NETWORK MODELS

There are mainly two network models are there:

1.OSI MODEL

Open System Interconnect (OSI) is an open standard for all communication systems.
OSI model is established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model
has seven layers and each layer performs a particular network function.

• Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the

application user. This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with
the user.
• Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote
host should be presented in the native format of host.
• Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For
example, once user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains
this session for a while and does not ask for authentication again in that time
span.
• Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between
hosts.
• Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely
addressing hosts in a network.
• Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from
and onto the line. Link errors are detected at this layer.
• Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power output,
pulse rate etc.
FUNCTIONS OF THE OSI LAYERS
1.PHYSICAL LAYER

o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

2.DATALINK LAYER

o It is a layer 2 in the OSI model.

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
o It defines the format of the data on the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the
frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.
o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It
is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the
sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such
as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station,
with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which
is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error
seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.

3.NETWORK LAYER

o It is a layer 3 that determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other
factors.
 o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IPV4 and IPv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network

layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved
by internet protocol (IP).

4.TRANSPORT LAYER

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
 o TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP(User Datagram Protocol) are
two protocols used in transport layers

Functions of Network Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously

due to this reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not
only from one computer to another computer but also from one process to
another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the address
known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the
network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer
and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the
correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message
from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each
segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each
segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-
oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats
each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to
reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection with
the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
 o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error
control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender
transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

5.SESSION LAYER

o It is a layer 5 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between
two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the
data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of
data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This
process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

6.PRESENTATION LAYER

o It is a layer 6 in the OSI model.

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the

form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different
encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between
the different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent
format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-
dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process
of converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends
the resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7.APPLICATION LAYER

o It is the top most layer of OSI Model.

o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows

a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a
computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding
and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources
and is used to provide that global information about various objects

2.INTERNET MODEL (TCP/IP MODEL)

o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer,
network layer (internet layer), data link layer and physical layer.
o Data link layer and Physical layer are together called Network access layer. So
it may also considered as four layers network model.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers
of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a
single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of
them provides specific functionality.
FUNCTIONS OF TCP/IP LAYERS:

Layer 1: Network Access layer

• Lowest layer of the all.

• Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
• Varies from host to host and network to network

Layer 2: Internet layer

• Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless

internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
• It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
• It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
• Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
• IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
• The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
1. Delivering IP packets
2. Performing routing
3. Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

 • It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
• Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by
transport layer.
• The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
• Transport layer adds header information to the data.
• Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.
• Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the
protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

• TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a

remote machine and run applications on it.
• FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst
computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
• SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
• DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for
Hosts connected over a network.
• It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
• It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
1. TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-
oriented protocol which handles byte-stream from source to destination
without error and flow control.
2. UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less
protocol that do not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-
shot request-reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

• It operated independently.
• It is scalable.
• Client/server architecture.
• Supports a number of routing protocols.
 • Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

• In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

• The model cannot be used in any other application.
• Replacing protocol is not easy.
• It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Communication medium (media ,if there is more than one) refers to the physical
channel through which data is sent and received. i.e a transmission medium is a
physical path between the transmitter and the receiver Data is sent in the form of
voltage levels which make up the digital signal. A digital signal consists of 0s and 1s;
essentially, a 1 corresponds to a high voltage, while a 0 corresponds to a low voltage.

Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types

1.GUIDED MEDIA
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. In guided media,
transmitted data travels through cabling system that has a fixed path.
Features:

• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

1.1 TWISTED PAIR CABLE

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of
the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

A)UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP) :

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:

• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High speed capacity

Disadvantages:

• Susceptible to external interference

• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation

B) SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (STP) :

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used
in fast-data-rate ethernet and in voice , data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:

• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparatively faster

Disadvantages:

• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

• More expensive
• Bulky

1.2 COAXIAL CABLE

Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than twisted pair cables, so
that transmitted signals may travel longer distances at higher speeds. A coaxial cable
consists of these layers, starting from the innermost −
• Stiff copper wire as core (Centre Conductor) – 1st conductor
• Insulating material surrounding the core(Insulator)
• Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material surrounding
the insulator(Shield) – 2nd conductor
• Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire(Jacket)
Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections and LANs.

Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to
each other.

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single

signal at high speed.
 2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.

Advantages:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

1.3 FIBER OPTIC CABLE

A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light

It uses the concept of reflection(Total Internal Reflection). of light through a core

made up of glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic
covering called the cladding. It is used for transmission of large volumes of data.
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as
a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the
core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The
main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and
extra fibre protection.

Advantages:

• Increased capacity and bandwidth

• Light weight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:

• Difficult to install and maintain

• High cost
• Fragile
• unidirectional, ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional
communication
2.UNGUIDED MEDIA
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. An unguided
transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical medium

Features:

• Signal is broadcasted through air

• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances

There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:

2.1 RADIO WAVES

Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are

normally called radio waves.

Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions.

Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate
walls.
Applications :

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages :

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Disadvantages :

• In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned,
i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna.
• The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by
another antenna that may send signal suing the same frequency or band.

2.2 MICROWAVES

Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from
1GHz to 1000 GHz. Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very
useful when unicast(one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the
receiver. They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.

Microwaves are of two types:

A. TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE

Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of

a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.

For increasing the distance served by terrestrial microwave, repeaters can be installed
with each antenna .The signal received by an antenna can be converted into
transmittable form and relayed to next antenna as shown in below figure. It is an
example of telephone systems all over the world
Advantages :

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation
of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages :

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any

malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to
weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain,
wind can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of
microwave transmission.

B. SATELLITE MICROWAVE

A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.IT IS
positioned 36000 Km above the equator with an orbit speed that exactly matches the
rotation speed of the earth. As the satellite is positioned in a geo-synchronous orbit, it
is stationery relative to earth and always stays over the same point on the ground. This
is usually done to allow ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point in the sky.
Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than
cable and fibre optic systems. We can communicate with any point on the globe by
using satellite communication.

Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial

microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch
of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
2.3 INFRARED WAVES

Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-
range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate
walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another, a short-range communication system in on room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room.

When we use infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote
by our neighbours. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless
for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a
building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication