STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

LABORATORY MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Govt.Engineering College Trichur
Thrissur, Kerala
Pin 680009
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY
INSTRUCTIONS TO LAB USERS

DOs
• Maintain proper dress code.
• Take utmost care while carrying out the experiments.
• Follow the standard procedures. Consult experts for clarifications, if any.
• Use sensitive instruments (eg. Extensometer) with utmost care.
• Check the capacity of the machine, proving ring and load cell before test.
• If you observe any problem with the equipments, bring it to the notice of
the laboratory staff immediately.
• Clean and switch off the electronic balance after use.
• Clean the equipments and tools after use and return them to the staff.
• Dispose off the tested specimens properly.

DON’Ts
• Do not overload the machines.
• Do not interchange the weights or remove other accessories from the
equipments without permission.
• Do not distract other students or interfere with the laboratory experiments
of others.
• Do not use equipments which are not allotted to you.
• Do not waste time, energy and materials.

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 Vision of the Institute

To be a Premier Institution of Excellence in Engineering Education and Research for

Sustainable Development.

Mission of the Institute

(i) Provide Quality Education in Engineering and Technology

(ii) Foster Passion for Research
(iii) Transform the Students into Committed Technical Personnel for Social and
Economic Wellbeing of the Nation.
Nation

Vision of the Department

To be a Department of Excellence in Civil Engineering Education and Research for

Sustainable Infrastructure Development.

Mission of the Department

Provide Quality Education in Civil Engineering and Mould Committed and Competent Civil
Engineers Capable of Contributing to Socio-Economic Well being of the Nation.

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 PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO I: Analytical Knowledge and Practical Skills

To infill graduates with analytical knowledge so as to enable them to formulate and solve real
world problems by providing strong foundation in mathematics, science and engineering and
to inculcate practical skills in graduates by providing hands on training in conducting
experiments and analysis/interpretation of data

PEO II: Team Work and Presentation Skills

To produce graduates with good inter-personal and communication skills to lead and work in
multi disciplinary team environments.

PEO III : Employability/ Higher Education

To prepare students for professional level employment in Government, public or private

organizations; and to induce in them strong desire for higher education.

PEO IV : Entrepreneurship

To provide ample opportunity to the students to interact with industry/entrepreneurs/

practicing engineers and technocrats so as to get motivated towards development of
appropriate technology based on local needs and to promote self employment.

PEO V : Ethics and Social Commitment

Imbibe in graduates the awareness of professional ethics and social commitment towards
sustainable development and all round growth of society.

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 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

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 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

1. Familiarize civil engineering components and systems.

2. Design and conduct experiments, analyse and interpret data.

3. Solve problems in structural, construction management, hydraulics, geotechnical,

transportation and environmental disciplines of civil engineering

4. Function effectively in multi-disciplinary teams.

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 PREFACE

The objective of the laboratory work in strength of materials laboratory is to demonstrate the
fundamental principles of strength materials and structural mechanics to the undergraduate
students through a series of experiments. In this lab the experiments are performed to
measure the various mechanical properties of the materials such as impact strength, tensile
strength, compressive strength, hardness, toughness, ductility etc. All tests are conducted in
accordance with the relevant I.S. specifications.

The department of Civil Engineering is highly indebted to Dr. C.V. Lal, Dr. P.T. Nowshaja
and Prof. Miji Cherian R. for spending their time and energy in preparing the original version
of this manual in accordance with the Calicut University scheme. The same has been updated
to include an experiment on verification of Clerk-Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem and a study
on fatigue testing of steel specimens to meet the requirements of the APJAKTU. Further,
modification of the typesetting of the original version has been made.

Sincere thanks are due to Dr. N. Sajikumar, Professor and Head of the Department of Civil
Engineering, for his consistent encouragement in preparation of this manual. Dr. V. Meera
Prof. Reeba Thomas, Prof. Asha B. and Prof. Sreedevi V.M. deserves special mention for
meticulously going through the manuscript. The support rendered by the post-graduate
teaching assistants in preparation of this manual is also highly appreciated.

