Motion

Linear Motion
Some Basics − Rest and Motion

To identify whether a body is at rest or in

motion, we must first define a frame of reference or a reference point.

A frame of reference is a set of geometrical axes in space with respect to which the
position, velocity, acceleration, etc., of a body is determined.

A reference point is a fixed point in space with respect to which the relative position or
distance of an object is ascertained.

The man shown in the figure is in motion with respect to the tree, street lamp, house, and
car.

A body which is not moving with respect to a frame of reference or a reference point, with
progressing time, is said to be at rest.

A body which is moving with respect to a frame of reference or a reference point, with
progressing time, is said to be in motion.

Rest and Motion − Relative Quantities

Everything in the universe is in motion. Think of the place where we live. We see many
things around us to be at rest. Now, think of the planet Earth and the sun. Earth moves
around the sun; so, we and the things around us on Earth also move around the sun. This
implies that we are not at rest but in constant motion. Thus, standing on Earth, if we
consider the planet to be at rest, then we see the trees, electric poles, buildings, mountains,
etc., also to be at rest. However, if we consider the sun to be fixed, then Earth and
everything on it is in motion around the sun. As a matter of fact, there is no perfectly static
thing in the universe. Earth moves around the sun; the sun moves around its barycentre;
the galaxy rotates and revolves; and everything in the universe moves.

Now, let us consider absolute rest or motion. Absolute rest or motion is physically
impossible for a body. To be at absolute rest, a body must be at rest with respect to every
object in the universe. However, such a frame of reference has never been detected.
Famous experiments like the Michelson−Morley experiment have sought to do so without
any success. Consequently, science does not accept the concept of absolute rest or motion.

Since there can be no absolute rest or motion, we can say that the states of rest and motion
are relative in the universe.

We cannot perceive Earth’s motion around the sun because: All the objects on Earth,
including the atmosphere, are in motion along with the planet. So, it is not possible to perceive
Earth’s motion while staying on it.

Whiz Kid

What do you understand by the term ‘system of reference’?

It is a system of measurement for locating the positions of bodies in space with respect to
an observer (or origin). In daily life, we become conscious of the motion of an object with
respect to ourselves and other stationary objects. If the object maintains its position with
respect to us, we say that the object is at rest; otherwise, we say that the object is moving.

In our daily observations, we assume Earth to be stationary. Therefore, we also assume

that the object whose position does not change on Earth is also stationary. The fact,
however, is otherwise. All objects on Earth move around the sun along with the planet at a
very high speed—at a speed faster than the fastest aeroplane that mankind has ever
developed. Earth moves around the sun at a speed of about 30 km/s (≈ 30000 m/s ≈
100000 km/h), i.e., about hundred times faster than an aeroplane and about thousand
times faster than an average car.

Earth moves around the sun An aeroplane flies at a speed that is hundred
at a very fast speed. times slower than Earth’s speed.
So, if we assume our origin to be on Earth, such that our system of reference moves along
with it, then we can presume an object whose position does not change on Earth to be
stationary. However, if our system of reference is outside Earth, then the planet and all its
objects are observed to be in motion.
Concepts of Distance and Displacement

Whenever a body moves, it covers a distance. The straight line that joins the initial and
final positions of the body is called its displacement.

Distance is the length of the path travelled by a body while moving from an initial position to
a final position. It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is metre (m).

Displacement is the shortest distance between the initial and final positions of the body. It is a
vector quantity. Its SI unit is also metre (m).

In displacement, the direction of motion is always directed from the initial position toward
the final position.

For a straight-line motion, the distance travelled and the displacement are equal in
magnitude.

Concepts of Distance and Displacement

 In the science class, the teacher walks back and forth while discussing a
problem in physics. He walks 5 m toward the students, turns around and then returns to
his initial point. Then he walks 2.5 m toward his left and stops to answer a query from a
student. What is the total distance covered by the teacher and his displacement from the
point where he turns around?

The teacher walks from A to B, turns around and then walks back to A. Then, he walks from
A to C.

So, total distance covered = AB + BA + AC = 5 m + 5 m + 2.5 m = 12.5 m

The teacher turns around at B. So, we need his displacement from B to C. BC is the
hypotenuse of the right triangle BAC.

So: BC2 = AB2 + AC2

=> BC2 = 52 + 2.52 => BC2 = 31.25 => ∴ BC = 5.6 m

Know More

Displacement and Position Vector

The concept of displacement can be mathematically understood with the help of the
concept of position vector.

Draw a reference frame with two axes on a paper and consider an ant to be moving from
point P to point Q.

Distance and Displacement − Differences

Distance Displacement

1. Displacement is the straight-line

1. Distance is the length of the path
distance between the initial and final
travelled.
positions.

2. Distance is a scalar quantity. It has 2. Displacement is a vector quantity. It has

only magnitude. both magnitude and direction.

3. Distance is always positive. Its 3. Displacement can be positive, negative

minimum value can be zero. or zero.
 4. Distances can be added
4. The net displacement is a vector
algebraically to find the total distance
addition of individual displacements.
travelled.

5. Whenever there is a linear motion, 5. A body may undergo a linear motion

there is a distance travelled. without any displacement.

Quick Question

Question: Displacement can be both positive and negative, but distance can be positive
only. Why?

Solution: Displacement is a vector quantity. A vector quantity has both magnitude and
direction. Magnitude is always a positive quantity, but direction can be positive or negative
depending on the reference point or coordinate system. Suppose two bodies are moving
opposite to each other with respect to a reference point. In this case, the displacement of
one is taken as negative and that of the other is taken as positive, with respect to the
reference point.

Let us consider a coordinate system, with X and Y as the axes and O as the origin. The part
of the X-axis toward the right of the origin is taken as positive. The part of the X-axis
toward the left of the origin is taken as negative.

Suppose we have two particles at points P and Q, displaced from their initial position O (as
shown in the diagram). rl and r2 are the respective distances of P and Q from O.

Thus, the sense of direction makes displacement both positive and negative.
Distance, on the other hand, is a scalar quantity; so, it has only magnitude. To calculate
distance, we simply measure the length from a reference point (like O in the figure). The
sense of direction is not necessary. Thus, distance is always positive.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1:Raju walks on a track with junctions A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

What are the magnitudes of the distance travelled and displacement as Raju moves
from:

(i) A to B: Distance = ______ cm ; Displacement = ______ cm

(ii) A to C: Distance = ______ cm ; Displacement = ______ cm

(iii) A to D: Distance = ______ cm ; Displacement = ______ cm

Solution:
Medium

Example 2: Raju walks on a track with junctions A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

What are the magnitudes of the distance travelled and displacement as Raju moves
from:
(i) B to E: Distance = ______ cm ; Displacement = ______ cm

(ii) B to G: Distance = ______ cm ; Displacement = ______ cm

(iii) B to H: Distance = ______ cm ; Displacement = ______ cm

Solution:

Hard
Example 3: Raju walks on a track with junctions A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

Types of Motion

Motion can be broadly classified into three main categories: translatory motion, rotational
motion and periodic motion

Falling of an apple A bead on a circular track An oscillating bob

Translatory motion is the motion of a particle in a straight line. A bus travelling on a straight
road and an apple falling from a tree are examples of this kind of motion.

Rotational motion refers to the motion of a body around a fixed axis. A spinning top, a bead
moving on a circular track and Earth’s rotation are examples of this kind of motion.

The combination of translatory and rotational motion is called rolling motion. The motion
of the wheels of a car moving along the road is an example of rolling motion.

Periodic motion refers to the motion that is repeated in a regular interval of time. An
oscillating spring and the motion of a planet around the sun illustrate this type of motion.

Know MoreThe simplest kind of periodic motion (to and fro or back and forth movement)
about a mean position, under the influence of a restoring force that is directly proportional
to the displacement from the mean position, is called a Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).
Types of Motion

Linear Motion: The word ‘linear’ means ‘straight’ and the word ‘motion’ means ‘change in
position with respect to a frame of reference’. So, a body moving in a straight line with
respect to a frame of reference is said to be in linear motion. An example of this is the motion
of an ant on a straight wire.
 Points to remember regarding linear motion:

 In linear motion, the object must move in a straight line.

 The motion of the object along the straight line may not be uniform.

Uniform motion: If a body covers equal distances along a straight line in regular intervals
of time, then the motion is said to be uniform. Examples:

1. A ball pushed in free space will continue to move uniformly, covering equal distances in
equal intervals of time along a straight path.
2. If an ant covers equal distances in equal intervals of time along a straight wire, its motion is
uniform.

Non-uniform motion:If a body covers unequal distances in regular intervals of time, then
the motion is said to be non-uniform.Examples:

The ball takes a curved path when thrown. Its direction of motion changes with time. Also,
it covers unequal distances in regular intervals of time. So, its motion is non-uniform.

The ant is moving on a circular wire. It is travelling equal distances in equal intervals of
time, but its direction of motion is not constant. So, its motion is non-uniform.

Types of Motion
The distance−time graph of a body moving uniformly is a straight line.

Suppose a girl is riding a bicycle. The given table lists the data related to her motion.

Time (in Distance (in

seconds) metres)
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10

On plotting these points, the distance−time graph turns out to be a straight line (as shown
in the figure). Hence, the girl’s motion is uniform.

Types of Motion

Let us assume that a car is moving in such a manner that the

distance covered by it in every consecutive second increases by 2 m. The given table lists
the data related to the motion of the car:

Time (in seconds) Distance (in

metres)
 1 2
2 6
3 12
4 20
5 30

What can you say about this motion? Is it uniform or non-uniform?

On plotting these points, the distance−time graph turns out to be a curved line (as shown in
the figure). Hence, the motion of the car is non-uniform.

Thus, we can conclude that the distance versus time graph of a body moving in non-
uniform motion can never be a straight line.

Whiz Kid

The table below shows the distances travelled by four cars after each minute from the start
of a race.

Time Car A Car B Car C Car D

(in min) (in m) (in m) (in m) (in m)

1 1020 1030 1050 1040

2 2040 2040 2090 2080

3 3060 3070 3120 3120

4 4080 4090 4130 4160

5 5100 5120 5150 5200

Can you determine which cars are travelling with uniform motion and which are travelling
with non-uniform motion?

Know More
Concept of Position Vector: The vector that represents the position of a point with respect
to the origin of a frame of reference is called the position vector. In the given figure, OX and
OY are the axes of the frame of reference, with O as the origin.

Speed and velocity

Speed: An Overview

‘Speed up!’ is perhaps what you

think when you are driving with your parents on a traffic-free road. You note how the
reading in the speedodometer has changed since you started the journey. You stare at the
speedometer to get an idea of the speed at which you are progressing. But the reading on it
hardly ever stabilizes! It keeps rising and falling instead. Why do you think this happens?
What if you want to find out at the end of your journey just how quickly you completed it?
Will the speedometer help you to do that? Also, what about the velocity of the car? How is it
different from its speed? Go through this lesson and find the answers to these queries.
We use the term ‘speed’ in our daily life to describe how fast a body moves.
The distance covered with progressing time gives us the value of speed.

Speed is defined as the rate of distance covered by a body.

Mathematically, speed is given as:

Average Speed

A body travelling from one location to another might stop, slow down, speed up or move at
a constant speed.

The average speed of a body is defined as the total distance travelled divided by the total time
taken.

Mathematically, average speed is given as:

Instantaneous Speed

While travelling in a car in heavy traffic, you might have noticed the fluctuation of the
speedometer. The speedometer gives the speed of the car at every instant of the journey.
The speed of an object at any instant of its journey is called instantaneous speed.

Study Tip:

If the units of distance and time are known in kilometre and hour respectively, then the
unit of speed obtained will be km/h.

If the units of distance and time are known in metre and second respectively, then the unit
of speed obtained will be m/s.

Did You Know?

The maximum speed that can be attained by a body is the speed of light. The speed of light
is
3 × 108 m/s. If you are travelling at this speed, then it will take you just about eight and a
half minutes to reach the sun from Earth.

Know More

Average speed Instantaneous speed

1. Average speed is the total distance

1. Instantaneous speed is the speed at
covered divided by the total time
any instant during the course of motion.
taken.

2. Average speed is always a non-zero

2. Instantaneous speed can be zero at
positive value whenever there is a
any instant during the course of motion.
motion.
In our daily life, whenever we use the term ‘speed’, we generally mean ‘instantaneous
speed’.

Velocity and Average Velocity

When we include the direction of motion with speed, we are talking of the physical quantity
called velocity. Thus, velocity is speed with direction. Velocity is defined as the rate of
change of displacement . It is a vector quantity.

A body moving from one point to another may change its velocity a number of times, but it
will have an average velocity of its journey. Average velocity of a body is defined as the
net displacement divided by the total time of travel. It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is
m/s and it can be positive, negative or zero.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1:A car moves the first 20 km of a journey at a speed of 40 km/hr, and the
next 20 km at a speed of 60 km/hr. What is the average speed of the car?

Solution:
Example 2: A toy car moves in a straight line, away from a child playing with it. It
moves 116 m in 14 s. Due to some internal circuitry problem, the car turns abruptly
and moves halfway back in 4.8 s.

(i) What is the average speed of the toy car?

(ii) What is average velocity of the toy car away from the child?

Solution:

Medium

Example 3: A car moves 3 km east and then 4 km south. The total time taken by the
car is 30 min. What is the velocity of the car in m/s? What is its speed?

Solution:
The path taken by the car is depicted in the figure.

The displacement of the car is along AC. Since ABC is a right triangle, we can use Pythagoras
theorem to find AC.

AC2 = AB2 + BC2

Here, AB = 3 km

BC = 4 km

Hence, AC2 = 32 + 42

⇒ AC2 = 9 + 16

⇒ AC2 = 25

⇒ ∴ AC = 5 km

Time taken by the car = 30 min = (30 × 60) s

The velocity of the car is given as:

Therefore, the velocity of the car is 2.78 m/s toward southeast.

Total distance travelled by the car = 3 + 4 = 7 km

The speed of the car is given as:

Example 4: A private plane travels 1937.5 mi at a speed of 493.75 mi/h. It encounters
a tailwind that increases its speed to 618.75 mi/h for the next 1750 mi. (1 mi = 1.6
km)

(i) What is the total time of the trip?

(ii) What is the average speed of the trip?

Solution:

We know that 1 mile = 1.6 km.

Hard

Example 5: Rohit drives home from his friend’s home at a constant speed of 95 km/h
for 130 km. As it begins to rain heavily, he is forced to slow down to 65 km/h. He
arrives home after driving for 3 hours and 20 minutes.

(i) How far is Rohit’s home from that of his friend?

(ii) What is Rohit’s average speed?

Solution:
Acceleration
Acceleration: an Overview

‘Please fasten your seat belt...’ is what the cabin crew tells us when the plane is about to
take off or land. In each of these situations, there is a change in the velocity of the plane
and our body can sense this change. Consequently, we move backward (in case of a takeoff)
or forward (in case of a landing).This is also the case when the driver of the school bus
presses the accelerator or the brake. We tend to move forward or backward as our body
senses the change in the velocity of the vehicle. Let us learn how this change is measured.

Did You Know?

The human body cannot sense velocity or speed, but it can sense acceleration. In other
words, the human body acts as an accelerometer, and not as a speedometer.

If any vehicle is moving at a constant velocity, then the person or persons travelling in it do
not have any resultant bodily movement. As a result, the motion of the vehicle cannot be
sensed. However, if the velocity of the vehicle changes, then the travellers can sense this
change and thereby sense the motion of the vehicle.

Acceleration

Whenever there is a change in velocity, there is acceleration. A motion is said to be

accelerated when there is a change in speed or change in direction of motion or change in
both speed and direction.

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

It is a vector quantity and its direction is given by the direction of the force causing the
acceleration. Its SI unit is m/s2. Mathematically, acceleration is given as:

Suppose the velocity of a car

is u at time t1. Later, at time t2, its velocity becomes v.

Change in velocity = (v − u), time interval = t2 − t1

Uniform Acceleration and Non-Uniform Acceleration

Force is the cause of acceleration of a body. The direction of force gives the direction of the
acceleration induced by it. Depending on the force, the acceleration may increase or
decrease the velocity of a body. Acceleration can be positive, negative or zero. Depending
on the rate of change of velocity, the acceleration may be constant or may be a variable
quantity. So, we can have uniform acceleration or non-uniform acceleration.

If the rate of change of velocity remains constant, then the acceleration is uniform. Examples
of uniform acceleration include a ball under free fall, a ball rolling on an inclined plane and
a car accelerating on a straight, traffic-free road.
If the rate of change of velocity changes with time, then the acceleration is non-uniform.An
example of non-uniform acceleration is a car accelerating on a straight road with traffic.

The acceleration is positive when the velocity of the moving body increases with time and
in the direction of velocity.
When the acceleration is such that the velocity of the moving body decreases, it is called
deceleration or retardation. Deceleration or retardation is the rate of decrease in velocity.
In this case, the acceleration is negative and in the opposite direction of velocity.
The acceleration of a body is considered to be zero when the velocity of the moving body
does not change.

SI Unit of Acceleration

We know that the SI units of velocity and time are m/s and s respectively.

Let us determine the SI unit of acceleration.

Acceleration is defined as follows:

Did You Know?

