchange those holds that humans are symbol-
thoughts with others. Language and other manipulating and are capable of creative
forms of symbolic communication, like art, behavior.
enable people to create, explain, and • It is a perspective that sees society
record new ideas and information. as the product of shared symbols,
• Main types of culture such as language. The social
world is therefore constructed by
the meanings that individuals
attach to events and social
interactions, and these symbols
are transmitted across the
generations through language.
• Symbolic interaction theory
analyzes society by addressing the
subjective meanings that people
impose on objects, events, and
behaviors.
• Elements of non-material culture • Functionalism - presupposes that every
• Beliefs - Beliefs are man’s perception aspect of society is interdependent and
about the reality of things and are shared contributes to the total functioning of
ideas about how the world and his society. To The government, the school
environment operate. They are reflective and the family are significant social
of highly valued feelings about the world in institutions which proper functioning would
which they live. Beliefs are influenced by make life in the society meaningful and
emotions, attitudes, values, ideology, and productive.
religion. • Conflict Theory - Conflict is another
• Values - Values refer to the broad theoretical perspective, which originated
preferences of person on the appropriate primarily out of Karl Marx's writings on

6
 class struggles, presents society in a 4. Government - Governments have the
different light than do the functionalist and power to make, interpret, and enforce the
symbolic interactionist perspectives. rules and decisions that determine how
Conflict theorists note that unequal groups countries are run. A distinguishing aspect
usually have conflicting values and of culture is the clothing or costume.
agendas, causing them to compete Costume is the distinctive style of dress
against one another. This constant of an individual or group that reflects their
competition between groups forms the class, gender, profession, ethnicity, or
basis for the ever‐changing nature of nationality.
society. 5. Religion - a unified system of beliefs and
practices relative to sacred things. Its
structural features include a body of ideas,
beliefs, doctrines, rituals, and ceremonies.
6. Education - the process of teaching or
learning, is oftentimes associated with a
place or a building where boys and girls
go almost every day carrying books,
notebooks in order to attend classes and
learn from the teachers. (informal, formal,
acculturation, enculturation)

Unit 2 – Lesson 4: Ethnocentrism and

Relativism
The following are the primary causes of
cultural similarities.
1. Biological Similarities - This means that
all people in the world have the same
biological needs, namely food, clothing,
shelter, and health care.
2. Necessary prerequisites for social
• Dramaturgical Perspective - being - Society must fulfil some
Dramaturgical perspective is an requirements in order to function, such as
interactionist perspective that analyzes replacing members, teaching new
human behavior in much the same way members to participate, and the need to
that a person would analyze the have participation in production and
presentation of a play to the audience. distribution.
• Ethnomethology - Ethnomethodology is 3. Physical Unity of Human Kind - All
a socio-cultural perspective which human beings are alike in having similar
emphasizes the process of interaction that ranges of emotion – the need for love,
uses interpersonal techniques to create security, and language.
situational impressions and the 4. Geographical Environment - The
importance of perceptions of consensus geographical environment is characterized
among actors. (ex. “How are you?”, High by certain limitations such as limited food,
five sign) limited source of energy, and other
delimiting factors of the people’s
Unit 2 – Lesson 3: Aspects of Culture environment.
The following are the aspects of culture. The following are the factors attributed to
1. Art - is one aspect of culture that includes cultural diversity.
the expression or application of human 1. Though men all over the world have the
creative skill and imagination. (ex. Art as same biological needs, they differ in ways
reflection of social reality: songs, tattoos, in meeting them. Each culture adapts to
etc.) its environment.
2. Language - a system of communication 2. Differences in geographical characteristics
used by a particular society. (ex. English, like climate, topography, or soil condition.
Language Barrier) 3. The absence or presence of natural
3. Food - is any substance consumed to resources.
provide nutritional support for the body.