Dr. S. Arun

(Lab-in-Charge)

Asst. Professor

Dept. of Civil Engineering

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Eminent scientists who made fundamental contributions to the field of
Mechanics and Material Strengths

Jacob Bernoulli Leonard Euler Thomas young

(1654 – 1705) (1707 – 1783) (1773 – 1829)

Barre de Saint-Venant James Clerk Maxwell A.Wohler

(1797 – 1886) (1831- 1879) (1819 -1914)

J. L. Lagrange George Gabriel Stokes Lord Rayleigh

(1736 – 1813) ( 1819 – 1903) (1842 – 1919)

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 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Exp. Name of Experiment Page

No. No.
1 Tension Test on Mild Steel Specimen 1
2 Shear Test on Mild Steel Specimen 18
3 Bending Test on Timber 21
4 Compression Test on Timber 24
5 Tests on Springs 27
• Closed Coiled Spring
• Open Coiled Spring
6 Torsion Test on Wires 37
7 Hardness Tests 43
• Vicker’s Hardness Test 45
• Rockwell Hardness Test 49
• Brinell Hardness Test 54
8 Torsion Test on Mild Steel Specimen 60
9 Impact Tests 65
• Izod Impact Test
• Charpy Impact Test
10 Verification of Clerk-Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem 71
11 Demonstration of Fatigue Test on Steel Specimen 75

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Strength of materials laboratory manual

1.0 TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN

AIM
To conduct a tension test on a mild steel specimen and obtain the following mechanical
properties.
1. Yield point stress 2. Ultimate stress 3. Percentage elongation
4. Percentage reduction in area 5. Modulus of elasticity
6. Nominal breaking stress 7. Actual breaking stress
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
Universal testing machine, extensometer, punching tool, scale, vernier calipers etc.
PRINCIPLE
Tension test is a basic test widely used for the study of mechanical behaviour of metals.
In this test, a specimen of standard form and dimensions is subjected to a gradual axial pull at a
slow rate. As the specimen is loaded it gradually gets elongated, the elongation being
proportional to the load in the initial stage. When the load is
is further increased, a point is
reached when the material of specimen starts yielding,, giving rise to large deformation with
the load remaining almost stationary. Then the specimen gets strain
strain-hardened (work-
hardening)) and the load starts increasing. In this
this region, the load deformation relationship is
non-linear.
linear. When the ultimate load is reached, specimen undergoes excessive
deformation due to the formation of a neck at the weakest section of the specimen.
Subsequently the total load taken by the specimen decreases and at a load less than the
ultimate load, the specimen ruptures. The relevant mechanical properties of mild steel are
obtained from the load deformation curve obtained from the tension test. (Fig.1)
LOAD

ELONGATION

Fig. 1.1 Typical load-deflection

l curve of mild steel specimen

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Salient points
1. Limit of proportionality 2. Elastic limit 3. Upper yield point
4. Lower yield point 5. Ultimate load 6. Breaking load.

DEFENITIONS

Stress

The stress at a point is defined as
= P/A

where P is the resultant force acting normal to an infinitesimal area A. In the static tension test,
the stress is uniform across the cross section and acts normal to the transverse cross
sectional plane.

Strain

The normal strain is defined as = / , where L is the change in length over a length. L
due to the applied load.

Limit of proportionality

The load deformation characteristic is linear up to the limit of proportionality

(Fig.1). It represents the maximum stress up to which the stress is directly proportional
to the corresponding strain. Hooks law is valid within this range.

Elastic limit

The material remains elastic up to the elastic limit, represented by point 2 on Fig.2.
Hence when stressed up to this point and released, the elongation completely disappears
leaving no residual strain. The stress corresponding to this point is called the elastic limit of the
material. Any further increase in load beyond the elastic limit will induce strain which will not
completely disappear when the specimen is unloaded. This point lies in the immediate
neighbourhood of the limit of proportionality and is almost indistinguishable from it for a M.S.
specimen.