Suppose a body is moving in a circular path at a constant speed. Its velocity will change at
every instant of time because of a change in its direction. Therefore, this body is said to be
moving under acceleration.

Equations of motion:

Equations of motion are derived from the relation between the velocity, time, distance and
the acceleration. These equations are very helpful in determining the values of these
quantities.
where s = distance, u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, t = time and a = acceleration

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: A car accelerates to a speed of 95 km/h from rest in 6.2 s. What is the
acceleration in
SI unit?

Solution:

Medium

Example 2: A bike accelerates at 2.5 m/s2 for 10 s. What should be the initial velocity
of the bike if after 20 s from the start its velocity is 50 m/s?

Solution:
Hard

Example 3: A man driving a car on a straight road travels at a constant speed for ten
seconds till he reaches the traffic point. Here, he applies brakes for five seconds to
reduce the speed of the car to one-fourth the initial value. After crossing the traffic
point, he keeps driving at the same slow speed due to traffic and covers a quarter of a
kilometre in twenty seconds.

(i) What is the initial velocity of the car before the application of the brakes?

(ii) What is the final velocity of the car after the application of the brakes?

(iii) What is the acceleration of the car?

(iv) What is the total distance covered by the car during constant velocities?

Solution:
Distance-Time and Velocity-Time Graph

Distance−Time Graph

The given table lists the distances travelled by a

ball in specific time intervals.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time

(s)
 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Distance

(m)

The positions of the ball at different time

intervals are shown in the figure.

It is clear that the ball covers equal distances in equal time intervals. Hence, the motion of
the ball is uniform.

We have plotted a distance−time graph to represent the nature of motion of the ball. The
general convention while drawing such a graph is to take ‘time’ along the x-axis and
‘distance’ along the y-axis.

It is clear that for a uniform motion, the distance−time graph is a straight line.

Distance−Time Graph Significance

The distance−time graph of a moving body helps us ascertain whether the motion is
uniform or non-uniform. It also helps us determine the speed of the
body. Let us consider the same distance−time
graph of the ball.

Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

We have marked the points A (8, 20), B (8, 0) and C (0, 20) on the graph.

Thus, we have found that the ball is moving uniformly at a speed of 2.5 m/s.

Velocity−Time Graph

Graphical representation is the easiest and most convenient way to describe a motion. The
graphical representation of the change in velocity of a moving body in equal time intervals
is known as the velocity−time graph.
The following table lists the velocities of a car in specific time intervals. We have plotted a
velocity−time graph using this information

Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Velocity (m/s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

The acceleration of the car can be computed from the slope of the velocity−time graph. In
case of zero acceleration, the graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis.

We know that,

Displacement = Velocity × Time

So, the area under the velocity−time graph, on the time axis, gives the net displacement of
the car in a given interval of time. For example, the displacement of the car in the first four
seconds is given as:

Displacement = Area under the velocity - time graph.

Acceleration−Time Graph
The acceleration−time graph gives us a clear idea about the acceleration and deceleration
of a moving body.

The given graph shows a car accelerating at first, and then decelerating.

The straight line on the positive side of acceleration axis tells us that the car is accelerating
uniformly.

The straight line on the negative side of acceleration axis tells us that the car is decelerating
uniformly.

In case of zero acceleration, the graph coincides with the time axis.

You must know that time can never be negative for any type of motion. Therefore,
acceleration can only be negative when the velocity is decreasing.

We know that: Velocity = Acceleration × Time

So, the area under the acceleration−time graph, on the time axis, gives the velocity of the
moving object.

First Equation of Motion

Velocity−Time Relation

Suppose a body is moving under a uniform acceleration in a given time interval. We can
relate the change in the velocity of the moving body with the acceleration and time taken
by using the one-dimensional velocity-time equation.

The velocity-time equation can be used for obtaining the final velocity, after time t, of a
uniformly accelerating body.
Velocity−Time relation through the graphical method

Suppose a body is moving in a straight line, with an initial velocity u and under a uniform
acceleration a. Its velocity becomes v after time t. The motion of this body is represented by
the given velocity-time graph.

We can obtain the velocity-time equation if the velocities of a body (u and v) at

times t1 and t2 are given, as shown in the velocity-time graph.

Initial velocity, u = MQ

Final velocity, v = NP

Time taken, t = QP = (t2 − t1)

Acceleration, a = Slope of line MN = NT/ MT = (NP - TP)/ (OP - OQ)

It is clear from the graph that TP = MQ

So, a = (v - u)/ t2 - t1

or, a (t2 - t1) = v- u or, v = u + a (t2 - t1)

For initial time t1 = 0, the equation reduces to: v = u + a t2 or v = u + at (as t2 = t)

This is the first equation of kinematics and it is independent of the distance travelled. It is
also known as the first equation of motion.

Solved Examples

Easy
Example 1: On spotting a prey, a cheetah runs directly towards it with constant
acceleration. The time taken by the cheetah is 50 s and its velocity, as it catches its
prey, is 25 m/s. If we assume that the cheetah was initially at rest, then what is its
acceleration?

Solution:

It is given that:

Initial velocity (u) of the cheetah = 0

Its final velocity, v = 25 m/s

Time taken (t) by it to catch its prey= 50 s

We can determine the acceleration (a) of the cheetah using the relation:

Medium

Example 2: A motorcyclist is travelling at a constant velocity of 10 m/s. In order to

overtake a car, he accelerates at the rate of 0.2 m/s2. If he overtakes the car in 60
seconds, then what is his velocity while overtaking?

Solution:

It is given that:

Initial velocity (u) of the motorcyclist = 10 m/s

His acceleration, a = 0.2 m/s2

Time taken (t) by him to overtake the car = 60 s

Using the first equation of motion, we can compute the velocity (v) of the motorcyclist
while overtaking the car.

v = u + at

⇒ v = 10 + 0.2 × 60
⇒ v = 10 + 12

⇒ ∴ v = 22 m/s

Hard

Example 3:

A train is moving under a constant acceleration of 150 km/h2. It attains a velocity of

125 km/h in half-hour. What is the initial velocity of the train in SI unit?

Solution:

It is given that:

Final velocity (v) of the train= 125 km/h

Time taken (t) by it to attain the above velocity= 0.5 h

Its acceleration (a) = 150 km/h2

Using the first equation of motion, we can compute the initial velocity (u) of the train.

v = u + at

⇒ u = v − at

⇒ u = 125 − 150 × 0.5

⇒ u = 125− 75

⇒ ∴ u = 50 km/h

Therefore, the initial velocity of the train is 13.89 m/s.

Second Equation of Motion

Position−Time Relation

Suppose a body moving under a uniform acceleration

covers a certain distance

in a given time interval. We can relate the change in the velocity
of the moving body with the acceleration, distance covered and time taken by using the
one-dimensional position−time equation.The position−time equation is used to obtain the
distance travelled by a uniformly accelerating body in a given interval of time.

Suppose a body is moving in a straight line, with an initial velocity u and under a uniform
acceleration a. The distance covered by the moving body from time t1 to time t2 is
represented in the given velocity−time graph.

It is clear from the graph that:

Initial velocity, u = MQ = TP

Time, t = PQ = (t2 − t1) = MT

Change in velocity, NT = a (t2 − t1)

Distance, s = Area of trapezium QMNP

= Area of rectangle QMTP + Area of triangle MTN

= (MQ × QP) + ( × NT × MT)

= [u × (t2 − t1)] + × a (t2 − t1) × (t2 − t1)

∴ s = u (t2 − t1) + a (t2 − t1)2

For t1 = 0 and t2 = t, the equation reduces to:

s = ut + at2

This is the second equation of kinematics or the second equation of motion.

Average Velocity for Uniformly Accelerated Motion

We can obtain the relation for average velocity using the velocity−time and position−time
equations.

The velocity−time equation is given as:

v = u + at

The position−time equation is given as:

s = ut + at2

⇒ =u+ at

⇒ =

⇒ (Using v = u + at)
 ∴Average velocity (vav) =

Did You Know?

If the acceleration is zero, then the second equation of motion denotes the distance
travelled as the product of the initial velocity and time.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: A motorcyclist is travelling at a constant velocity of 10 m/s. He overtakes

a car by accelerating at the rate of 0.2 m/s2. If he overtakes the car in 60 s, then how
much distance does he cover before overtaking the car?

Solution:

It is given that:

Initial velocity (u) of the motorcyclist = 10 m/s

His acceleration, a = 0.2 m/s2

Time taken (t) by him to overtake the car = 60 s

Using the second equation of motion, we can compute the distance covered (s) by the
motorcyclist before overtaking the car.
Medium

Example 2: A train moving at a speed of 180 km/h comes to a stop at a constant

acceleration in 15 min after covering a distance of 25 km. What is its acceleration?

Solution: It is given that:

Initial velocity (u) of the train = 180 km/h

Distance covered (s) by it = 25 km

Time taken (t) by it to cover the above distance = 15 min = 0.25 h

Using the second equation of motion, we can compute the acceleration (a) of the train.

Hence, the train is retarding at a rate of 640 km/h2. Note that since the speed of the train is
decreasing, the acceleration comes out to be negative.

Hard
Example 3: Brakes are applied on a car moving at a velocity of 72 km/h. It
decelerates uniformly at the rate of 4 m/s2 until it stops after 5 s. How far does the
car go before it stops?

Solution: It is given that:

Initial velocity (u) of the car = 72 km/h

= 72 ×

= 20 m/s

Its acceleration, a = −4 m/s2 (since the car decelerates)

Time taken (t) by it to stop = 5 s

Using the second equation of motion, we can compute the distance covered (s) by the car
before stopping.

s = ut + at2

⇒ s = 20 × 5 + × (−4) × (5)2

⇒ s = 100 − 50

∴ s = 50 m

Third Equation of Motion

Position−Velocity Relation
 Suppose a body is moving in a straight
line, with an initial velocity u and under a uniform
acceleration a. Its velocity becomes v after time t and it covers a distance s in the given time
interval. The motion of this body is represented in the given velocity−time graph.

It is clear from the graph that:

Initial velocity, u = MO = QP

Final velocity, v = OR = NP

The straight line MN represents the velocity−time curve.

Distance (s) covered by the body = Area of trapezium OMNP

× (OM + PN) × OP × (u + v) × t

∴s= (u + v) t … (i)

Now, let us eliminate time t from this equation.

The velocity-time equation is given as:

v = u + at

… (ii)

On substituting the value of t from equation (ii) in equation (i), we obtain:

s= × (u + v) ×

This is the third equation of kinematics. It is independent of time. It is also known as the
third equation of motion.

Deriving the Second Equation of Motion

The third equation of motion is given as:

v2 = u2 + 2as … (i)

The first equation of motion is given as:

v = u + at … (ii)

On eliminating velocity v from equation (i) with the help of equation (ii), we obtain:

(u + at)2 = u2 + 2as

⇒ u2 + 2uat + a2t2 = u2 + 2as

⇒ 2uat + a2t2 = 2as

⇒s= (2uat + a2t2)

⇒ s = ut + at2 … (iii)

This is the second equation of motion.

Solved Examples

Easy
Example 1:On applying the brakes, a cyclist travelling initially at 2 m/s comes to a
halt at a constant retardation of 2 m/s2. How much distance does the cyclist cover
before coming to rest?

Solution: It is given that:

Initial velocity (u) of the cyclist = 2 m/s

His final velocity, v = 0

His acceleration, a = −2 m/s2 (since he is decelerating)

Using the third equation of motion, we can compute the distance covered (s) by the cyclist
before stopping.

Medium

Example 2: A car covers 40 m in 8.5 s while applying brakes to a final speed of 2.8
m/s.

(i) What is the initial speed of the car?

(ii) What is its acceleration?

Solution:
Hard
Example 3: When the brakes are applied, a racing car stops within 0.0229 of a mile
from a speed of
60 mi/h and within 0.0399 of a mile from a speed of 80 mi/h.

(i) What is the braking acceleration of the car for 60 mi/h to rest?

(ii) What is its braking acceleration for 80 mi/h to rest?

(iii) What is its braking acceleration for 80 mi/h to 60 mi/h?

Solution:
Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform Circular Motion: An Overview

Circular motion is all around us. It is there in the English nursery rhyme ‘Here We Go
Round the Mulberry Bush’. It is there when you go round and round an endless circle on a
merry-go-round. It is there when you rotate a string with a ball tied to it. How many real-
life examples of this motion can you think of in a minute? Make a list.

Now, let us learn the physics of circular motion.

Motion in a Closed Path and Circular Motion

When a body moves in a closed path, its final position is the same as its initial position. Let
us consider some closed paths and an object moving on each of them at a constant speed.
 The object is moving at a The object is moving The object is moving The object is
constant speed on a at a constant speed at a constant speed on moving at a
rectangular path, along on a hexagonal path, an octagonal path, constant speed on
the edges MN, NO, OP along the edges MN, along the edges MN, a circular path. Its
and PM. During one NO, OP, PQ, QR and NO, OP, PQ, QR, RS, ST direction of
round, the object RM. During one and TM. During one motion changes at
changes its direction of round, the object round, the object every point on the
motion four times at the changes its changes its direction path. The path can
corners N, O, P and M. direction of motion of motion eight times be considered as a
six times at the at the corners N, O, P, polynomial with
corners N, O, P, Q, R Q, R, S, T and M. an infinite number
and M. of sides.

Uniform Circular Motion

When a body moves along a circular arc or a circle, it is said to be in circular motion.

What is the kind of closed path that you trace every day, right from leaving the bed in the
morning to going to bed at night?

In uniform motion

, the velocity of the moving body remains constant. In circular motion, the velocity
can never be constant, but the speed of the moving body can be constant.

A body moving in a circular path at a constant speed is said to be in uniform circular motion.

Take a string with a ball tied at one end and rotate it. As you rotate the string, the ball
traces a circular path in the air (as shown in the figure).
Let the speed of rotation of the ball be v.

Circular Motion: Velocity at Any Instant

We know that the velocity of a body in circular motion changes at every instant. For one
complete rotation, the average velocity is zero. This is because the displacement is zero.
However, the body will have some finite instantaneous velocity at every instant.

The velocity of a body in a circular path is always tangential to the path and is perpendicular
to the radius of the circle.
Consider once again the string with the ball tied to it. Suppose the boy loose grip of string.
The stone with string will be free from boy's hand and leave the circular path tangentially.
This happens because the tension in string—provided by the centripetal force required for
the revolution—vanishes when the string flies off.

Circular Motion: Velocity at Any Instant

What would happen if Earth were to stop rotating about its axis all of a sudden?

At the equator, Earth rotates about its axis at the speed of 1674.4 km/h. We cannot feel this
rotation because we, too, move with Earth at the same rate. Now, if Earth were to suddenly
stopped spinning, everything on its surface at the equator would suddenly move at more
than 1600 km/hour tangentially. The escape velocity of Earth is around 40000 km/h, so
these things would not fly off into outer space; however, the speed is high enough to project
the things to about 11 km from Earth’s surface. This would result in serious damage.

When a body of mass m revolves with a uniform speed v on a circular path of

radius r, the work done by the body in one complete rotation is zero. Why?

Work is the scalar product of force and displacement. In one complete rotation, the
displacement is zero. So, the work done by the force is also zero.

Circular Motion: Forces

Circular motion is an accelerated motion. The velocity of a body in circular motion changes
at every instant. The force that keeps the body in the circular path is called the centripetal
force.

The force that acts radially inward and keeps the moving body in a circular path is called
centripetal force.

The centripetal force acts on the body toward the

centre. Why then does the body not leave its
circular path and move toward the centre?
The answer lies in the nature of motion of the body. Circular motion is an accelerated
motion. For Newton’s laws to be applicable in such motion, a fictitious force is introduced.
A fictitious force is a force that doesn’t exist in reality. This force is the centrifugal force. In
circular motion, the centrifugal force is always directed opposite to the centripetal force
and is equivalent to the magnitude of the centripetal force. Thus, the centripetal force is
balanced by the centrifugal force. This is the reason why the moon doesn’t fall down to
Earth.

Centrifugal force is the fictitious outward force experienced by a body in circular path. The
magnitude of this force is always equal to the centripetal force on the body and is always
directed opposite to the centripetal force.

What provides the centripetal force to the moon for it to revolve around Earth?

The gravitational force of attraction between Earth and the moon provides the centripetal
force required to keep the moon revolving around Earth.

Did You Know?

At the circus, the motorcyclist in the death pit or the well of death (maut ka kuan) does not
fall from the wall because his high speeds along the circular path provide him with
sufficient force to remain attached to the wall.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: A 150 g stone is tied at one end of a string of length 60 cm. It is made to
revolve in a circular path at a constant speed. What is the centripetal acceleration of
the stone if it makes two complete revolutions in a second?

Solution:
Medium

Example 2: The radius of the nearly circular orbit of the moon around Earth is about
384000 km and the time period of revolution of the moon around Earth is 27.3 days.
What is the centripetal acceleration of the moon toward Earth?

Solution:

Hard

Example 3: At the circus, a motorcyclist rides in a circular track of radius r, in the

vertical plane. What is the minimum velocity at the highest point of the track so that
the motorcyclist can complete the track successfully?

Solution:
Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces in Nature

Do you know that Earth’s bulging out at the equator is due to the centrifugal force?