7
Orientations in Viewing other Cultures. Biological and Cultural Evolution

1. Ethnocentrism - A feeling of superiority

towards one’s own group over other
groups. This one-sided vision often results
in failing to adequately understand
cultures that are different from one’s own,
and in value judgments of preference and
thought of superiority of one’s in-group.
Thus, ethnocentrism, the extreme
preferential feeling which the individual
has for his own group; that one’s group is
more important than any other.
2. Cultural relativism - a relatively neutral
cultural perspective. This is the principle of
regarding the beliefs, values, and
practices of a culture from the viewpoint of
that culture itself. In sociology, the
principle is sometimes practiced to avoid
cultural bias, as well as to avoid looking
with arrogance at another culture by the
standards of one's own culture.
Importance of Preserving our Filipino Culture
• True Filipino identity and culture will last
• Technological advancements endangered
cultures
• National pride
• Tourism and economy
• Strong international influences (e.g KPOP)

Unit 3 – Lesson 1: Human Biocultural and

Social Evolution
Anthropology
• Anthropology – deals with the study of
the origin, evolution, and development of
the human species and is concerned with
all peoples everywhere, from those alive
today, back to those who lived in the
remote past. It is concerned with many
aspects of life, from the shapes of their
teeth, how they found and produced
food, built their settlements, and how
they reared and educated their children.
• Physical Anthropology – deals with the
biological origins and evolution of man,
and the variations of the human
species and their physical
characteristics, including the study of
the different races. It is also referred
to as biological anthropology.

8
9
 • Creationism: Contrary to Darwin’s
Evolution Theory is the age-old belief
in the Creation Story. According to
Book of Genesis in the Old Testament,
God created the Earth, the firmament
and everything therein. Under the Judeo-
Christian faith and traditions, it asserted
that God literally created man on the sixth
day. And on the seventh day God rested.
There are skeptics, however, who
believed that the creation story was
symbolic. Whichever side one believes is
a matter of religious belief and orientation.

Unit 3 – Lesson 2: Cultural and Socio-

political evolution
EARLY HUMANS AND THEIR CULTURE

• Humans are cultural beings. By culture,

we mean the aggregate of the people’s
ideas, beliefs, traditions, languages, arts,
technology and arts that distinguishes him
from animals.
• Early human societies, through the
development of culture, began the
process of overcoming the limits set by
the physical environment.
1. Paleolithic Era (Old Stone Age)
2. Neolithic Era (New Stone Age)
3. Bronze age

10
 occupational specialization and the
development of writing.
Civilizations in history had the following common
particularities:
1. Intensive agricultural techniques, such
as crop development and irrigation
permitted a surplus of food beyond the
subsistence. This allowed the sustaining
of a group of population in other fields,
such as administration, industry, war,
science or religion, etc.
2. Those not in agriculture constituted
the population of the cities. By time
a government and its bureaucracy in
charge of coordinating the tasks of
production and protecting the whole
community began to concentrate in the
cities.
3. This institutionalized control of
production by a “ruling” class became
more complex in time and other formal
social institutions such as organized
religion, education, permanent army and
markets and money as forms of economic
exchange developed.
RISE-NATION STATE

• The nation-state developed fairly recently.

Prior to the 1500s, in Europe, the nation-
state as we know it did not exist. Back
then, most people did not consider
themselves part of a nation; they rarely
Unit 3 – Lesson 3: Early Civilization, Rise of left their village and knew little of the
State, and Democratization larger world. If anything, people were
more likely to identify themselves with
PROGRESS TOWARDS CIVILIZATION their region or local lord. At the same
• The establishment of a complex form of time, the rulers of states frequently
organization, the state and the had little control over their countries.
development of hierarchical Instead, local feudal lords had a great deal
administrative bureaucracies are the of power, and kings often had to depend
central characteristics of all civilizations. on the goodwill of their subordinates to
The emergence of civilization in human rule. Laws and practices varied a great
history that took place in Mesopotamia, deal from one part of the country to
Egypt, China and India, was another.
characterized by the development of • In the early modern era, a number of
agriculture and sedentary way of life, monarchs began to consolidate power
dated back to about 6,000 years BC. by weakening the feudal nobles and
The characteristics of these early allying themselves with the emerging
civilizations are: food production in commercial classes. This difficult
permanent habitations, processing process sometimes required violence.
metals and other natural sources, a The consolidation of power also took a
division of labor in terms of long time. Kings and queens worked to
bring all the people of their territories