Modulus of Elasticity (E)

The ratio of the normal stress to the corresponding normal strain when stressed within
the limit of proportionality is called Modulus of Elasticity and it is given by

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Strength of materials laboratory manual

  
= 
=  


This represents the slope of the initial portion of the stress- strain curve i.e the slope of
region O-2. in Fig.1. The unit of stress is N / mm2 (or kg / cm2). Strain
train being a non-dimensional
non
quantity, the unit of E is also N / mm2 ( or kg / cm2).

Yield Point

The point 3 in the load-deflection

load curve represents a state at which the specimen
continues to strain without substantial increase in the load. Yield stress is calculated from
the yield load as follows.
 

 


where  represents the initial area of cross

cross-section of the specimen.

During the test, the yield point is identified by a progressive increase in strain in the test
specimen with the load remaining stationary. Certain materials exhibit a small reduction of
load on reaching the yield point and hence they have an upper and low
lower
er yield point. It can be
seen that load deformation follows the same line on unloading from a stress level within the
elastic limit whereas unloading from a stress level greater than the yield stress causes a residual
strain as shown in Fig.2.
Stress

Residual strain
Strain

Fig.1.2 Residual strain up on unloading after stressing beyond elastic limit

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Proof stress
For many materials such as high carbon steel and alloy steel, no well-defined yield
point is obtained during a tension test as was in the case of mild steel. In such cases, the stress
corresponding to an arbitrary residual strain, equal to 0.002 (0.2 % proof strain), is commonly
taken as its yield point and it is qualified as 0.2 % proof stress. For determining the proof
stress, a line parallel to the initial linear portion of the stress strain curve is drawn
through 0.02% proof strain level as shown in Fig.3. The vertical ordinate corresponding
to the point of intersection of this offset line on the original stress strain curve of
specimen is taken as the proof stress or the yield point for materials which doesn’t
ehibit a well defined yield point.

0.2 %

Fig.1.3. Offset method of defining yield point

Ultimate Stress

The stress corresponding to the maximum load taken by the test specimen before it fails
( represented by point 5 in Fig.1) is defined as the ultimate stress.


 

The ultimate load can be obtained directly, from the load shown by the final position of the
dummy pointer of its load indication dial of the U.T.M.

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Nominal Breaking Stress

The nominal breaking stress is given by the relation

 

  ! 

whereas, the actual or true breaking stress is given by the relation
 

   ! 
"

Where   is the breaking load indicated by point 6 of Fig.1. and " is the final reduced area of
cross-section at the rupture section, which is less than the original area of cross section  due to
necking phenomenon.. The breaking load (less than the ultimate load) is obtained by observing the
instantaneous position of the load indicator at the time when the specimen breaks. It may be
observed that large plastic deformation occurs when loading exceeds the yield point causing
appreciable change in the original cross sectional area of the test specimen. This change in
cross sectional area is not taken into account for calculating the ultimate and nominal breaking
stresses. In plotting the stress-strain curve, if original or initial area of cross section of the
specimen is used in normalizing the loads for computing stresses, the resulting stress-strain curve
is called the engineering stress-strain curve. On the other hand if the instantaneous area of cross
section corresponding to each load increment is used in the computation of stresses, the resulting
stress-strain curve is termed as true stress-strain curve. The difference between the two curves is
shown in Fig.4.

Fig.1.4. Difference between true and engineering σ-ε curves (Courtesy: NPTEL)

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Percentage elongation
The total elongation of test specimen up to failure represents the recoverable elastic
deformation, the residual uniform elongation up to the neck formation and the concentrated
elongation from the instant of neck formation until its failure. The ratio of the total residual
elongation measured over a specified length (gauge length) to the original gauge length of the
specimen is defined as the percentage elongation and is given by

" −  )
× 100


where " is the final elongated length and  is the original gauge length.
Percentage elongation is a measure of the ductility of the material.