At the equator, Earth’s rotational speed is about

1674.4 km/h. The centrifugal force experienced by the land and water mass is the
maximum at this region. The radially outward force experienced by the mass distribution
in this region is large enough to affect Earth’s shape. This is the reason for the equatorial
bulge of Earth.
Food for Thought

Take an onion and a potato. Can you think of a way to lift the potato with the onion?
Remember, the onion must be smaller than the potato.

Explanation: You will need a pen and a one-metre thread to do this activity. Take out the
refill of the pen, insert the thread through one end of the pen and bring it out from its other
end. Each end of the thread must be at least 30 cm from the pen. Attach the onion to one
end of the thread and the potato to the other. Now, rotate the pen such that the onion starts
revolving about it. The potato rises as you increase the speed of revolution of the onion.

The centripetal force required to move the onion in the circular path is provided by the
tension in the thread, which is in turn induced by the gravitational force on the potato.
When the speed of revolution of the onion is increased, the centripetal force necessary for
this motion also increases. When the tension in the thread exceeds the weight of the potato,
the potato rises.

Decreasing the speed of revolution decreases the centripetal force and, consequently,
makes the potato go down.
 Force and Laws of Motion

Balanced and Unbalanced Force

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces: An Overview

Have you ever played tug-of-war? The rope seems to come to rest momentarily even when
so large forces are acting on it from opposite ends. The rope moves occasionally in either
direction. Ultimately, the group that pulls harder and applies a larger force wins the game.
If you are wondering about the cause of the momentary rest and the occasional motion of
the rope in either direction, then you will get the answers in this lesson.

In daily life, we perform different types of activities such as opening a drawer, hammering a
nail, moving a table etc. Whether it is to stop a moving object or to move a stationary one,
an effort or force is required to perform the activity. In this lesson, we will learn more
about the concept of force.

Force and Its Effect

Force is a push or a pull. It tends to change the motion of an object. When you push a table,
the force makes the table move; consequently, the table is no longer in its state of rest.
 Effects of Force

1. Force can stop a moving body.

2. Force can move a stationary body.
3. Force can change the speed or direction or both of a moving body.
4. Force can change the shape and size of a body.

Fundamental Forces in Nature

Physics has revealed that all the forces occurring in different contexts arise from a few
fundamental forces in nature. These are as follows:

 Gravitational forces
 Weak nuclear forces
 Electromagnetic forces
 Strong nuclear forces

Gravitational Forces

 These were proposed by Isaac Newton.

 These are forces of mutual attraction between masses. The gravitational force between
masses is directly proportional to the product of the masses, and inversely proportional to
the square of the separation between them.
 These are the weakest forces in nature.

Weak Nuclear Forces

 These were discovered during the study of the phenomenon of β-decay in radioactivity.
 These are the forces of interaction existing between elementary particles of short lifetimes.
 These are about 1025 times stronger than gravitational forces.

Fundamental Forces in Nature

Electromagnetic Forces

 These are the forces between charged particles.

 The moving charges produce magnetic effects.
 Electric and magnetic effects are inseparable; hence, the term electromagnetic.
 These forces may be attractive or repulsive.
 Electrostatic forces are 1036 times stronger than gravitational forces.
 These operate over small distances.

Strong Nuclear Forces

 These forces bind the neutrons and protons together in different nuclei.
 These are short-range forces, operating within the distances of the order of 10−14 m.
 These are the strongest forces in nature, being about 1038 times stronger than gravitational
forces.
 These are attractive forces.

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces on an Object

Suppose a metal spring is placed on a table. Let us say that its two ends are M and N (as
shown in the figure). On pulling M, the spring moves toward the left. On pulling N, the
spring moves toward the right.

What will happen if you pull M and N simultaneously with the same force?

In this case, the spring will stretch and its shape and size will change; however, it will not
move because the net force acting on it is zero.

What will happen if two unequal forces are applied at M and N simultaneously?

When unbalanced force is applied at the ends of the spring, it will start moving in the
direction of the greater force. In this case, the net force acting on it is not zero.

Did You Know?

Frictional force not only opposes motion but also helps a body to move. It is friction that
helps us walk and run.

A toy car is pushed on a rough floor to make it move. The car moves some distance and
comes to rest. Why does it stop moving?

The toy car comes to rest after some time because of the force of friction acting between
the moving wheels of the car and the rough floor. This force acts in the direction opposite
to the direction of motion of the car. This means that an unbalanced force acts on the car in
the direction opposite to its direction of motion. As a result, it comes to rest after some
time. In order to keep the toy car in motion, one should push it again before it comes to
rest.
Stopping a Moving Object with an Unbalanced Force

An object moves with a uniform velocity when no net external force is acting on it, i.e., the
forces acting on it are balanced.

What will happen if you try to push a table on a rough floor?

The result of the applied force will depend on the magnitude of the force applied on the
table.

As shown in the figure, two forces are acting on the table. F1 is the applied force, while F2 is
the frictional force present between the rough surfaces in contact.

It is clear from the figure that the frictional force opposes the applied force. The table will
not move if the applied force is lesser than the frictional force. On applying a force greater
than the frictional force, the table will move in the direction of the applied force.

Did You Know?

The earth is acted upon by the gravitational pull of the stars, planets, sun and moon.
However, the gravitational pull of the sun is the most dominant.
Unbalanced Force and Acceleration/Deceleration

An unbalanced force can change either the speed or the direction of motion of a moving
body. As a result, the body can acquire positive or negative acceleration. Hence, an
unbalanced force is required to accelerate a uniformly moving body. The direction of
acceleration depends on the direction of the unbalanced force.

Case I: Suppose an unbalanced force F is acting on a uniformly moving ball in the direction
of its motion. In this case, the ball will accelerate in its direction of motion.
Case II: Now suppose the unbalanced force F is acting on the uniformly moving ball in the
direction opposite to its direction of motion. In this case, the ball will decelerate and come
to rest.

The speed (v) of the ball will increase and decrease in ‘Case I’ and ‘Case II’ respectively. If
the force F is removed, then the ball will move with a uniform speed. This is because no net
force will be acting on it.

When you stop pedaling a bicycle, it starts slowing down. Name the forces that act on
the bicycle. Also mention their directions.

Newton's First Law of Motion

Newton’s First Law of Motion

What you have seen is not possible in real life. In reality, it is very difficult to achieve the
condition of zero net force on the ball. This is because of the presence of the force of
friction which acts opposite to the direction of motion of the ball. Thus, in reality, the ball
will stop after travelling some distance.

This experiment was first conducted by Galileo Galilei, but the results of his experiment
were not widely accepted by the people at that time.

Know Your Scientist

Sir Isaac Newton (1642−1727), the English mathematician, astronomer and physicist, was
born at Woolsthorpe. He joined Cambridge University in 1661. He became a fellow of
Trinity College in 1667 and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669. He was at the
University till 1696. His famous treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) was prepared during the
years 1665−1666. The Principia,as it is commonly known, was not published until 1687.

For nearly 300 years, Newton has been considered as the exemplar of modern physical
science. His accomplishments in mathematical research are as innovative as those in
experimental investigations. He is also known for his works on chemistry, the early history
of Western civilisation and theology. Notable among his studies is the investigation of the
form and dimensions of the biblical Solomon’s Temple.

Isaac Newton used the results of Galileo’s experiment to propound the first law of motion.
It is stated as follows:

A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in uniform motion will continue its
uniform motion unless a unbalanced external force acts on it to change its state of rest
or uniform motion.

Let us understand Newton’s first law of motion with the help of the following examples.

Stationary table

A stationary table remains stationary as long as no one pushes or pulls it. The net force on
the stationary table is zero. An external force is required to change its state of
rest. When someone pushes or pulls the table, it moves along the direction of the applied
force.

Pen stand on a table

Suppose a pen is lying on a table. The pen stand cannot move by itself, i.e., it cannot change
its state of rest by itself. Its state of rest can be changed only when an external force is
applied on it. For example, if you lift the pen stand from the table, then its state of rest will
change. This change is the result of the application of an external force on the pen stand by
your hand.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Space walk

An astronaut on a space station goes into outer space for a space

walk without any harness. She leaps out from the space station and
moves away from it. She has to apply a force toward the space
station in order to stop from going too far from it.

What makes the astronaut move away from the space station?

The answer to this question is very simple. There are no forces acting on the astronaut in
space. Hence, she keeps moving in a straight line away from the space station. She has to
apply a force toward the space station to change her state of uniform motion.

In the context of the preceding examples, you will notice that every body resists a change in
its state of motion or rest. If a body is at rest, then it tends to remain at rest; if a body is in a
state of motion, then it continues to be in that state of motion. This property of a body is
known as inertia.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Inertia

Mass is a measure of the amount of inertia

Every object resists changes in its states of motion and rest. This implies that every object
has inertia. However, all objects do not have the same tendency to resist changes. This
tendency depends upon the mass of an object. Mass is a quantity that is dependent upon
the inertia of an object. An object having greater inertia has a greater mass. Hence, a
massive object has a greater tendency to resist changes in its states of motion and rest.

Examples of inertia
 When a horse starts running suddenly, the rider falls backward due to the inertia of rest of
the upper part of his body.
 The dust particles on a carpet fall off when beaten with a stick. The beating sets the carpet
in motion, but the dust particles tend to remain at rest.

Types of inertia

 Inertia of rest
 An object at rest, will remain at rest unless an external force is applied to change its state of
rest. For example: on giving a jerk to the branches of a tree, the fruits fall down. This is
because on shaking the branches of a tree the fruits attached to it comes in motion. But due
to the inertia of rest of the fruits, they tend to remain in this state. Hence, they fall on the
ground and attain the state of rest.
 Inertia of motion
 An object in a state of motion will continue to be in the state of motion with the same
speed until an external force is applied on it to change its state of motion. For example:
When a moving car stops abruptly, the passenger sitting inside it tends to lean forward.
This is because when the car is in motion, the whole body of the passenger sitting inside
the car is also in motion. On sudden application of brakes, the car and the lower half of the
passenger's body (in contact with the car) comes to rest while the upper half remains in
motion due to inertia. Thus, the passenger leans forward.
 Inertia of direction
 An object moving in a particular direction will continue to move in that direction until an
external force is applied. For example: When a car running on a straight road suddenly
takes a right turn, the person inside the car tends to lean leftwards. This is because
when the car was moving in a straight road, the whole body of the passenger gained the
inertia of moving in straight line. As soon as the car took a right turn, the car and lower half
of the person's body changed their direction towards right but the upper half of the
person's body still continued to move in a straight line due to inertia of direction. Thus, the
person leans leftwards. In the similar way, when the car takes left turn, the person inside
the car leans rightwards.

Did You Know?

Inertia always resists a change in the state of motion or rest of a body. Thus, Newton’s first
law of motion is also known as the law of inertia.

Do all bodies possess inertia?

Yes, all bodies, whether moving or at rest, possess inertia.

Do they possess inertia in the same amount?

We know that pushing a wooden block is easier than pushing an iron block of the same
size. We can easily move a football, but it takes a lot of effort to move a large rock. Hence, it
can be said that heavier or massive objects possess greater inertia. Quantitatively, the
inertia of an object is measured by its mass.

Momentum

It is a common observation that more force is required to stop a heavier body than what is
required for stopping a lighter body. Suppose a cricket ball and table-tennis ball are thrown
towards you one after the other. To catch which of the two balls will you need to apply the
greater force? The cricket ball, of course! And the reason for this is that it has the greater
mass of the two balls. So, we can conclude that the force required to stop the motion of a
body is directly proportional to its mass. The same logic is at work when you have to throw
the two balls. Since the mass of the cricket ball is greater than that of the table-tennis ball,
the force required to throw the former will be greater than that required to throw the
latter.

Now suppose you have two cricket balls of the same mass. You throw both the balls, but
one with a lesser force than the other. What do you expect will happen?The ball thrown
with the greater force will move with a greater velocity as compared to that thrown with
the lesser force.

Hence, we can conclude that the effect of force on a body can be described with the help of
its mass and velocity. Isaac Newton used the term ‘momentum’ to describe this effect. He
defined momentum as the product of the mass and velocity of a body, i.e.,

Momentum = Mass × Velocity

Or, p = m × v

Where, p = Momentum

m = Mass

v = Velocity

This momentum is also known as linear momentum. You will learn another type of
momentum called angular momentum in higher class.

Did You Know?

Force can change the velocity of an object. Thus, force can change the momentum of an
object.

Solved Examples
Easy

Example 1: Find the momentum of a cricket ball weighing 150 g and moving at a
velocity of 50 m/s.

Solution: It is given that:

Mass of the ball = 150 g = 0.15 kg

Its velocity = 50 m/s

We know that:

Momentum = Mass × Velocity

∴ Momentum of the ball = 0.15 kg × 50 m/s

= 7.5 kg-m/s

Medium

Example 2: A bike weighing 200 kg accelerates from rest at the rate of 5 m/s2. Find
its momentum after 10 s.

Solution: It is given that:

Initial speed (u) of the car = 0

Its acceleration, a = 5 m/s2

Time, t = 10 s

Let the speed of the car after 10 s be v.

Using the first equation of motion, we can compute the value of v.

v = u + at

⇒ v = 0 + (5 × 10)

⇒ ∴ v = 50 m/s

Now, the mass of the car is given as 200 kg.

So, the momentum of the car after 10 s = Mass × Velocity

= 200 × 50 = 10000 kg-m/s

Hard

Example 3: The kinetic energy of a block of mass 3 kg is 150 J. Find its momentum.

Solution: It is given that:

Kinetic energy (k) of the block = 150 J

Its mass, m = 3 kg

Let the velocity and momentum of the block be v and p respectively.

We know that:

k = 0.5 mv2 ... (1)

p = mv ... (2)

Using equation (1), we get:

Newton's Second Law of Motion

Suppose a heavy wooden block is lying on a table. If we give it a gentle push, then it will
move with a low velocity. In other words, if we apply a small force on the block, then
its momentum will change slightly. Likewise, if we push the wooden block with a greater
force, then the change in its momentum will be greater than before.
 We can thus conclude that the change in the momentum of a body is directly proportional
to the strength of the applied force. This brings us to Newton’s second law of motion.

It is stated as follows:

The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the

unbalanced external force acting on it. The direction of the unbalanced force is the
same as the direction of the change of momentum.

Momentum and Newton’s Second Law

Consider a body of mass m. It initially moves with velocity u and accelerates at a constant
rate a. It attains a final velocity v after time t. This acceleration is induced by force F.

Now, Newton’s second law of motion can be mathematically represented as follows:

Where, k is constant of proportoinality

Using the first equation of motion, we know that:

Using this, we obtain:

F = ma = Mass × Acceleration

Unit of force is taken Newton so the value of constant of proportionality (k) becomes one.
1 Newton = 1kg 1ms−2

Thus, we can restate Newton’s second law of motion as follows:

Force acting on a body is equal to the product of its mass and acceleration.
 Impulse

 Impulse of a force is a measure of the total effect of the force

Impulse = Force × Time

 Forces which act on bodies for a short time are called impulsive forces.

Example: firing a gun, hitting a ball with a bat

 It is a vector quantity.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1:A moving block of mass 2 kg changes its speed from 5 m/s to 15 m/s in 2 s.
Find the net force acting on the block.

Solution: It is given that:

Initial speed (u) of the block = 5 m/s

Its final speed, v = 15 m/s

Time taken, t = 2 s

Let the acceleration due to gravity be a.

Using the first equation of motion, we know that:

It is given that the mass of the block is 2 kg.

From Newton’s second law of motion, we know that:

F = ma = 2 × 5 = 10 N

Therefore, the net force acting on the block is 10 N.

Medium

Example 2:A particle of mass 2 kg is subjected to a force F = kx with k = 20 N/m

and x being its distance from the origin. What is its initial acceleration if it is released
from a point 30 cm away from the origin?

Solution: It is given that:

Force (F) applied on the particle = kx

Where, k = 20 N/m

x = 30 cm = 0.3 m

∴ F = 20 × 0.3 = 6 N

From Newton’s second law of motion, we know that:

Here, F = 6 N and m = 2 kg.

Therefore, the initial acceleration of the particle is 3 m/s2.

Hard

Example 3:A ball of mass 150 g strikes a wall at a speed of 10 m/s and at an angle of
30°. The ball rebounds with the same speed. If the contact time is 10-3 s, then what is
the force applied by the wall?

Solution:
Mass (m) of the ball = 150 g = 0.15 kg

Its initial velocity, u = 10 m/s

Its initial momentum, pi = mu = 0.15 × 10 = 1.5 kg-m/s

Initial momentum of the ball along the x-axis, pix = −1.5 cos 30°

Initial momentum of the ball along the y-axis, piy = −1.5 sin 30°

Final velocity (v) of the ball = 10 m/s

Its final momentum, pf = mv = 0.15 × 10 = 1.5 kg-m/s

Final momentum of the ball along the x-axis, pfx = 1.5 cos 30°

Final momentum of the ball along the y-axis, pfy = −1.5 sin 30°

Change in the momentum of the ball along the x-axis = pfx − pix = 3cos30° = 3×0.866 =
2.598 kg-m/s

Change in the momentum of the ball along the y-axis = pfy − piy = 0

So, force acting along the x-axis

There is no change in the momentum along the y-axis; so, no force acts on the ball along it.
Thus, the force applied by the wall on the ball is 2598 N along the x-axis.