11
 under unified rule. Not surprisingly, then, rules and decisions that determine how
the birth of the nation-state also saw the countries are run. The rules that
first rumblings of nationalism, as governments make encompass a wide
monarchs encouraged their subjects to range of human affairs, including
feel loyalty toward the newly commerce, education, marriage, medical
established nations. The modern, care, employment, military service,
integrated nation-state became clearly religion, travel, scientific research, and
established in most of Europe during the the exchange of ideas.
nineteenth century. • A national government—or, in some
cases, a state or local government—is
DEMOCRATIZATION
usually given responsibility for services
• Democratization is a concept that that individuals or private organizations
encapsulates the expansion of a set of are believed not to be able to perform well
related political ideals with different themselves. The political and economic
intellectual vintages that gain public systems of nations differ in many
prominence during the emergence of ways, including the means of pricing
capitalist modernity. Relatedly, goods and services; the sources of
democratization is also a process in which capital for new ventures; government-
various social groups have made claims regulated limits on profits; the
on the state through protests, riots, collecting, spending, and controlling of
strikes, and lobbies. The discourse of money; and the relationships of
democracy has infused many struggles managers and workers to each other
against monarchical absolutism, working- and to government. The political system
class struggles, and the suffragette of a nation is closely intertwined with its
movement. economic system, refereeing the
• Democratization is a process by which economic activity of individuals and
democracy expands, within a state or groups at every level.
across the world. Democratization, both
Unit 4 – Lesson 1: Becoming a Memberof
as a process and as a concept, draws
Society
on a long history. The intellectual origins
of the concept of democracy stretch back ENCULTURATION & SOCIALIZATION
to Athenian ideals of city governance and
Roman republicanism. During the 1700s • Enculturation is the process by which
the notion that sovereignty lay with the individuals acquire the knowledge, skills,
people, which emerged from ancient attitudes, and values that enable them to
Greece and Rome, became coupled with become functioning members of their
the modern ideologies of the societies. Socialization, on the other
Enlightenment, especially liberalism and hand, is the process whereby the
socialism. The emergence of modern individual‘s behaviour is modified to
nation-states and capitalist social conform to the expectation of the group.
relations created the conditions under
which ideals of citizenship, governmental
accountability, and civil society
established themselves as the common
sense of Europe and later the United
States.
• In most of the world's countries, national
power and authority are allocated to
various individuals and groups through
politics, usually by means of compromises
between conflicting interests. Through
politics, governments are elected or 3 LEVELS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
appointed, or, in some cases, created by
armed force. Governments have the 1. The vegetative level refers to embryo
power to make, interpret, and enforce the and early infancy. This is characterized by