Percentage reduction in area

The percentage reduction in area is given by the ratio of the reduced cross sectional
area at the point of rupture to the original cross sectional area, i.e.

& − " '

× 100
"

where " is the final (reduced) cross sectional area of the neck and  represents the original
cross sectional area. This value also gives a measure of ductility of the material.

Fracture pattern

A study of the fracture surface will indicate whether the failure is brittle or ductile.
In the case of materials undergoing brittle failure, fracture occurs suddenly and practically without
any plastic deformation. The formation of neck before failure is not present in this type of
materials. The fracture surfaces have a fibrous appearance due to failure by separation. Such
type of failure is seen in the case of cast iron or high carbon steel.
In ductile fracture, failure occurs only after considerable plastic stretching, material
particle sliding over each other giving the familiar cup and cone form. This is essentially a shear
failure and occurs approximately at 45° to the axis of the specimen. This type of failure
occurs in the case of mild steel, aluminium and other ductile materials. The value of
P/A, at which this occurs is designated as a tensile stress, although it does not represent a
true tension failure.

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A) UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE (AMSLER 30T)

TEST SETUP

The tensile testing machine consists of mechanisms for applying known forces on the test
piece and for measuring the corresponding deformations. The most commonly used
machine is of hydraulic type. Here the specimen is gripped between two cross heads and the
force is applied on the specimen by moving one of the crossheads relative to the other by
means of hydraulic pressure. The applied force is measured through mechanisms based on
lever pendulum principles and directly recorded on the dial of testing machine. The test
piece used for tensile test are of standard dimensions have a gauge length of 100,200mm
and a diameter of 20mm.

However when the non-standard samples are to be tested, in order to ensure that the
values are comparable, the condition that L0 / A0 equal to a constant must be satisfied.
Specimens which satisfies L0 = 5.65 √A0 are referred to as proportional test specimen as per IS.
3803 – 1989.

The gauge length is marked in the test piece throughout its length using a chisel and
permanent punch marks are then made with the punching tool. Half gauge length (½ L0) is marked
to study the relative elongation of the specimen. The failure will occur in the weakest
section of the specimen. Punch marks are also marked in the central portion to fix the extensometer.

The elongation of the test specimen in the initial stages of elastic deformation
corresponding to different values of load is measured using extensometer. A load
deformation graph is drawn to compute modulus of elasticity of the material. The machine
has an automatic load-deformation plotter from the point of loading to the failure.

PROCEDURE

Clean the rod with sand paper. Measure the diameter of the rod at three points and calculate
the mean diameter. Calculate the gauge length using the formula   5.65 , and mark
 on the rod by punch marks. Assume an ultimate tensile strength of 5000 Kg/cm2 (500
N/mm2) and compute the ultimate load to be applied and select the range of loading for the U.T.M.
Adjust the pendulum to this range. Start the machine and open the inlet valve to pump oil into
the cylinder. Fix the specimen between the wedges at the top first. The movable crosshead can

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be raised or lowered. Grip the bottom end of the specimen. The specimen is gripped for equal
length on both ends. Hold the lever of the bottom cross head tightly, apply a small force on the
specimen by operating the loading valve and see that the specimen is gripped tightly between the
wedges.

Study the working principle of extensometer. Note the gauge length and least count.
Fix the extensometer on the punch marks made and set the dial to zero. Switch on the machine,
gradually apply the load without jerk and maintain the standard rate of load application
(strain rate — 0.01 per minute) Note the extensometer reading corresponding to load
increments of 200kg. After the end of sufficient number of observations, remove the
extensometer.