Did You Know?

During the free fall of a ball, the earth pulls the ball toward itself. In turn, the ball also pulls
the earth upward with an equal amount of force. However, the effect of this force on the
earth is negligible.

Frictional Force

The normal reaction N is equal to the weight mg.

N = mg

The frictional force f is given by:

f = µN = µmg

Where, µ is the coefficient of friction

If the applied force is greater than the frictional force, then the acceleration a of the block is
found as:

ma = F − f

=> ma = F − µmg

If the applied force just balances the frictional force, then there is no acceleration of the
block and the block does not move.

So, F = f
Remember, when f is the frictional force.

Real-World Examples of Newton’s Second Law of Motion

High Jump

During an athletic event, the participants in the high jump event are provided with
cushions to fall on after completing a jump. This is done to prevent any kind of injury to the
athletes.

When an athlete falls on the cushion, it takes her a longer period of time to come to a stop.
A small stopping force acts on her because her rate of change of velocity is low. As a result,
she does not get hurt. If the athlete were to fall on a hard surface, then her velocity would
reduce to zero in a very short time. In this case, a large stopping force would act on her
because her rate of change of velocity would be high. As a result, the athlete would get hurt.

Seat belts

A very useful application of Newton’s second law lies in the use of seat belts in cars. To
prevent injuries to passengers in case of an accident, all cars are provided with seat belts.
In the event of an accident, a fast-moving car stops suddenly, i.e., its high velocity is
reduced to zero in a very short interval of time. The time taken by the passengers to fall
 gets increased because of the seat belts worn by them. The rate of change of velocity of
the passengers gets reduced because of the increase in the time taken by them to fall.
Hence, a lesser stopping force acts on them, as a result of which, injuries are reduced.

Newton's Third Law of Motion

Newton’s third law of motion states that for every action force there is always an
equal and opposite reaction force, with the forces acting on different bodies.

Now, we are going to explain

the example given in the overview.

In order to jump from the boat, Payal applies a force on the boat with her leg. The direction
of this force is opposite to that of her motion. As a result, the boat moves backward. In this
situation, the applied force is the action force and Payal’s forward motion is the effect of
the reaction force provided by the boat. Hence, the boat moves backward because of the
action force exerted by Payal.

This situation can be summarized as follows:

Action force → Force exerted by Payal’s leg on

the boat

Reaction force → Force exerted by the boat on

Payal’s leg
It is clear from the above example that action and reaction forces are of equal magnitude
and act in opposite directions. If Payal applies a force of magnitude F newton on the boat,
then the boat in turn reacts with the same magnitude of force on her foot.

It is observed that both balances give the same reading. This implies that the force exerted
by balance II on balance I is the same as the force exerted by balance I on balance II. Thus,

Action force → Force exerted by balance II on balance I,

Reaction force → Force exerted by balance I on balance II

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Rotational equilibrium

Moment is defined as the product of the force and the perpendicular length on a body or
system.

A body is in rotational equilibrium when the algebraic sum of moments of all the forces
acting on it about a fixed point is zero.

For example: In case of a beam balance or see-saw, the system will be in rotational
equilibrium if

F1 × l1 − F2 × l2 = 0

Now, (anticlockwise moment)

And, (clockwise moment)

i.e., for rotational equilibrium, the total external force acting on the body must be zero

Real-Life Applications of Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Flying of a bird

A bird can fly with the help of its wings. In this process, it pushes the
air downward by flapping its wings. In turn, the air also exerts an equal force on the bottom
of its wings. As a result, the bird gets a lift and can fly in the air.

The action−reaction forces in this case are described below.

Action force: Exerted by the wings on the air in the downward direction

Reaction force: Exerted by the air on the bottom of the wings in the upward direction

Horse pulling a cart

The horse can pull and move a cart by exerting a force on the ground. In turn, the horse
experiences a reaction force of equal magnitude in the opposite direction that causes the
cart to move in that direction. In this case, the action force is the force applied by the horse
on the ground and the reaction force is the force experienced by the horse from
the ground.

The gun exerts a forward force on the bullet, the bullet in turn also exerts an equal and
opposite reaction force on the gun.

Action force → Force exerted by the gun on the bullet

Reaction force → Force exerted by the bullet on the gun

 Rocket

Rockets work on the principle of Newton’s third law of motion. In rockets, large amounts of
hot gases are allowed to exit through a narrow opening. In turn, the fast-moving gases
exert a force on the rocket which pushes the rocket upward.

In this case:

Action force → Exerted by the rocket on the exhaust gases

Reaction force → Exerted by the gases on the rocket

Solved Examples

Medium

Example: A 600 kg rocket is fired straight up from the earth, with the engines
providing 9000 N of thrust. If g = 10 m/s2, then the acceleration of the rocket is

1. 5 m/s2
2. 10 m/s2
3. 15 m/s2
4. 50 m/s2

Solution:It is given that:

Upthrust, F = 9000 N

Mass (m) of the rocket = 600 kg

g = 10 m/s2

Let the acceleration of the rocket be a.

Net force in the upward direction is given as:

Upthrust − Weight of the rocket = Mass × Acceleration

⇒ F − mg = ma

⇒ 9000 − (600 × 10) = 600a

⇒ 3000 = 600a

∴ a = 5 m/s2
Know More

It is a common misconception that rockets are unable to accelerate in space. The fact is that
rockets do accelerate in space. They are able to do so because they burn fuel and push the
exhaust gases in the direction opposite to the direction in which they need to be
accelerated.
Conservation of Linear Momentum

You must have observed a billiard ball being struck by a cue stick. Now, while the rod
moves slowly, the ball moves with a very high speed. Can you relate the velocity of the
rod with the velocity of the ball after impact?

The velocities of two bodies before and after collision can be related to each other with the
help of the law of conservation of momentum. According to this law:

When two or more bodies act upon one another in a system, the total momentum of
the system remains constant, provided there is no external force acting on it.

Conservation of Linear Momentum: In Depth

If a moving ball hits another ball (moving or stationary), then both the balls will have new
velocities such that the total momentum of the ball system remains constant. So, the sum of
the momentum of each ball before collision is equal to the sum of their momenta after
collision (as shown in the figure).
In the shown ball system:

m1, m2 → Masses of balls 1 and 2 respectively

u1, u2 → Pre-collision velocities of balls 1 and 2 respectively

v1, v2 → Post-collision velocities of balls 1 and 2 respectively

F12 → Force exerted by ball 1 on ball 2

F21 → Force exerted by ball 2 on ball 1

Conservation of Linear Momentum: In Depth

Momentum of the ball system is

given as:

Before collision: m1u1 + m2u2

After collision: m1v1 + m2v2

Rate of change of momentum of ball 1 is given as:

Where, t → Collision time

Rate of change of momentum of ball 2 is given as:

Using Newton’s third law of motion, we can relate the forces F12 and F21 as:

F12 = −F21
 ∴ Momentum of the system before collision = Momentum of the system after collision

The law of conservation of momentum is verified.

So, in case of the billiard ball and cue stick, the momentum remains constant before and
after the striking of the ball by the stick.

Did You Know?

There are four laws of conservation in nature. You have just learnt one of them, i.e.,
conservation of linear momentum. The other three are:

1. Conservation of mass-energy
2. Conservation of angular momentum
3. Conservation of charge

Application of Conservation of Linear Momentum

Rocket propulsion

The principle of conservation of momentum is used in rocket propulsion. The total

momentum of the rocket system before and after propulsion is given as:
Momentum before propulsion: Mass of the rocket + Fuel + Payload before propulsion

Momentum after propulsion: Mass of the rocket + Payload after propulsion

After propulsion, the mass of the system reduces due to the burning of the fuel. This is
compensated by the increase in the velocity of the rocket. As a result, the total momentum
of the system is kept constant.

Did You Know?

It is a common misconception that rockets are unable to accelerate in space. The fact is that
rockets do accelerate in space. They are able to do so because they burn fuel and push the
exhaust gases in the direction opposite to the direction in which they need to be
accelerated.

Recoil speed of a gun

A gun should be held firmly while firing so that the recoil of the gun does not harm the
shoulder. The recoil speed of the gun can be obtained by applying the law of
conservation of momentum.

Before firing

Let m and M be the masses of the bullet and gun respectively.

Since both are at rest, their speeds (u and U) are zero.

Where, u and U is the initial velocity of bullet and gun respectively.

∴ Momentum of the bullet−gun system = mu + MU = 0 + 0 = 0

Hence, there is no momentum before firing.

After firing

Let v and V be the velocities of the bullet and gun respectively.

∴ Momentum of the bullet−gun system = mv + MV

Now, as per the law of conservation of momentum: Momentum before firing = Momentum
after firing

=> 0 = mv + MV

The negative sign indicates that the gun recoils in the direction opposite to that of the
bullet.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: A gun weighing 5 kg fires a bullet of 25 g with a velocity of 300 m/s. With
what velocity does the gun recoil? What is the momentum of the gun and bullet
system before and after firing?

Solution: It is given that:

Mass (M) of the gun = 5 kg

Mass (m) of the bullet = 25 g = 0.025 kg

Velocity (v) of bullet = 300 m/s

Let the velocity of the recoil of the gun be V.

Momentum of the gun−bullet system before firing = 0

Momentum of the gun−bullet system after firing = mv + MV

Using the law of conservation of momentum, we have

mv + MV = 0

=> (0.025 × 300) + 5V = 0

=> ∴ V = −1.5 m/s

The negative sign implies that the direction of velocity of the gun is opposite to that of the
bullet.

Momentum of the gun after firing = MV = 5 × (−1.5) = −7.5 kg-m/s

Momentum of the bullet after firing = mv = 0.025 × 300 = 7.5 kg-m/s

Note that the momentums of the gun and bullet are equal and opposite after firing. So, the
net momentum of the gun and bullet system is zero.

Before firing, the gun and bullet are at rest; so, the net momentum of the gun and bullet
system is zero.

Thus, both before and after firing, the momentum of the gun and bullet system is zero.

Medium

Example 2: With an absolute velocity 5 m/s, a child having a mass 30 kg jumps from a
plank of mass
10 kg standing on a smooth surface. Find velocity of the plank and the total energy
produced by the child.

Solution: It is given that:

Mass (M) of the child = 30 kg

Velocity (V) of the child = 5 m/s

Mass (m) of the plank = 10 kg

Let the velocity of the plank be v.

Initial momentum of the child−plank system = 0

Final momentum of the child−plank system = MV + mv

On applying the law of conservation of momentum, we get:

MV + mv = 0

=> (30 × 5) + 10v = 0

=> ∴ v = −15 m/s

The negative sign shows that the direction of velocity of the plank is opposite to that of the
child.

Energy produced by the child = 0.5MV2

= 0.5 × 30 × 52

= 375 J

Hard

Example 3: A block of mass 1.0 kg, moving at a speed of 10 m/s, collides with a block
of mass 2.0 kg. After collision, the blocks stick together and remain motionless.
Calculate the velocity of the 2.0 kg block before collision.

Solution: It is given that:

Mass (m1) of the first block = 1.0 kg

Its velocity, u1 = 10 m/s

Mass (m2) of the second block = 2.0 kg

Let the velocity of the second block be u2.

Initial momentum of the block system = m1u1 + m2u2

Finally, the system comes to rest; so, final momentum of the block system = 0

On applying the law of conservation of momentum, we get

m1u1 + m2u2 = 0

=> (1 × 10) + 2u2 =0

=> ∴ u2 = −5 m/s

Before collision, the 2.0 kg block has the velocity 5 m/s in the opposite direction of motion
of the 1.0 kg block.

Did You Know?

If an object gets divided into two equal-sized parts as a result of internal forces, then the
two parts will fly off in exactly opposite directions.
 Gravitation

The Universal Law of Gravitation

Gravitation - An Overview

The picture that opens this lesson shows our location in the Milky Way galaxy. We are about
26,000 light years away from the centre of the galaxy. We are residing in this location from
the very beginning of the Universe. This shows that there exists a powerful force that holds
us in our place since the inception of the Universe. This force binds everything from stars
to galaxies to superclusters

and is known as the Gravitational force.

Universal Law of Gravitation

It is common to see things falling to the ground. The falling of a body to the ground is
attributed to Earth’s attraction for it. In fact, the weight of a body is expressed in terms of
this force of attraction.

Newton’s experiments showed that Earth’s attraction, when at a constant distance from
another body, varied directly with the mass of the other body. However, this was only a
partial expression of the general law of gravitation. This law states that every particle of
matter attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
 All planets in the solar system are bound to revolve in their fixed orbits by the gravitational
attraction of the sun. The same force of gravity acts between Earth and the moon, making
the moon revolve around Earth in its fixed orbit.

Gravitational Force - Mathematical Form

Let two objects I and II, of masses M1 and M2 respectively, be placed at a distance d from
each other. As per the law of gravitation, the following two assertions can be made about
the force of gravity (F) between the two objects.

(a) The force of gravity between the two objects is directly proportional to the product of
their masses. This is expressed as:

F ∝ M1 × M2

(b) The force of gravity between the two objects is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. This is expressed as:

F ∝ (1/ d2) (By Inverse-Square rule)

On combining both the equations, we obtain:

Where, G is a constant called Universal Gravitational Constant or Newton’s constant.

Did You Know?

Now, we know that the motion of celestial bodies present in the universe is primarily
governed by the gravitational force. There are many facts like this.

These are:

 The gravitational force does not depend on the medium between two bodies.
 We, too, pull or attract Earth toward ourselves by the same gravitational force. However,
owing to Earth’s large size, the effect of this force is negligible.
 The moon has no atmosphere as the gravitational force exerted by it is very small.
 It is a common misconception that Earth’s gravity ceases to exist beyond its atmosphere.
Earth does exert gravitational force beyond its atmosphere, but the effect of this force is
very less. It is the gravitational force present between the moon and Earth which keeps the
moon in an orbit around Earth.

Universal Gravitational Constant

Universal Gravitational Constant (G) is a constant of proportionality. Its value is constant at

all places in the universe. Its value does not depend on the medium between two bodies.

SI unit of G

The force of gravity (F) between two objects of masses M1 and M2, which are at a
distance r from each other, is given as:

On substituting the SI units of the various quantities in this equation, we obtain: G = Nm2/
kg2

Therefore, the SI unit of G is Nm2/kg2.

Value of G

Henry Cavendish found the value of Universal Gravitational Constant, G with the help of
a very sensitive balance. Its value is 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2

Consider two bodies, each having the mass 1 kg. They are placed at a distance 1 m from
each other. Using the value of G, the force of attraction is given as:

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1:
How will the gravitational force between two objects change when the distance
between them is doubled?

Solution:

The new force of gravitation is computed as:

Thus, when the distance between two objects is doubled, the gravitational force between
them becomes one-fourth its original value.

Medium

Example 2:

Calculate the force of gravitation exerted by Earth on a body of mass 2 kg lying near
the ground.

(Given: Earth’s mass = 6 × 1024 kg; Earth’s radius = 6.4 × 103 km;
G = 6.7 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2)

Solution:
Hard

Example 3:

If the masses of Earth and the sun were concentrated at their respective centres,
then what would be the gravitational force of attraction between the two?

(Given: Mass of the sun = 2 × 1030 kg; Earth’s mass = 6 × 1024 kg; Average distance
between Earth and the sun = 1.5 × 108 km)

Solution:

The force of gravitation between Earth and the sun is given by the formula:

Here, gravitational constant, G = 6.7 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2

Mass of the sun, MS = 2 × 1030 kg

Earth’s mass, ME = 6 × 1024 kg

Distance (R) between Earth and the sun = 1.5 × 108 km = 1.5 × 1011 m

On substituting these values in the above formula, we get:

= 3.57 × 1022 N
Determination of 'G' by Henry Cavendish

The value of universal gravitational constant (G) was first determined by Henry Cavendish
through the torsion bar experiment. The apparatus of this experiment comprises two pairs
of spheres. Each pair of spheres forms a dumbbell having a common axis, as shown in the
figure. One of the dumbbells is suspended from a quartz fibre. It rotates freely when the
fibre is twisted. The position of a reflected light spot from a mirror attached to the fibre
gives the measure of the amount of twists. The second dumbbell can be swivelled in such a
way that each of its spheres is close to one of the spheres of the other dumbbell. The
gravitational attraction between the two pairs of spheres twists the fibre and the
magnitude of the force of gravity is calculated by measuring the amount of twists in the
fibre.

The value of G, as determined by Cavendish, came out to be 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2.

Know Your Scientist

Henry Cavendish (1731 - 1810) was a British physicist and a

natural philosopher. He discovered hydrogen, naming it as ‘inflammable air’. In 1798, he
conducted an experiment to measure Earth’s density using a torsion balance. Cavendish
calculated the gravitational attraction between the balls in the apparatus from the period of
oscillation of the torsion balance. He then used this value to calculate Earth’s density.