12
 preoccupation with food. The infant grabs 2. Formal sanctions may be in the nature of
things and brings them directly to the getting high academic ratings, awards in
mouth. The main thought of the infant is school, promotion or salary increase for
survival. employees, medals or plaques of honour,
2. The animal level is characterized by certifications of merit.
desires for sex and reproduction. At this
APPLICATION OF SANCTIONS
stage man is no different from animals in
their need for food and sex. At this stage, 1. Physical sanctions: bring physical pain
the socialization of man is incomplete. or pleasure.
3. The human level is considered the 2. Psychological sanctions: address the
attainment of human of a personality. This feelings and emotions of a person. They
implies the assimilation of behavior, can make one feel good or bad. Positive
attitudes, and values the society considers psychological sanctions are found in
necessary and important to the well-being compliments ribbons, badges and awards.
of the group. Negative psychological sanctions are
found in insults and rejection.
SOCIAL NORMS
STATUS AND ROLE
• Social norms are standards of behaviour
which tell whether an action is right or • Status refers to one’s position or place in
wrong; appropriate or not. They represent a social group. It can be ascribed, a
standardized generalizations concerning status that is assigned to an individual
expected modes of behaviour. Among the from birth; or achieved, that which one
norms observed by society include acquires either by choice or by force or
folkways, mores and laws. through some form of competition and
• Folkways are customary ways of doing individual effort.
things which are fairly weak forms of • Role refers to the functional and dynamic
norms, whose violation is generally not aspect of the status. It is the totality of
considered serious within a particular cultural patterns and behaviour expected
culture. They are the habits, customs, and of a particular status.
repetitive patterns of behaviour.
• Mores are special folkways with moral FORMS OF ROLES
and ethical values which are strongly held A. Role as expectation refers to the rights,
and emphasized. These include customs, duties and obligations an individual has
values, and behaviours that are accepted while occupying a status.
by a particular group, culture, etc. Eg. B. Role as performance refers to how the
Cursing in public, drug use, bullying, individual actually behaves while
premarital sex, stealing. occupying the status.
• Laws are formalized norms enacted by C. Role conflict arises when an individual
people vested with authority. These laws encounters conflicting demands from his
reinforce the mores. two or more statuses. This happens when
• Sanctions are penalties or other means in his performance of one role; such would
of enforcement used to provide incentives run counter to another role. (e.g. Student
for obedience with the law, or with rules vs brother, boss vs friend)
and regulations. To ensure that individuals D. Role set refers to the individual’s
conform to the norms or behave in ways repertoire (list) of performances towards
prescribed within society, sanctions are variety of others while he/she occupies a
applied to attain the individual’s conformity given status. (e.g. Professor’s role set)
and acceptance of its norms.
SOCIALIZATION FOR SEX ROLES
FORMS OF SANCTIONS
• Societies categorize their members into
1. Informal sanctions come in unfavourable males and females and each is viewed as
or favourable public opinion, giving or a distinct sex or gender. Gender
withdrawing of support, or gossip. differences are a function of cultural
patterns which prescribe the different

13
 expectations and norms of behavior for 2. Social Disorganization – cultural conflict
boys and girls. suggests that deviant and criminal
• Society makes various types of social behaviour results when two normative
control depending on the situations. In systems come into contact. member
primitive societies beliefs and superstition expectations in one system differ from
are sufficient enough for the control. In those of the other, thus, actions outside
rural areas folkways, norms, beliefs, the dominant normative system appear
customs and traditions are used as means deviant. social disorganization can also
of social control, while in modern occur when adherence to cultural
societies formal agencies like police, expectations do not yield anticipated
army, radio, newspapers, universities are consequences. when the normative
the means. system does not function, an obvious
solution is to work outside the system.
SOCIAL CONTROL AND TYPES OF SOCIAL 3. Labelling – the labelling theory of deviant
CONTROL behaviour suggests that what defines
• Social control is the process whereby deviance is the action of others or by the
society seeks to ensure conformity to the actors themselves. the crucial variable
dominant values and norms in that here is the power of the labeller. if the
society. individual or group is not powerful enough
➢ Positive and negative means: to effectively affix the deviant label on a
The positive means of social person displaying out-of-the-ordinary
control is through praise, prizes, behaviour, then no consequence will likely
fame, respect, and promotion. The to follow.
negative means include criticism, 4. Value Conflict – this theory holds that
gossip, punishment, and acts are considered criminal or deviant
ostracism. because they are at variance with a
➢ Formal and informal control: group’s values. there is also an
Formal control is designed and assumption that what is valued by one
regulated by some authority like group is not valued by another. the
the government which makes laws ultimate determinant then of whether an
to control order. Informal control is act is deviant or crim inal is the orientation
the unwritten rules and regulation or interest of a group that is offering the
characterized by informal authority definition.
like criticism, sociability, and public MODES OF ADAPTATION
opinion.
DEVIANCE