Know Your Scientist

Sir Isaac Newton, (1642-1727) the English mathematician,

astronomer and physicist, was born at Woolsthorpe. He joined Cambridge University in
1661. He became a fellow of Trinity College in 1667 and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics
in 1669. He was at the University till1696. His famous treatise Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) was prepared
during the years 1665-1666. The Principia,as it is commonly known, was not published
until 1687.

The theory of gravitation was propounded by one of the greatest physicists, Sir Isaac
Newton.

There is a popular story about how Newton discovered the law of gravitation. It is said that
when Newton was sitting under an apple tree, an apple fell on his head.

Newton started thinking—‘Why did the apple fall down? Why did it not go upwards?’

Newton felt that it could be Earth which attracted the apple toward itself. He theorized that
Earth attracted not only the apple, but also the moon, raindrops, stones, etc., toward its
surface. He believed that the motion of the apple was accelerated as its velocity changed
from zero (when hanging on the tree) to a maximum value (just before it hit the ground).
According to his second law of motion, there must be some force acting on the apple that
caused this acceleration. He called this force ‘the gravitational force’ and the associated
acceleration as ‘the acceleration due to gravity’.

For nearly 300 years, Newton has been considered as the exemplar of modern physical
science. His accomplishments in mathematical research are as innovative as those in
experimental investigations. He is also known for his works on chemistry, the early history
of Western civilisation and theology. Notable among his studies is the investigation of the
form and dimensions of the biblical Solomon’s Temple.

Did You Know?

Under Earth’s gravitational force of attraction, an apple moves towards the ground; but
why doesn’t Earth move towards the apple? After all, as per Newton’s third law of motion,
the apple also attracts Earth with the same amount of force.

Newton’s second law of motion answers this query. According to this law, the acceleration
produced in an object is inversely proportional to its mass. The mass of the apple is
negligible compared to Earth’s mass. Hence, the acceleration of the apple will be much
greater than that of Earth. Therefore, Earth does not move towards the apple.

The gravitational force is responsible for holding the atmosphere above Earth’s surface.
The moon has no atmosphere because the gravitational force exerted by it is very small.

Importance of the Universal Law of Gravitation

The universal law of gravitation helps us understand several natural phenomena. Some of
these are given below.

Dropped objects fall toward the ground.

Earth pulls all objects toward itself through the gravitational force. Hence, when any object
is dropped, it falls toward the ground.

The moon revolves around Earth.

The moon is attracted by Earth’s gravitational force. This keeps the moon revolving around
Earth in its orbit of movement.

The planets revolve around the sun.

The gravitational attraction between the sun and the planets binds the planets in their
respective orbits around the sun.

High and low tides occur on Earth’s surface.

The water present on Earth’s surface (in oceans, seas, etc.) is attracted by the gravitational
forces of the sun and moon. Hence, the level of water in the seas and oceans rises and falls
depending on the relative positions of the sun and moon. This causes high and low tides on
Earth.

Did You Know?

Saturn’s mass is about 95 times that of Earth, while Jupiter’s mass is about 320 times
Earth’s mass. The mass of the sun is about 333000 times the mass of Earth.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

A German astronomer Kepler gave three laws related to planetary motion. These laws are
as follows:

First Law: The orbits of the planets are in the shape of ellipse

, having the sun at one focus.

In the figure, the sun is not at the centre of the ellipse. It is at one of the foci marked X. The
planet follows the ellipse in its orbit. This means that the distance between a planet and the
sun constantly changes as the planet revolves in its orbit.

Second Law: The area swept over per hour by the

radius joining the sun and the planet is the same in all parts of the planet’s orbit.

In the figure, the imaginary line joining the sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in
equal times. The planet moves faster when it is nearer to the sun. Thus, a planet executes
elliptical motion with constantly changing speed as it moves around the sun in its orbit. The
point of nearest approach of the planet to the sun is termed perihelion and the point of
greatest separation is termed aphelion.

Third Law: The squares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the
cubes of their mean distances from the sun.

It implies that the time taken by a planet to revolve around the sun increases rapidly with
the increase in the radius of its orbit.

Know Your Scientist

 In the year 1609, the German astronomer Kepler (having made a
careful study of the observations made by Tycho Brahe) came to the conclusion that the
orbits of the planets were not circular as had been supposed, but elliptical. He announced
his discovery as the following laws.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer.

He discovered the laws of planetary motion. Isaac Newton’s theory of Universal Gravitation
was later founded upon these laws. Kepler’s only self-authored poem that has survived till
date is as follows:

Newton and the Inverse-Square Rule

Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that the force between two bodies is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. Hence, this law is also known as
the inverse-square rule. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

F ∝ 1/ r2 ...(1)

Newton used Kepler’s third law of planetary motion to arrive at the inverse-square rule.
He assumed that the orbits of the planets around the sun are circular, and not elliptical, and
so derived the inverse-square rule for gravitational force using the formula for centripetal
force

. This is given as:

F = mv2/ r ...(2) where, m is the mass of the particle, r is the radius of the circular path of the
particle and v is the velocity of the particle.

Newton used this formula to determine the force acting on a planet revolving around the
sun. Since the mass m of a planet is constant, equation (2) can be written as:

F ∝ v2/ r ...(3)

Now, if the planet takes time T to complete one revolution around the sun, then its
velocity v is given as:
v = 2πr/ T ...(4) where, r is the radius of the circular orbit of the planet

or, v ∝ r/ T ...(5) [as the factor 2π is a constant]

On squaring both sides of this equation, we get:

v2 ∝ r2/ T2...(6)

On multiplying and dividing the right-hand side of this relation by r, we get:

Using relation (7) in relation (3), we get

Hence, the gravitational force between the sun and a planet is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

Whiz Kid

Earth takes 365 days, 6 hours and 9 minutes to complete one revolution around the sun.
The length of the semi-major axis of Earth is 1 A.U. (Astronomical Unit) and the length of
the semi-major axis of Mars is 1.52 A.U. Can you use Kepler’s third law of planetary
motion to determine the time taken by Mars to complete one revolution around the
sun?

A central force is the force whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the origin. Thus, gravitational force is a central force.
Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: An imaginary planet P, with an orbit of radius R, completes one

revolution around a star in 64 days. Another planet Q has an orbit of radius 4R. How
much time will it take to complete one revolution around the same star?

Solution:

According to Kepler’s third law of planetary motion:

 Where, TP is the time period of revolution of P and RP is the radius of the orbit of P

Where, TQ is the time period of revolution of Q and RQ is the radius of the orbit of Q

On dividing (1) by (2), we get:

Acceleration Due to Gravity

Acceleration Due to Gravity - An Overview

The force of gravity bounds all objects on or near Earth. When there is force, there must be
acceleration. The force of gravity on objects of different masses is different, but the
acceleration due to gravity remains the same. What can be the reason for this perplexing
behaviour? What are the parameters that determine the acceleration due to gravity of a
planet? How does acceleration due to gravity vary with height? When you jump from a
height, are you under a free fall?

Let us explore the answers to the what, how and when in the above questions.

Whenever an object falls towards Earth, it experiences acceleration. This is

called acceleration due to gravity and is denoted by the letter ‘g’. It is a constant for every
object falling on Earth’s surface.

 Acceleration due to gravity does not depend on the mass of the falling object. The
value of ‘g’ changes slightly from place to place on Earth. The value of acceleration
due to Earth’s gravity is about 9.8 m/s2 near Earth’s surface.

Differences between ‘G’ and ‘g’:

 Universal gravitation constant (G) Acceleration due to gravity (g)

1. It is defined as the force of attraction 1. It is defined as the constant

acting between two bodies, each of unit acceleration produced in a body
mass, whose centres are placed at unit when it falls freely under the effect
distance from each other. of gravity.

2. Its value is the same throughout the 2. Its value changes from one place
universe. to another.

3. It is a scalar quantity. 3. It is a vector quantity.

Free Fall and Acceleration Due to Gravity (g)

A free-falling object is an object that falls under the sole influence of

gravity. Any object that is being acted upon only by the force of gravity is said to be in a
state of free fall.

Say, a cotton ball and a large rock are dropped from the same height at the same time.
Assuming that air resistance can be eliminated such that neither object experiences any air
drag during the course of its fall, which object will hit the ground first?

You might say that the rock will hit the ground first, but this is not true. It is generally
thought that lighter objects fall slowly, while heavier objects fall rapidly when dropped
from the same height. However, objects of different masses fall at the same rate. There is a
famous anecdote that Galileo dropped two rocks having different masses from the Leaning
Tower of Pisa to show that different objects fall at the same rate, but the credibility of this
anecdote is doubtful.
In actual conditions, if you drop a cotton ball and a rock from the same height, then the
cotton ball will fall at a slower speed because of air resistance. In ideal conditions, when
only gravitational force acts on the cotton ball and the rock (i.e., air resistance is not
present), both the objects will fall at the same rate.

This was shown by Robert Boyle when he performed this experiment using a feather and a
stone. The feather and stone were put in a tall glass jar and air was removed from the jar
using a vacuum pump. When the jar was inverted, both objects fell to the bottom of the jar
at the same time. This proved that in the absence of air resistance, all objects fall at the
same rate.

Equation for ‘g’

Let us consider a stone of mass m, dropped from a height h. The

stone will fall towards Earth’s surface having the mass M and radius R. This motion of the
stone is called a free fall under the influence of Earth’s gravity.

Free fall is the motion of an object falling solely under the influence of Earth’s
gravity.

Using Newton’s second law of motion, the force on the stone can be given by the product of
its mass and acceleration.

F = ma

Suppose the stone falls freely with an acceleration g.

F = mg…(i)

Force exerted by Earth on the stone is given by Newton’s law of gravitation:

F=G

From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain:

mg = G

The height h is very small compared to Earth’s radius R. Hence, the term will be very
small and can be neglected. So, we get:

Where,

G = Universal gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2/kg2

M = Earth’s mass

R =Earth’s radius

This equation expresses the value of the acceleration due to gravity of an object placed on
Earth’s surface. This value decreases as we move above from Earth’s surface or go below it.
Earth’s radius R increases when we go from the poles to the equator. Consequently, the
value of g decreases.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: Calculate the value of the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of a
planet X having a mass of 5 × 1020 kg and the radius as 1800 km. (G = 6.67
× 10−11 Nm2/kg2)

Solution:

The formula for calculating acceleration due to gravity is:

Example 2: Calculate the value of acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the
moon. The mass of the moon and its radius are 7.4 × 1022 kg and 1740 km
respectively. The value of universal gravitational constant (G) is 6.7 × 10−11 Nm2/kg2.

Solution:

The formula for acceleration due to gravity is:

Example 3:

A block of mass 15 kg falls with an acceleration of 4 m/s2 on a distant planet. What

will be the acceleration of a block of mass 5 kg on the same planet?

Solution:

The acceleration produced by the gravitational force does not depend on the mass of an
object. Therefore, the acceleration produced in a block of mass 15 kg will be the same as
that produced in a block of mass 5 kg. Hence, both the blocks will fall with the same
acceleration, i.e., 4 m/s2.

Medium

Example 4:

Consider a planet whose mass and radius are each twice as those of Earth. Calculate
the acceleration due to gravity on this planet.

Solution:

Let M and M ' be the masses of Earth and the planet respectively.

Let R and R' be the radii of Earth and the planet respectively.

The acceleration due to gravity on Earth’s surface is:

Example 5: The value of acceleration due to gravity at a place is 2% less than its
value on Earth’s surface. Find the height of that place above Earth’s surface. (Given:
Earth’s radius = 6400 km)

Solution:

Consider the height of the place above Earth’s surface as h.

The formula for the acceleration due to gravity at this place is:
On putting the value of R, we get the height of the place as:

h = 65.299 km

Whiz Kid

Why does a parachutist fall down slowly?

Solution:

The surface area of a parachute is large. This increases the air resistance on the parachutist.
This air resistance acts in the direction opposite to Earth’s gravitational force.
Consequently, the parachutist falls down slowly.

SI Unit and Value of ‘g’

We will use the following values of G, M and R in the formula for acceleration due to gravity,
in order to obtain the value of g.

G = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2/kg2

For Earth, M = 6 × 1024 kg

For Earth, R = 6400 km = 6.4 × 106 m So, we have:

Earth’s acceleration due to the gravity is approximately 9.8 m/s2. However, this
value varies from place to place.

Know More

Almost all planets are flattened at the poles. This is because of their rotation. This flattening
of planets is known as oblateness. The degree of flattening of a planet at its poles is directly
proportional to the value of oblateness of the planet. The planets Mercury and Venus rotate
extremely slowly. Hence, they are not at all oblate.
Did You Know?

The value of acceleration due to gravity at Earth’s centre is zero. This is because the net
force of gravity at this place is zero.
Equations of Motion for an Object under the Influence of Earth’s Gravity

We have three equations of motion that relate the initial (u) and final (v) velocities of a
moving object with its acceleration a along a straight distance s in time t. These equations
are given as follows:

First equation of motion: v = u + at

Second equation of motion: s = ut + at2

Third equation of motion: v2 = u2 + 2as

If an object moves only under the influence of gravity, then we can take its acceleration a as
the acceleration due to gravity g. Hence, the three equations of motion for
acceleration a will be valid for acceleration due to gravity g. These equations are given in
the following table.

S. Relation Object falling downward Object moving upward

No. (a = g) (a = −g)

1. Velocity-time v = u + gt v = u − gt

2. Distance-time
s = ut + gt2 s = ut − gt2

3. Velocity- v2 = u2 + 2gs v2 = u2 − 2gs

distance

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1:

When a ball is thrown vertically upward, it rises to a distance of 20 m. Find the

velocity with which the ball is thrown upward. (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)

Solution:We have:

Initial velocity of the ball = u.

Final velocity (v) of the ball = 0

Acceleration due to gravity,g = −9.8 m/s2

Height, h = 20 m
On substituting these values in the third equation of motion, we get:

Therefore, the ball is thrown upward with a velocity of 19.8 m/s.

Example 2: A coin is dropped from the top floor of a tall building. The coin takes ten
seconds to reach the ground. What is the height of the building? (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)

Solution:

We have:

Initial velocity (u) of the coin = 0

Time taken (t) by the coin to reach the ground = 10 s

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2

Height of the building = h

On substituting these values in the second equation of motion, we get:

Example 3: A cricket ball is thrown upward with some velocity. The ball goes up and
comes down in four seconds. What is the velocity with which the ball was thrown?
(Take g = 9.8 m/s2)

Solution:

We have:

Initial velocity of the ball = u

Final velocity, v = 0(Since at the highest point, the velocity of the ball is zero)

The total time taken by the ball to go up and come down is four seconds.

So, time taken (t) by the ball to reach the highest point =

Acceleration due to gravity, g = −9.8 m/s2

Using the first equation of motion, we get:

v = u + gt

or 0 = u − 9.8 × 2

or u = 19.6 m/s

Hence, the ball was thrown upward with a velocity of 19.6 m/s.

Example 4: A gun is fired such that the bullet moves vertically upward with a velocity
of 300 m/s. What will be the maximum height attained by the bullet? (Take g = 9.8
m/s2)

Solution:

We have:

Initial velocity (u) of the bullet =300 m/s

Final velocity (v) of the bullet = 0 m/s
Acceleration due to gravity, g = −9.8 m/s2
Using the third equation of motion, we get:

So, h = 4591.84 m = 4.6 km

Hence, the bullet will attain a maximum height of 4.6 km.

Do you know that the value of 'g' is not constant and depends on various other factors?

Variations in Value of 'g'

1. Change with depth: The value of 'g' varies with the change in the depth. As we move
deeper inside the earth, the value of 'g' decreases.
2. Change with height: The value of 'g' is inversely proportional to height. This means that
with the increase in the height, there is a decrease in the value of g.
3. Change along the surface of earth: The value of 'g' is not same everywhere on the
earth's surface. It is because the earth is not perfectly spherical. The earth is bulged at the
equators and flattened at the poles. This means that the radius of earth is greater at the
equator and less at the poles. From the following equation we can see that there is an
inverse relationship between radius of earth and the value of 'g'.

So, we can infer that the value of 'g' is highest at the poles and lowest at the equator.
Mass and Weight
Mass and Weight: An Overview

Do you know that the mass of a body remains constant? And that the weight of the same
body can vary from zero to any finite value, depending upon the celestial body on which it
is kept? Have you heard about weightlessness? A body has weight because of gravity; the
same body can experience weightlessness under the same gravity. Strange, isn’t it?
Suppose a body of mass 1000 kg is placed on Earth’s surface and then on the surface of the
moon. The mass of the body will remain the same at both places, but it will have different
weights (9800 N on Earth and 1600 N on the moon).

The mass of an object is defined as the amount of matter present in it.

It is the measure of the inertia possessed by an object. It is one of the three fundamental
physical quantities, the other two being length and time. The mass of an object is usually
represented by the small letter ‘m’. Its SI unit is kilogram (kg).

The mass of an object is a conserved quantity. It can be neither created nor destroyed
during physical or chemical changes. During a physical or chemical process, the total mass
of the objects involved remains constant.

Did You Know?

You might know the famous mass−energy equation given by Albert Einstein.

E = mc2

This equation expresses the amount of energy created when mass (m) is lost in a process.
The letter ‘c’ represents the speed of light in vacuum and is numerically equal to 3 ×
108 m/s. Let us consider that somehow we are able to completely convert 1 g (= 0.001 kg)
of mass into energy. The resultant energy is given as:

E = 0.001 × (3 × 108)2

⇒ E = 10−3 × 9 × 1016

⇒ E = 9 × 1013 J

This energy is enough to meet the electricity needs of India for more than a year!!

A body contains the same quantity of matter whether it is on Earth, on Mars or in outer
space. So, if the mass of an object is 10 kg on Earth, then it will have the same mass on
Mars, on the moon and even in outer space. The mass of an object can never be zero.

Weight

The weight of an object is the force of gravity on the object and may be defined as the
product of its mass and acceleration due to gravity.

We know that:
Force = Mass × Acceleration

The acceleration produced by Earth’s force of attraction is known as acceleration due to

gravity and is denoted by the letter ‘g’. Thus, the downward force acting on a body is given
by:

Force = m × g

Where, m is the mass of the body

By definition, Earth’s force of attraction on a body is known as the weight of the body.
Hence, on writing ‘Weight’ (W) in place of ‘Force’ in the above equation, we get:

Weight, W = m × g

Where, m = Mass of the body

g = Acceleration due to gravity

Weight has the same SI unit as force, i.e., newton (N).

Now, let us calculate the weight of an object having a mass of 1 kg on Earth’s surface.

We know that acceleration due to gravity on Earth’s surface is 9.8 m/s2.

Therefore, weight of the object = m × g = 1 kg × 9.8 m/s2 = 9.8 N

Know More

Weight has magnitude as well as direction. The weight of a body acts in vertically
downward direction and is given by mg. Since the value of 'g' (acceleration due to gravity)
changes from place to place, the weight of a body also changes from place to place, i.e., the
weight of a body is not constant. In interplanetary space, acceleration due to gravity is
negligible. Thus, the weight of a body is zero in interplanetary space, and because of this,
one experiences weightlessness.

Acceleration due to gravity increases at the poles. As a result, the weight of an object
increases at the poles. Acceleration due to gravity decreases at higher altitudes. As a result,
the weight of an object decreases at higher altitudes. Acceleration due to gravity decreases
under Earth’s surface. As a result, the weight of an object decreases under Earth’s surface
and becomes zero at Earth’s centre.
The weight of an object on Earth is the force with which Earth attracts the object toward
itself. Similarly, the weight of an object on the moon is the force with which the moon
attracts the object toward itself.

Differences Between Mass and Weight

S. Mass Weight
No.

Weight is the force exerted on a body due

Mass is the amount of matter
1. to the gravitational pull of another body
contained in a body.
such as Earth, the sun and the moon.

Mass is an intrinsic property

2. Weight is an extrinsic property of a body.
of a body.

3. Mass is the measure of inertia. Weight is the measure of force.

The mass of a body remains The weight of a body depends on the local
4. the same everywhere in the acceleration due to gravity where it is
universe. placed.

The mass of a body cannot be

5. The weight of a body can be zero.
zero.

The SI unit of mass is kilogram Since weight is a force, its SI unit is newton
6.
(kg). (N).

The mass of a body can be The weight of a body can be measured

7. measured using a beam using a spring balance and a weighing
balance and a pan balance. machine.

Spring Balance and Beam Balance

While commonly used for measuring the mass of a body, what a spring balance actually
measures is the weight of the body (or the force acting in the downward direction).

It can be used locally to measure mass when calibrated correctly according to the value of
acceleration due to gravity at the given place.

A spring balance shows different readings on different planets because of the differing
values of acceleration due to gravity.

In a spring balance,

mg = kx
Where, x is the extension produced in the spring and k is the spring constant.

So, for differing values of g, x also has different values.

A beam balance is also used for measuring the mass of a body. It does so by comparing the
mass of the body with a given standard mass.

Weight of an Object on the Moon

Suppose an object having a mass m and weight We on Earth, is brought to the surface of the
moon.

So, we have:

Mass of the object = m

Weight of the object on Earth = We

Let us take:

Mass of Earth = Me

Radius of Earth = Re

Weight of the object on the moon = Wm

Mass of the moon = Mm

Radius of the moon = Rm

Since the mass of the object remains the same everywhere in the universe, it will be the
same on both Earth and the moon.

Newton’s law of gravitation gives the weight of the object on the moon as:
 The values of the mass and radius of Earth and the moon are given in the following table.

Mass Radius

Earth 5.98 × 1024 kg 6.37 × 106 m

Moon 7.36 × 1022 kg 1.74 × 106 m

Hence, equation (ii) gives the weight of the object on Earth as:

We = G ×

We = 1.4737 × 1011 m G… (iii)

Equation (i) gives its weight on the moon as:

Wm =

Wm = 2.4309 × 1010 m G… (iv)

On dividing equation (iv) by equation (iii), we obtain:

From the above result, we can infer that:

 The weight of an object on the moon is one-sixth of its weight on Earth.

 The acceleration due to gravity on the moon is one-sixth of the acceleration due to gravity
on Earth.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: A toy has a mass of 1 kg. Its weight is measured at the equator and at the
North Pole using a spring balance. Where do you think the toy would weigh more?

Solution:

Acceleration due to gravity is more at the North Pole than at the equator. Thus, an object
weighs more at the North Pole than at the equator. Hence, the toy will weigh more at the
North Pole.

Example 2: A block of mass 10 kg is taken to the moon. If the acceleration due to

gravity on the moon is 1.63 m/s2, then what is the weight of the block on the moon?

Solution:

Weight, W = mg

Where, m = Mass of the block = 10 kg

g = Acceleration due to gravity on the moon = 1.63 m/s2

Example 3: A horizontal force of 10 N acts on a block weighing 9.8 N. What is the

acceleration produced in the block? (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)

Solution:

Weight of the block = Mass of the block × Acceleration due to gravity

Let the mass of the block be m.
⇒ 9.8 = m × 9.8
∴ m =1 kg
Accerleration produced in the block
Example 4: Why does the weight of an object change when we move from the poles
to the equator?

Solution:

Earth’s radius increases when we move from the poles to the equator. The value of
acceleration due to gravity is inversely proportional to Earth’s radius (R). So, as we move
from the poles to the equator, the gravitational force decreases.

The equation makes it clear that as R increases, the value of g decreases.

Now, the weight of an object is the product of its mass and the gravitational force. So, the
weight of the object will decrease as we move from the poles to the equator.

Hard

Example 5: If a man’s weight is 80 N on Earth’s surface, then how far must he go from
Earth’s centre so as to weigh 40 N? (Take Earth’s radius = 6400 km)

Solution:

Weight (W) of the man on Earth’s surface = 80 N

The acceleration due to gravity g at height h above Earth’s surface is given as:
Therefore, the man must go (R+h) = (6.4× 106+ 2.65 × 106 = 9.05 × 106) m far from Earth’s
centre so as to weigh 40 N.
Weightlessness

Weightlessness describes the situation wherein the weight of a body becomes zero.

The effective weight of the body at a place (or in a situation) is zero when the effective
acceleration due to gravity at that point is zero.

Let us read about the situations wherein the weight of a body becomes zero.

Case I: When the body is taken to Earth’s centre

The effective value of acceleration due to gravity at Earth’s centre is zero.

Therefore, weight of the body at Earth’s centre = mg' = m × 0 = 0

Case II: When the body is revolving around Earth under the influence of the
gravitational force

Earth’s gravitational pull on the body (acting towards Earth’s centre) is balanced by the
centrifugal force on the body (acting away from Earth’s centre). In consequence, the
effective weight of the body becomes zero.

Case III: When the body is inside a lift falling freely under Earth’s gravitational force

Acceleration of the lift, a = g

Effective acceleration due to gravity = g' = g − a = g − g = 0

Hence, effective weight of the body = 0

Solved Examples
Easy

Example: What is the weight of a body of mass m near Earth’s surface during its free
fall?

Solution: Weight is a physical quantity that can be experienced only when the body
opposes the force of gravity. During free fall, the body does not oppose Earth’s gravitational
force; hence, its weight is zero.

Did You Know?

The motion of a satellite around Earth is an example of free fall. The satellite, at every point,
is falling freely toward Earth.

A black hole is formed when a star completely collapses on its gravitational force. A black
hole has an intense gravitational field around itself. Nothing can escape from this
gravitational field, not even light!

Thrust and Pressure

Thrust and Pressure: An Overview

Thrust and pressure are two physical quantities related to force. Take, for example, a
plastic ball immersed in water. A force is used to submerge it. At the same time, water
exerts pressure on the submerged ball. Now, as soon as the force is removed, the upward
thrust acting on the ball brings it back to the surface of water.

Thrust and Pressure: In Depth

Supose we have a pile of three books on a table. If we try pushing the pile with all the
fingers of one hand, we will be able to move the books easily. However, this will not be the
case if we try pushing the pile with only the index finger.

In ‘Case (i)’, the effort needed to displace the pile of books is taken care of by the force
applied by the fingers. In ‘Case (ii)’, the force applied by the single finger is not enough; a
greater force is needed to displace the books. Thus, the force per unit area exerted by the
pile on all the fingers is lesser than that exerted by the same books on the index finger.
Consequently, the books move easily in the first case, but not in the second.

This force per unit area is called pressure. It is given by the following relation:

For a constant magnitude of thrust, if the contact area is greater, then the pressure will be
lesser, and vice versa.

Since the SI units of thrust and contact area are N and m2 respectively, the SI unit of
pressure is pascal (N/m2).

Know More

Heavy vehicles have more than four tyres. Let us understand why this is so.

A wheel of a heavy vehicle has to support a large load. As a result, the consequent pressure
on the road due to the wheel is very large. Extra wheels reduce the load carried by the
individual wheels, which in turn reduces the pressure on the road due to each wheel. This
prevents the wheels from causing damage to the road or sinking into the ground.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: A force, acting on an area of 0.5 m2, produces a pressure of 500 Pa. Find
the value of the force.

Solution:
Example 2: A force of 100 N is applied on an area of 2 m2. What is the pressure
resulting from this force?

Solution:

Medium

Example 3: A block of wood has a mass of 20 kg. Its length, breadth and height are 30
cm, 25 cm and 10 cm respectively. On which of its sides should it rest so that it exerts
the least pressure on the ground? Also, calculate this pressure. (Take g = 10 m/s2)

Solution: The side of the block that has the greatest surface area will exert the least
pressure on the ground, and vice versa. Therefore, in order to exert the least pressure on
the ground, the block should rest on the side having the dimensions 30 cm × 25 cm.

We can compute the least pressure exerted by the block as follows

Example 4: Explain why the wheels of an army tank are covered over by a wide steel
belt?

Solution: The steel belt covering the wheels of an army tank has a large surface area. This
reduces the pressure exerted by the tank on the ground. As a result, the tank can move
easily without damaging the ground or sinking in it.

Know Your Scientist

Blaise Pascal (1623−1662) was a great mathematician and physicist. He worked in the
field of geometry and helped in the development of calculators. He also contributed to
studies relating to fluids and the pressure distribution in them. The SI unit of pressure is
named after him. One pascal is equal to the amount of pressure exerted by a force of one
newton on one-square-metre area.
Walking on a Sand Bed

Have you ever wondered why walking on a sand bed is more difficult than walking on a
hard road? Let us understand the reason for this phenomenon.

You already know that we push the ground with some force while walking, and the ground
in turn applies the same force on our feet. The concrete or soil particles comprising a hard
road are tightly bound and immovable. As a result, the reaction force of the ground on our
feet is almost equal to the force of our feet on the ground.

A sand bed, on the other hand, consists of loose and movable particles of sand. While
walking, these particles get displaced by the force applied by our feet. Consequently, the
reaction force of the ground on our feet reduces, which makes walking difficult.
 In other words, a hard, rigid surface is able to sustain the pressure applied upon it. Hence,
such a surface allows easy movement. However, a soft, loose surface gets deformed under
the applied pressure. Hence, such a surface hampers movement.

This phenomenon shows how the same pressure applied by the same force on the same
surface area of different surfaces leads to different results.

Applications of Pressure

A few applications of the pressure are discussed here.

1. If you observe a knife used for cutting vegetables, you will notice that the edge of the
knife is made very sharp and the area of the edge is very small. Therefore, the pressure on
the edge is very high which allows us to cut the materials very easily and with little effort.

2. The area over which the weight of a skier is distributes is greatly increased by the skis.
This reduces the pressure on the snow, and thus, allows the skier to move over snow
without sinking into it.

3. While using a straw to drink anything, air is sucked out of the straw. Due to this, the
pressure inside the straw is decreased. Hence, the atmospheric pressure outside, forces the
liquid to go into the straw.

4. The straps of shoulder bags are generally made broad. The larger area of the strap
reduces the pressure on the shoulder of the person who is carrying the bag which makes
the bag easier and more comfortable to carry.
Pressure Exerted by Fluids

A fluid is a substance that doesn’t have any fixed shape and yields easily to external
pressure. Like solids, fluids (liquids and gases) have weight and can exert pressure on the
walls of the container in which they are enclosed. When you exert pressure on the surface
of a liquid or gas, the pressure is transmitted undiminished through the volume of the fluid
in all directions.
The shape and area of a fluid surface do not affect the pressure exerted by the fluid. It is the
height of the fluid column which determines this pressure.

Did You Know?

Air in the atmosphere also exerts pressure. This is known as atmospheric pressure.

Instruments that Measure Pressure

Here are some instruments used for measuring pressure.

Bourdon Manometer Barometer

pressure gauge

Relative Density
Relative Densities − An Overview

Whenever we use the term ‘relative’ to describe something, a sense of comparison comes to
our mind. ‘Relative’ when used with ‘density’ also implies a comparison. It means the
comparison of the density of matter.
Knowing the relative density of a substance with respect to that of a liquid helps one figure
out whether it will float in the liquid or not. In this lesson, we will learn the concept of
relative density in detail.

Question: Have you ever wondered why a cork floats while a nail sinks in water?

Solution: The density of a cork is less than that of water, whereas the density of a nail is
greater than that of water. A substance whose density is less than that of a liquid will float
on the surface of that liquid. Thus, a cork floats in water. On the other hand, a substance
whose density is greater than that of a liquid will sink in that liquid. Thus, a nail sinks in
water.

Density

The density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume of that substance.

The SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3). Sometimes a smaller unit
of density - gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3) is also used.

The following table shows the densities of some common substances.

Substances Densities Substances Densities

(kg/m3) (kg/m3)
 Water 1000 Mercury 13600

Kerosene 810 Ice (0°C) 916

Cork 240 Sea water 1025

Iron 7870 Wood 800

Glycerine 1260 Alcohol 790

Know More

The density of the Dead Sea (also called the Salt Sea) is about 1.25 times greater than that
of pure water. This density is so high that no human can sink in the Dead Sea. So, one can
easily float on the surface of the Dead Sea.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: The mass of 2 m3 of aluminium is 5400 kg. Calculate its density in SI unit.

Solution: It is given that:

Volume of aluminium = 2 m3

Its mass = 5400 kg

We know that:

Relative Density: In Depth

Raju is studying in the light of a kerosene lantern. Suddenly, the light of the lantern goes out
because the lower end of the wick is not able to reach the kerosene in the fuel container (as
shown in Figure A). Not knowing what to do, Raju asks his father. His father tells him to
carefully pour some water in the fuel container, making sure that the wick does not come in
contact with the water. Raju does as told and is surprised to see the light of the lantern
become bright again.

What do you think happens in the fuel container? Does the water start acting as a
fuel?

The answer to the second question is NO. Water does not act as a fuel for the lantern. What
really happens is this. When poured into the fuel container, the water settles down and
causes the kerosene to rise and float on its surface. The lower end of the wick is once again
immersed in kerosene and hence, the lantern becomes bright again. A clear partition arises
between kerosene and water (as shown Figure B). This happens because the density of
kerosene (810 kg/m3) is less than that of water (1000 kg/m3). In other words, since the
relative density of kerosene is less than that of water, it floats in water.

Relative Density: In Depth

The relative density of a substance is defined as its density with respect to that of water
(water at 4 oC).

Relative density of a substance =

Relative density is also called specific gravity. It should be remembered that

because relative density is a ratio of the same physical quantities, it has no unit. It is a
pure number.

The following table shows the relative densities of a few substances.

Substances Relative Substances Relative

densities densities
 Water 1 Mercury 13.6

Kerosene 0.81 Ice (0°C) 0.916

Cork 0.24 Sea water 1.025

Iron 7.87 Wood 0.8

Glycerine 1.26 Alcohol 0.79

Aluminium 2.7 Gold 19.3

The Relative density of a substance can also be given as the ratio of the mass of the
substance to the mass of an equal volume of water at 4 oC i.e.

Relative density of a substance (R.D.)

Relative Density of a Solid Substance by Archimedes' Principle

Using Archimedes' principle, we can find the relative density of a solid substance as

where W1 is the weight of the body in air and W2 is the weight of the body in water.

(1) Relative density of a solid denser than water and insoluble in it

Relative Density of a Liquid Substance by Archimedes' Principle

By definition, relative density of a liquid is

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: What is the significance of relative density?

Solution: Relative density helps us to determine the density of an unknown substance by

using the density of a known substance. It enables geologists to calculate the mineral
content in rocks.

Example 2: What are the differences between density and relative density?