• Deviance is defined as the recognized

violation of cultural norms. When most of
us think of deviant behaviour, we think of
someone who is breaking the law or
acting out in a negative manner. Deviancy,
however, must not be construed in as
always negative. This may be tolerated,
1. Conformist – is a person who accepts both
approved or disapproved. (e.g. Vagrancy)
the societal goals and the
EXPLANATION FOR DEVIANT BEHAVIOR approved means to reach them.
2. Innovator – is a person who seeks to achieve
1. Social pathology – considers deviant goals by means that are not
behaviour as the result of a societal approved by the society.
disease which must be isolated, contained 3. Ritualist – is a person who follows the norms
and treated. Biological pathology to the letter but reject or
maintains that deviance results from abandon the hope of achieving societal goals.
actual physical illness, malfunctions or 4. Retreatist – is a person who rejects both the
deformities. societal goals and

14
institutionalized means to achieve them. • Every member of the society deserves
5. Rebel – is a person who rejects both the human dignity. Human dignity refers to
societal goals and the means to an individual or group's sense of self-
achieve them; instead he substitutes them with respect and self-worth, physical and
new goals and new means to achieve psychological integrity and empowerment.
them. Moral, ethical, legal, and political
discussions use the concept of dignity to
CITIZENSHIP
express the idea that every person has an
• Citizenship has been defined as innate right to be valued, respected, and
“membership in a political community to receive ethical treatment.
which is personal and more or less
WHAT MAKES A GOOD CITIZEN?
permanent in character.” It is the status
or character of being a citizen. And a 1. As citizens we always think of the
citizen of a given state or country is one promotion of the common good or general
who owes it permanent allegiance and is welfare.
entitled to its protection on the basis of the 2. A responsible citizen promotes the
legal and political conception of common good by obeying the law, paying
citizenship. Thus, being a citizen taxes honestly, informing himself about
necessarily entails assertion of one’s important political issues, volunteering in
rights and privileges and conversely an the community and respecting the rights
unwavering performance of his duties and and opinions of others.
obligations to the government. 3. A responsible citizen is willing to sacrifice
• Jus soli is the most common means a his individual interests for the collective
person acquires citizenship of a nation. good of the nation. He remembers his
Another system called jus sanguinis is civic duties and serves his country despite
when a person acquires citizenship any discomfort such a course might bring.
through their parents or ancestors. 4. Responsible citizens obey the law. A
harmonious society has order. Every
RIGHTS AS A CITIZEN (UNDER THE citizen implicitly consents to maintaining
CONSTITUTION) social order by upholding the law even
• The constitution recognizes the human when he does not like it. If he believes that
rights of every citizen as enumerated in a law is unfair, he resorts to the political
the bill of rights. These include natural process to change the law in the manner
rights, civil rights, political rights, economic society prescribes.
rights as well as rights of the accused 5. Good citizens are familiar with politics and
before, during and after trial. keep the government accountable by
• Human rights are rights inherent to all staying on top of its latest proceedings.
human beings, whatever our nationality, They wisely exercise their right vote so
place of residence, sex, national or ethnic that able, honest men are elected to seats
origin, colour, religion, language, or any in government.
other status. These rights are all 6. Responsible citizens volunteer in the
interrelated, interdependent and community and when they see a need,
indivisible. they do not idly wait for someone else (like
• Universal human rights are often the government) to address it.
expressed and guaranteed by law, in the 7. Responsible citizens respect the rights
forms of treaties, customary international and opinions of others and do not use
law, general principles and other sources force or abuse government to silence
of international law. International human people who have different views because
rights law lays down obligations of such actions subvert a free society. =
governments to act in certain ways or to 8. Responsible citizens listen to others with
refrain from certain acts, in order to sincerity and work with fellow citizens to
promote and protect human rights and find the best solution to problems.
fundamental freedoms of individuals or
groups.

15