Solution: The density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume of that
substance. The SI unit of density is kg/m3.

The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of a reference material.
Usually, the reference material is water. Relative density is also known as specific gravity. It
is a pure number, and has no unit.

Archimedes' Principle
Archimedes’ Principle: An Overview

‘Eureka! Eureka!’ Screaming thus, Archimedes came out of his bathtub and ran straight to
his king. A popular legend related to the discovery of the principle of buoyancy ends in this
manner.

What is this principle of buoyancy? And why is it so important? If you have wondered
about this phenomenon, then the following questions must have arisen in your mind.
 • What has buoyancy to do with the
floatation of bodies in liquids?

• Why does a piece of cork rise back to the

surface of water even after you force it
harder into water?

• Why does a piece of nail made of steel sink

but a ship made of the same material float in
water?

• Why do you feel lighter while swimming in

a pool?

•How can Archimedes’ discovery be used in

determining the purity of a substance?

Let us go through this lesson to get the answers to all the above questions.

Buoyancy

When an object is immersed partially or fully in a liquid, it experiences an upward force.

This upward force is known as buoyant force and the phenomenon is called buoyancy.

When an object is immersed in a liquid, its weight seems to be less than its actual weight.
The buoyant force exerted by the liquid is responsible for this phenomenon.

Cause of buoyant force

When a body is partially or fully immersed in a liquid, the displaced fluid has the
tendency to regain its original position due to gravity. An upward force—called the
buoyant force—is, thus, exerted on the body by the displaced fluid.

In equilibrium, the buoyant force is balanced by the weight of the immersed body or
the force of gravity acting on it.

The magnitude of the buoyant force acting on the immersed body depends upon two
factors.

 Volume of the immersed body

 Density of the liquid
The density of a substance, with respect to the density of a liquid, determines whether the
substance will sink or float in the liquid. An iron nail sinks in water because the density of
iron is greater than that of water. On the other hand, a cork floats in water as the density of
cork is less than that of water. Density is expressed in terms of the volume of a substance.
Hence, volume plays a major role in deciding whether a substance will sink or float. Such a
relation was given by Archimedes.

Know Your Scientist

Archimedes (287−212 BC) was a Greek mathematician and physicist. According to a

legend, he discovered the principle of buoyancy (Archimedes’ principle) while taking a
bath. It is said that he was so excited with his discovery that he ran naked in the street
shouting ‘Eureka’.

Apart from this principle, Archimedes made some very important contributions to the
fields of mechanics and geometry. He is considered one of the three greatest
mathematicians of all time.
Archimedes’ Principle

Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is immersed wholly or partially in a

liquid, it experiences an upward buoyant force of magnitude equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced by it.

Buoyant force on an immersed body = Weight of the displaced liquid

Weight of the displaced liquid = Mass of the displaced liquid × Acceleration due to gravity

= Density of the liquid × Volume of the displaced liquid × Acceleration due to gravity

Volume of the displaced liquid = Volume of the immersed body

So,
Weight of the displaced liquid = Volume of the immersed body × Density of the liquid ×
Acceleration due to gravity

Hence, we can write the magnitude of the upthrust on a body immersed in a liquid as
follows:

Buoyant force on an immersed body = Volume of the immersed body × Density of the liquid

× Acceleration due to gravity

The buoyant force on an immersed body depends on the density of the liquid in which the
body is immersed. So, this force is different in different liquids for the same body.

Application of Archimedes’ Principle

Archimedes’ principle can be used for determining the purity of substances such as gold.

Suppose we have a gold crown and need to determine if it is pure gold or not. We also have
a block of pure gold as reference. The block and the crown have the same mass (as shown
in the figure). Using Archimedes’ principle, we can compare the densities of the crown and
the block. If the crown is less dense than the block, then it will displace more water —
owing to its greater volume. Consequently, the crown will experience a greater buoyant
force than the block (as shown in the figure). This will indicate that the gold used in making
the crown is not pure, but has some other metal or alloy mixed in it.

Example 1: Do you know how submarines are made to float or sink as desired?
Solution: A submarine has large tanks onboard which control how deep it sinks or how
high it rises. These tanks are called ballast tanks. To sink the submarine, the tanks are filled
with water. The greater the amount of water in the tanks, the deeper does the submarine
sink.

To raise the submarine, water is released from the tanks and compressed air (kept onboard
in flasks) is let into them. The greater the amount of compressed air in the tanks, the higher
does the submarine rise.

Example 2: When an iron block is dipped in water, it displaces 10 kg of water.

Calculate the amount of buoyant force (in Newton) acting on the iron block. (Take g =
9.8 m/s2)

Solution: According to Archimedes’ principle, the buoyant force on the iron block is equal
to the weight of the water displaced by it.

It is given that:

Mass of the water displaced = 10 kg

Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2

∴ Weight of the water displaced = Mass of the water displaced × Acceleration due to gravity

= 10 × 9.8 = 98 N

Hence, the buoyant force acting on the iron block is 98 N.

Medium

Example 3: How do the densities of an object and a liquid affect the sinking or
floating of the object in the liquid?
Solution: Suppose an object of density ρ and volume V is immersed completely in a liquid
of density σ.

Then,

Apparent weight of the object = W − w = Vρg − Vσg

Where, W = Weight of the object

w = Weight of the water displaced by the immersed part of the object

Case I: If W > w (ρ > σ), then W − w is positive.

In this case, the object will sink.

Case II: If W < w (ρ < σ), then W − w is negative.

In this case, the object will float.

Case III: If W = w (ρ = σ), then W − w = 0.

In this case, the object will rest anywhere within the liquid.

Hard

Example 4:An object weighs 300 N in air and 150 N in water. Find its relative density.

Solution:Let us take:

Volume of the object = V

Density of the object =

Density of water =

Acceleration due to gravity = g

It is given that the weight of the object in air is 300 N.

We know that:

Weight of the object = V g

So,

V g = 300 N (Neglecting the buoyancy of air)

ρ=300Vg ...(i)ρ=300Vg ...(i)

It is also given that the apparent weight of the object in water is 150 N.

We know that:

Apparent weight of the object = Weight of the object − Weight of the water displaced by it

Example 5:An object of density ρ floats in kerosene of density 0.7 × 103 kg/m3 up to a
certain mark. If the same object is placed in water of density 1 × 103 kg/m3, will it
sink more or less in water?

Solution:Let us take:

Volume of the object = V

Height of the cross-section of the object = h

Area of the cross-section of the object = A

Height of the object when immersed in kerosene = h'

Height of the object when immersed in water = h"

 Acceleration due to gravity = g

It is given that:

Density of the object = ρ

Density of kerosene, ρk = 0.7 × 103 kg/m3

Density of water, ρw = 1 × 103 kg/m3

According to Archimedes’ principle:

Weight of the object = Weight of the kerosene displaced by the object

= Weight of the water displaced by the object

Sinking or Floating

Two forces act on an object placed in a liquid:

 Weight (W) of the object, which acts downwards

 Buoyant force or upthrust (W') exerted by the liquid, which acts upwards

For any object immersed in a liquid:

 If the density of the object is less than the density of the liquid then it will float. The object
will be immersed to an extent until the weight of the volume of liquid displaced is equal to
the weight of the object
 If the density of the object is more than the density of the liquid then the object will sink as
its weight is more than the weight of the liquid displaced.
 If the density of the object is equal to the density of the liquid then it will neither float nor
sink in the liquid. It will remain in equilibrium within the liquid wherever it is placed.
 Law of Flotation

According to the law of flotation, an object will float in a liquid if its weight is equal to or
less than the weight of the liquid displaced by it.

The floating object may be partially or fully submerged in the liquid. Liquid is displaced by
the submerged portion of the object.

We can tell whether an object will float or sink in a liquid by comparing its density (or
average density) to that of the liquid.

For any object immersed in a liquid:

 If the average density of the object is less than that of the liquid, then the object will float in
the liquid.
 If the density of the object is equal to that of the liquid, then the object will float in the
liquid but no part of it will be above the surface of the liquid.
 If the density of the object is greater than that of the liquid, then the object will sink in the
liquid.
 Work and Energy

Work
Work − Basic Idea

In everyday usage, the word ‘work’ indicates any activity involving physical or mental
effort aimed at achieving some definite and well-defined objective. In contrast, the
scientific usage of this term has a more restricted meaning.

In science work is said to be done by a force when a force causes a displacement of a body.
Thus, work in scientific term is dependent on the force applied and the displacement
caused. Since, force and displacement are vector quantities we must consider the angle
between the force and displacement also.

Scientifically, no work is done in any of the preceding examples. This is because there is no
net displacement of any object.

Work − Definition and Unit

In physics, the term ‘work’ is used to define situations where motion results through the
action of a force. The amount of work done is measured by multiplying the applied force
with the distance through which a body moves along the line of action of the force.

Suppose a wooden box is kept on a table. When a force of

magnitude F acts on the box, it gets displaced through a distance s in the direction of the
applied force (as shown in the figure).

Thus work done (W) is given by the scalar product of force (F) and displacement (s).

Work = Force × Displacement

So, work can be defined as follows:

The work done in moving a body is equal to the product of the force on the body and
the displacement of the body in the direction of the applied force.

The SI unit of work is joule (J).

When a body moves a distance of one metre along the direction of an applied force of
one newton, the work done is one joule.

1 J = 1 N × 1 m = 1 N-m

Did You Know?

Work is the product of force and displacement. Both force and displacement have
magnitude as well as direction. However, work has only magnitude, and no
direction.

This is because work is the scalar product of two vectors—force and displacement.

Since force and displacement are vector quantities, we must consider the angle between
them as well.

If θ is the angle between the vectors F (force)

and s (displacement), then their product (i.e.,
work) is defined as:

The product of F and s is a dot product. Dot products are scalar in nature, i.e., they have
magnitude, but no specified direction.
Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: Rajesh, Rakesh and Ramesh push a heavy box one by one along the
ground. The following table lists the magnitude of force applied and the
displacement of the box in each case.
 Person Force applied (in Displacement (in
newtons) metres)
Rajesh 100 3

Rakesh 200 2

Ramesh 300 1

Who has done the maximum amount of work on the box?

Solution:

The following table shows the amount of work done on the box by each person. It is clear
that Rakesh has done the maximum amount of work.
Person Force applied (in Displacement (in Work done
newtons) metres) (force ×
displacement;
in joules)
Rajesh 100 3 100 × 3 = 300

Rakesh 200 2 200 × 2 = 400

Ramesh 300 1 300 × 1 = 300

Medium

Example 2a: What is the force acting on a body displaced through a distance of 100
hectometres due to work of 500 erg?

Solution:

Work = 500 erg = 5 × 10−5 J

Displacement = 100 hm = 104 m

We know that:

Work = Force × Displacement

∴ Force

= 5 × 10−9 N
Example 2b: A force of 2.5 N is acting on an object, causing the object to be displaced
by 1.8 metres in the direction of the force. What is the work done by the force?

Solution:

We know that:

Work done = Force × Displacement

Applied force = 2.5 N

Displacement = 1.8 m

∴ Work done = 2.5 × 1.8 = 4.5 J

Hard

Example 3a: Consider the three scenarios.

Case I: A boy is pushing Case II: A book is pushed Case III: The book is lifted
a wall along a table from the table

In which of the above case(s) is work done?

Solution:

Work is done in ‘Case II’ and ‘Case III’.

Case I: Even if we push a wall with the maximum force that we can apply, the wall will not
move. Thus, there is no net displacement, and consequently, no work is done.

Case II:If we push a book along a table, then it will move to a certain distance depending
upon the force applied. Thus, there is a net displacement in the position of the book, and
consequently, work is done. This work is done against the frictional force existing between
the book and the surface of the table.

Case III:If the book is lifted to a certain height, then a force is exerted against gravity. This
force displaces the book to the said height. Thus, once again, there is a net displacement in
the position of the book, and consequently, work is done.

Example 3b: A satellite of mass 2000 kg is revolving around the earth in a nearly circular
orbit of radius 42000 km. The gravitational force of attraction between the earth and the
satellite is 450 N.

What is the work done by the earth on the satellite?

Solution:

Scientifically, work done by a body is considered to be equal to zero when the direction of
force and that of displacement are at right angle with each other. Hence, the displacement
in the direction of applied force is zero that ultimately makes the work done zero. In the
given case, the satellite is moving around the earth in a nearly circular orbit. Therefore, its
direction of displacement at any instant will be perpendicular to its orbit. And hence, the
gravitational force of earth will act at right angle to the direction of motion of satellite. This
is also shown in the following figure.

Therefore, the work done by the earth on the satellite moving around it is zero.
Know Your Scientist

James Prescott Joule (1818−1889)

 James Prescott Joule (1818−1889)

He was an English physicist. At the age of sixteen, he studied with the

British chemist, John Dalton. He began his independent research in a
laboratory built at home where he hoped to replace steam engines
with electric motors. He was also an inventor. He invented electrical
welding and the displacement pump. The unit of energy is named in
his honour.

Work Done by a Constant Force

Positive Work

A force is said to do work when it induces a displacement. If the force and displacement are
in the same direction, then the work done is positive. If the force and displacement are in
opposite directions, then the work done is negative.

Positive work: A book being pushed along a table

If force and displacement are in the same direction, then the angle between them is 0o.

We know that:

Work done (W) = Force (F) × Displacement (s) × cos θ

So, we get:

W = F × s × cos 0°

= Fs ( cos 0° = 1)

Negative Work
 Negative work:A soccer player’s hand pushed backward while stopping a fast-moving
football

If force and displacement are in opposite directions, then the angle between them is 180°.

So, we get:

W = F × s × cos 180°

= −Fs( cos 180° = −1)

Zero Work

The following table lists the conditions for zero work done.

Conditions for zero work Calculation of work done

The net force should be equal to zero. F × s × cos θ = 0 × s × cos θ = 0

 The net displacement should be equal to F × s × cos θ = F × 0 × cos θ =
zero. 0

The force and displacement should be F × s × cos θ = F × s × cos 90°

perpendicular to each other. =F×s×0=0

While the coolie moves forward, he exerts a net force in the upward direction.
The force and displacement are perpendicular to each other. Hence, the work done is zero,
as is shown by the calculation below.

W = F × s × cos θ

= F × s × cos 90°

=F×s×0=0

No work is done by a coolie when he walks with a heavy luggage on his head.

Zero Work- Examples

Take a look at these examples of the three conditions for zero work.

The net force on the box is zero.

Hence, no work is done.
The book moves from
point A to point B through
a distance s. The work
done on the book by the
 There is no displacement of gravitational force is zero.
the wall. So, the work done This is because the force is
is zero. acting at a right angle to
the displacement of the
book.

Work Done Against Gravity

he force of gravity acts on all objects bound to Earth. Any object on Earth’s surface
experiences a gravitational pull—called weight—towards Earth’s centre. If an object is to
be displaced in the upward direction, then work has to be done against this gravitational
pull.

Suppose a block of mass m is on Earth’s surface. The weight of the block is mg. This weight
acts vertically downward. At the same time, the ground also exerts an equal and opposite
force—as a reaction force—on the block. As a result, the block remains at rest.

Let us now apply a force F, which is slightly larger than the weight of the block, in the
upward direction.

F ≈ mg

As the block leaves the ground, this applied force moves it in the upward direction with
zero acceleration. The acceleration is zero because the applied force is negligibly larger
than the weight of the block.

The block is moved to a height h above the ground. Thus, the applied force causes a
displacement h of the block in the upward direction.

The force and displacement are in the same direction. It is essential that the height h is very
small compared to Earth’s radius.
 So, the work done by the applied force in moving the block against gravity with zero
acceleration is given as:

W = F × h = mgh

Work Done by a Force Acting Obliquely to Displacement

A force making an angle with the motion of an object will not completely take part in
inducing the motion of that object. Only the component of the force along the direction of
displacement will be responsible for the motion of the object.

Suppose force F is acting on a block of mass m and is making an angle θ with the horizontal.

This force can be resolved into two perpendicular components.

 The horizontal component of the force is given as: F cos θ

 The vertical component of the force is given as: F sin θ

Net vertical force = Normal reaction due to the floor + Vertical component of the force

= N + F sin θ

It is the horizontal component of the force which causes the displacement s of the block.

So, the work done on the block by the force F is given as:

W = (F cos θ) s = Fs cos θ

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: How much work is done by the gravitational force when 256 kg block of wood
falls through 2.80 m?
Solution:

Force with which the block of wood is pulled down by gravity is, F = mg = (256)(9.8) =
2508.8 N

The force and the displacement are both downwards, so the angle between them is 0o.

So, work done is, W = Fd = (2508.8)(2.80) = 7024.64 J

Medium

Example 2: The work done in lifting a suitcase from the floor to a table depends on

a. the path you take to lift the suitcase

b. the time you take to lift the book

c. the height of the table from the floor

d. the mass of the suitcase and hence its weight

Solution:

The work done in lifting a suitcase is equal to the change in PE of the suitcase. It is equal to
the product of the weight of suitcase and the height of the table.

(a) Work does NOT depend on the path, as long as there are no non-conservative forces
doing work.

(b) Work does NOT depend on the time taken.

(c) Work DOES depend on the height of the table − the higher the table, the more work it
takes to lift the suitcase.

(d) Work DOES depend on the weight of the suitcase − the more the suitcase weighs the
more work it takes to lift the suitcase.

Hard

Example 3: A force of 10 N acting on a body of mass 2 kg, which was initially at rest, at an
angle of 600 with the horizontal direction displaces the body through a distance of 2 m
along the surface of a floor. Calculate the work done and the kinetic energy of the block.

Solution:
 Force, F = 10 N

Angle with horizontal, θ = 60o

Displacement in horizontal direction, S = 2 m

Component of force along horizontal direction is = F cosθ = (10)(cos60) = 5 N

So, work done is, W = (5)(2) = 10 J

The acceleration of the block is, a = F/m = 10/2 = 5 m/s2

Using,

v2 = u2 + 2as

=> v2 = 0 + (2)(5)(2) = 20

=> ½ mv2 = (0.5)(2)(20) = 20 J

Kinetic Energy
Energy

The world requires a lot of energy. To satisfy this demand, we have natural energy sources
such as the sun, wind, water at a height and tides. We also have artificial energy sources
such as petroleum and natural gas.

Energy exists in various forms. Some of these are

 Light energy
 Sound energy
 Heat energy
 Mechanical energy
 Electrical energy
 Chemical energy
 Nuclear energy

Kinetic Energy

Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by an object having the potential to do work. It
is associated with the motion or the position and configuration of the object. Mechanical
energy is of the following two types.

 Kinetic energy (associated with the motion of an object)

 Potential energy (associated with the position and configuration of an object)

The amount of energy carried by a moving object is linked to its mass and speed. This
energy is called kinetic energy. For example, a moving truck causes more damage than a
small car travelling at the same speed. which implies that the truck carries more energy
than the car.

Kinetic Energy

The energy of a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.

The SI unit of work is joule (J), named after the physicist James P. Joule.

Suppose a body of mass m is moving with a uniform velocity u. Let an external force be
applied on it so that it gets displaced by distance s and its velocity becomes v. In this
scenario, the kinetic energy of the moving body is equal to the work that was required to
change its velocity from u to v.

Thus, we have the velocity−position relation as:

v2 = u2 + 2as

OR

Where, a is the acceleration of the body during the change in its velocity

Now, the work done on the body by the external force is given by:

W=F×s

F = ma …(ii)
 From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain:

If the body was initially at rest (i.e., u = 0), then:

Since kinetic energy is equal to the work done on the body to change its velocity from 0
to v, we obtain:

The kinetic energy of a body is directly proportional to —

 Its mass (m)

 The square of its velocity (v2)

It is the kinetic energy of the wind that is used for generating electricity through
windmills.

Relationship between kinetic energy and momentum

Work−Energy Theorem

Work can be done to induce motion in a body at rest. The moving body possesses kinetic
energy. Thus, we can say that the work done on the body is stored in it as some form of
energy.
The work−energy theorem states that the work done on a body is equal to the
change in the kinetic energy of the body.

Suppose a body of mass m pushed by a force F has an acceleration a, due to which its
velocity is u at time t = t1 and its velocity becomes v at time t = t2.

The force on the body is, F = ma

Thus, the work done by the force to increase the speed of the moving body is stored in the
body as its increased kinetic energy.

Potential Energy
Potential Energy: Core Concepts

An object possesses potential energy by virtue of its position or height.

Take a rubber band and stretch it. When you release one end of the rubber band, it returns
to its original position. The band had acquired energy in the stretched position. How did it
acquire this energy?

Take a spring-loaded toy car and wind it using its key. When you release it on the ground,
the toy car begins to move. How did it get this energy to move?

In the above case, the energy was stored in the objects because of the deformations in their
configuration. When work was done to change their shape, energy got stored in them. This
energy is also known as potential energy or elastic potential energy.

So, when you stretched the rubber band, you transferred energy to the rubber band.
Similarly, when you wound the spring of the toy car, you transferred energy to the spring.
Consequently, the rubber band and the spring retained potential energy by virtue of their
configuration.

We can thus define potential energy as the energy stored in a body by virtue of its position
or configuration.

Potential Energy of an Object at a Height

As the distance or height of a body from the ground changes, the potential energy
possessed by the body also undergoes change. As it rises, its potential energy also
increases. Its potential energy becomes zero when it is brought back to the ground level.

Suppose a body of mass m is initially at a height h1 from the ground. It is then taken to a
height h2.

Note: Gravitational potential energy depends upon

the reference level

Potential energy at height h1 = mgh1

Potential energy at height h2 = mgh2

Change in potential energy due to change in height = mg (h2 − h1)

Let us say that the body was originally on the ground and was then taken to a height h. In
that case,

h1 = 0

h2 = h

So, change in potential energy = mg (h2 − h1) = mg (h − 0) = mgh

Whiz Kid

The potential energy of an object at a height depends upon a chosen reference level, called
the zero level. It is so named because the potential energy of an object placed on this
reference level is zero. In the given figure, the potential energy of the ball with respect to
‘Reference level I’ is greater than the energy it possesses with respect to ‘Reference level II’.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: What is the potential energy of a body of mass 2 kg kept at a height of 10

m above the zero level? (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)

Solution:

The potential energy of the body is computed as:

Ep = m × g × h

Here, mass, m = 2 kg

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2

Height, h = 10 m

∴ Ep = 2 × 9.8 × 10 = 196 J

Hence, the potential energy of the body is 196 J.

Medium

Example 2: The potential energy of an object of mass 10 kg increases by 5000 J when

it is raised through a height h. What is the value of h? (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)

Solution:

The potential energy of the object is given as:

Ep = m × g × h

Here, mass, m = 10 kg

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2

Potential energy, Ep = 5000 J

⇒ 5000 = 10 × 9.8 × h

Hard

Example 3: ‘n’ books each of thickness ‘d’ and mass ‘m’ lie flat on a table. How much
work is required to stack them one on top of another?

Solution:

No work is done to place the first book as it is already in position.

The second book must be moved upwards by a distance d and the force required is equal to
its weight, mg.

The force and the displacement are in the same direction, so the work is mgd.

The third book will need to be moved a distance of 2d by the same size force, so the work is
2mgd.

Similarly, the work done to lift the nth book is (n - 1) mgd.

Thus the work done is, W = mgd + 2mgd + 3mgd +…………… + (n - 1)mgd

=> W = ½ n(n − 1)mgd

Potential Energy and Work

Work has to be done to raise the potential energy of a body. The work done in changing the
position or configuration of a body is stored in the body as potential energy.

Suppose a body of mass m is initially at a height h1 from the ground. It is then taken to a
height h2. A force equal to its weight, mg, is applied to increase its height and the body is
moved with zero acceleration.
The work done by the force mg in displacing the body from height h1 to height h2 is given
as:

W = mg (h2 − h1)

This expression is the same as the change in the potential energy of the body. Thus, we can
say that the work done in changing its height is stored in it as potential energy.

Energy Stored in a Compressed Spring

Suppose a spring of spring constant k is compressed by a length x.

The work done in compressing the spring is found to be:

This work done is stored in the spring as elastic potential energy.

∴ Elastic potential energy of a spring compressed by a length x =

Law of Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy − An Overview

The energy that you use to press the enter/return key on your keyboard has its source in
the sun. Strange, isn’t it? The red light at the bottom of the computer mouse glows using
electrical energy generated in a thermal or hydel power station. In a power station,
different forms of energy get converted into electrical energy for our use. Nowhere in this
universe is energy ever created. It is only converted from one form to another. Go through
this lesson to understand the concept behind the law of conservation of energy.

Consider a system of bodies which neither receives energy from without nor gives up any.
In such a system, the total amount of energy remains unchanged—regardless of the actions
or changes that may take place within the system. This unchanging energy simply
manifests itself in different forms (e.g., sound, heat, light, etc.). Our universe is such a
system of bodies.

The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of this universe is
conserved or constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed; however, it can be
transformed from one form to another.

The sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of a system is called mechanical
energy.

EMech = Kinetic energy + Potential Energy Or, EMech = K + U

These two forms of energy change as they transform back and forth into each other;
however, at any point, their sum remains constant.

ΔEMech = ΔK + ΔU

The mechanical energy of a system is conserved only when the system does not gain or lose
energy in any form.

Quick Questions

Question 1: So many forms of energy are observed in nature. How do we use these
forms of energy in our daily life? The chemical energy stored in an electric cell can be
used to power a bulb to produce light. Where does this light energy come from?

Solution: Various devices like generators, wind mill, solar panel etc convert one form of
energy to another. Example: Wind mill converts wind energy to electrical energy which can
be used to light a bulb or charge batteries.
In an electric cell the chemical energy gets converted into electrical energy which heats the
filament of a bulb. The hot filament produces light and some heat. Thus, we have chemical
energy transformed into heat and light energy.

Question 2: How the transformation of energy takes place in the wind-up toy car?
What is the prime source of energy in the process? Do you know any more toys that
work on the same principle?

Solution: When you turn the key of the wind-up toy car the muscular energy from your
body is stored in the coiled spring of the toy car. Which when released rotates the wheel of
the toy car and hence the energy appears as the kinetic energy of the car.

The energy of the muscle comes from the food we take which is obtained from plants and
animals. The prime source of the energy contained in the food molecules comes from the
sun. Thus, sun is the prime source of energy in the process.

Total energy of a freely falling body is always constant. Let see this using a graphical
representation.

A body of mass m is falling freely under the action of gravity from the height h above the
ground. As this body falls down, its potential energy changes into the kinetic energy but at
each point of motion the sum of potential and kinetic energy remains unchanged. Hence the
mechanical energy remains conserved.

Curve Showing Conservation of Mechanical Energy of a Freely Falling Body:

Similarly, when a body is thrown up with some initial velocity, its kinetic energy goes on
decreasing whereas its potential energy goes on increasing with height. The motion is such
that at each point of time mechanical energy remains conserved. Thus , the initial kinetic
energy of the body of mass m thrown upwards with say initial velocity u to reach certain
height, say h, must be equal to the potential energy of the body at that height. So,

Conservation of Mechanical Energy in a Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a bob suspended from a string with a support. It works on
the principle of alternative transformation of kinetic and potential energy. At any instant,
the total energy of the bob remains the same.

At point A, the bob has potential energy, but zero kinetic energy. This is because it is at rest.
When released from this point, its potential energy starts decreasing. At the same time, it
gains kinetic energy. Consequently, at point B, it has both potential and kinetic energy.
Potential energy becomes zero as the bob passes through the zero level at point C. As it
moves further, its kinetic energy starts decreasing. Simultaneously, it gains potential
energy. Thus, at point D, the bob has both forms of energy. Finally, at point E, the bob is
again at rest and has only potential energy (like when it was at point A).

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: Two bodies of masses 6m and 12m are kept at a height of h and 2h from a
reference level. What is the ratio of potential energy of the masses?

Solution: Mass of A is 6m

Height of A from the ground is h

PE of A is = (6m)(g)(h) = 6mgh

Mass of B is 12m

Height of A from the ground is 2h

PE of A is = (12m)(g)(2h) = 24mgh

Therefore,

PE of A : PE of B = 6mgh : 24mgh = 1 : 4

Medium

Example 2: A ball of mass 200 g is dropped from a height of 10 m. What will be its
velocity when it hits the ground? (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)

Solution:

By the law of conservation of energy:

Loss in the potential energy of the ball = Gain in the kinetic energy of the ball

Loss in potential energy = mgh

Here, m = Mass of the ball = 200 g

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2

h = Height from which the ball falls = 10 m

Gain in kinetic energy =

Here, v = Velocity of the ball just before it hits the ground

According to the law of conservation of energy:

⇒ v2 = 2gh

⇒ v2 = 2 × 9.8 × 10 = 196 (m/s)2

⇒ v = 14 m/s

Therefore, when the ball hits the ground, its velocity will be 14 m/s.

Hard

Example 3: Two objects of masses m1 and m2 have same kinetic energy. Both are
stopped with the same retarding force F. If m1 > m2, then which mass will stop in
shorter distance?

Solution:
Power

Here, the tortoise and rabbit apply the same force to move the box through the same
distance. The rabbit gets lazy, but the tortoise maintains its slow and steady pace.
Undoubtedly, both do the same work, but the tortoise takes less time to complete the work.
So, the tortoise proves to be more powerful.

Considering that the same force of magnitude is applied, the work done to raise a weight
through a distance is the same as the work done to push another weight through the same
distance. The time required to do the work determines the rate of working, but has nothing
to do with the amount of work.

Power − Definition and Unit

A given amount of work may be done either in a short time or a long time. In commercial
operations, the rate of working or the work done per second/per hour is an important
consideration.

Power is defined as the rate of doing work. The SI unit of power is watt (W) which is
joules per second.
This relation shows that for a given work, power is inversely proportional to the time
taken. We can obtain a mathematical relation for power by dividing the work done by time
taken.

We know that energy is consumed when work is done. Therefore, we can also define power
as the rate at which energy is consumed or utilised. Consequently, we can calculate power
by dividing energy consumed by time taken.

Since energy has only magnitude and no direction, power also has only magnitude and no
direction.

Power is also defined as the product of force and average speed.

If a constant force F acts on a body and displaces it by distance S in the direction of force in
time t, then

Know Your Scientist

 James Watt (1736−1819)

He was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer. Improving upon the Newcomen steam
engine, he developed his own machine. Used for pumping water out from mines, it was four
times more powerful than other machines based on Thomas Newcomen’s design. Watt
measured the power of his steam engine with a strong horse. This led him to conclude that
a ‘horsepower’ equals 746 watts.

Power − Definition and Unit

1 Watt is the power of a device that does work at the rate of 1 joule per second. We
can also say that power is 1 W when the rate of consumption of energy is 1 Js-1. We
express larger rates of energy transfer in terms of kilowatt (kW), with 1 kW = 1000 W.

Horse power: It is another unit of power, broadly used in mechanical engineering. 1 H.P. =
746 W = 0.746 kW

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: A body does hundred joules of work in ten seconds. What is its power?

Solution:

Power can be calculated as follows:

Here, work done = 100 J

Time taken = 10 s

On putting these values in the formula, we get:

Hence, the power of the body is ten watts.

Medium
Example 2: A pump lifts ten kilograms of water in two seconds to the top floor of a
house from the ground. The height of the house is ten metres. What is the power of
the pump?
(Take g = 9.8 m/s2)

Solution:

First, we need to calculate the work done by the pump in lifting water against the force of
gravity.

The work done against gravity is given as:

Hence, the power of the pump is 490 W.

Hard

Example 3: Water is to be pumped to fill a tank of volume 30 kL at a height 40 m from

the ground in 15 minutes by a water pump on the ground floor. What is the electric
power consumed by the water pump? Efficiency of the pump is 30%. Density of water
is ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.8 m/s2.

Solution:

Volume of water pumped up in the 15 min is = 30 kL = 30 m3

So, mass of water pumped = Vρ = 30ρ kg

Weight of water pumped = 30ρg N

So, work done in pumping water to a height 40 m above ground = weight × height
= (30ρg)(40)

= 1200ρg

So, power required to lift this water in 15 min or 900 s is = 1200ρg/900 = 4ρg/3

Let, P be the power consumed by the pump. 30% of this power is only used to lift the water.

So, 30% of P = 4ρg/3

=> 0.30P = 4(1000)(9.8)/3

=> P = 43555.5 W

Commercial Unit of Energy

‘This month the meter’s reading is 200 units.’ You might have heard your parents say
something like this after looking at the meter. What kind of ‘units’ do you think they are
referring to? Can these ‘units’ be converted into the standard units of physics? Let us
explore the mystery of these ‘units’.

Joule is a very small unit of energy. It cannot be used for commercial purposes wherein we
need bigger units. So, we have kilowatt-hour (kWh) as the commercial unit of energy.
Kilowatt-hour is defined as the amount of energy consumed when an electrical appliance of
thousand watts power rating is used for one hour.
Suppose a machine uses thousand joules of energy every second. If this machine works
continuously for one hour, it will consume one kilowatt-hour of energy. Therefore, we can
compute one kilowatt-hour of energy as:

1 kWh = 1 kW × 1 h

= 1000 Js−1 × 3600 s = 3600000 J

∴ 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J

The electrical energy used in households, industries and commercial establishments is

expressed in kilowatt-hour or unit. One unit equals one kilowatt-hour, i.e., 1 unit = 1 kWh =
3.6 × 106 J.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: A room heater rated 1 kW is run 2 h daily for a month. If the cost of 1 unit
is Rs. 5, then what is the cost of usage of heater per month?

Solution:

Energy consumed per day is = (2 h) × (1 kW) = 2 kWh

Energy consumed per month is = 30 × 2 = 60 kWh

So, cost of heater usage per month is = 5 × 60 = Rs. 300

Medium

Example 2: ‘Hundred watts’ is printed on an electric bulb. What is the electrical

energy it consumes after four hours of glowing?

Solution:

Power can be given as:

Hence, when used for four hours, the bulb consumes 1440 kJ of energy.

Hard

Example 3: How many units of electrical energy are consumed by a TV set of power
250 W when it is switched on for three hours?

Solution:

Power can be given as:

Hence, when switched on for three hours, the TV set consumes 0.75 units of electrical
energy.