Continue the application of the load noting yield load, ultimate load and breaking load. On
reaching the ultimate load, it will be found that a neck is formed on the specimen. The pointer
moves back and carefully note the load at the time of breaking of the specimen. After the
specimen is broken, remove it from the grips and close the loading valve and open the
release valve (outlet valve) until oil is pumped back and machine switched off. The two
fractured specimen are placed together on a horizontal surface and distance between the two
punch marks adjacent to the broken point is measured. The reduced diameter at the point
of breaking is also measured. Draw a stress versus strain graph, the slope of which gives the
Young’s modulus of elasticity.

B) UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE (FIE 400KN)

TEST SETUP

The Machine consists of two main parts, the loading unit and the control panel. The
machine works on the principle of hydraulic pressure. Oil is used as the pressure fluid and is
forced by high pressure pump in to the cylinder of the testing machine. It consists of a robust base.
The main hydraulic cylinder / piston is fitted at the center of the base. A geared motor is fitted
to the base and the chain and sprocket driven by the motor rotate the two screwed columns
mounted in the base. These screws pass through the two main nuts fitted in the lower
crosshead.

The lower table is connected to the main piston through a ball and seat joint. This
lower table is rigidly connected to the upper crosshead by two straight columns. The lower table

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and upper cross head assembly move up and down with the main piston. The jaws inserted for
tensile test specimen along with the rack jaws slide in the lower and upper crossheads. Two
compression plates, upper and lower are provided for conducting compression test. The lower
compression plate is to be kept on the lower table and the upper compression plate is to be
clamped to the bottom of the crosshead.

Fig.1.5. Schematic of U.T.M.

1 Outlet Valve 2. Inlet Valve

2 Dial 4. Pendulum
5 Drum for plotting curves
6 Switches for Lowering and Rising the Working Drum
7 Switches for Starting and Stopping the Pump.

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PROCEDURE
(a) Tension test

Adjust the measuring range according to the capacity of the test piece. Start the machine and
open the inlet valve so that the pressure oil can flow to the loading ram of
the machine. Keeping the outlet valve in fully closed position and the inlet valve in
normal open position, open the inlet valve and close it after the lower table is slightly lifted.
Now adjust the load pointer to zero with the zero adjusting knob. By operating the handle, lift
the lower crosshead up and grip firmly the lower part of the specimen. Then lock the jaws.
Turn the inlet valve slowly to open position until the desired loading rate is achieved. When the
specimen is under load, unclamp the locking handle. Now the load is increased till the test
piece is broken. Now close the inlet valve and take out the broken pieces of test piece. Then
open the outlet valve to move the piston down.

(b) Compression test

Fix the upper and lower pressure plates on the lower crosshead and the lower table
respectively. Place the specimen on the compression plate .The specimen must be aligned
exactly to the makings on the compression plate in order to give the complete cross section
of the specimen a chance to participate in the acceptance of load. Adjust the zero by lifting the
lower table and do the test in the same way as the tension test.

(c) Transverse test

Adjust the supports for the required distance and clamp to the table. For adjusting the
distance, stoppers are provided which are to be placed at the back of the supports. Holes are
provided on the table for locating the stoppers .The center distance of the supports can be
adjusted at a step of 100mm. Fix the required pane at the lower side of the lower crosshead.
Adjust the zero by lifting the lower table and do the test in the same way as the tension test.

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

1. Measurement of diameter of the specimen

Least Count = mm

Sl. No. Main Scale Reading Vernier Scale Average

Total Reading
Reading diameter (mm)

1.

2.

3.

2. Measurement of reduced diameter of the rod

Least Count = mm

Main Scale Average

Vernier Scale
Sl. No Total Reading
Reading Reading diameter (mm)
1.
2.

3. Load-Deformation data

Least count of extensometer =

Load in Kg

Extensometer
reading

Extension(mm)

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Diameter of specimen (d) = cm

2
Original cross sectional Area , A0 = cm
Approximate ultimate load = 5000 A0 = Tonnes
Range selected =
Standard gauge length of rod,   5.65, = cm
Extensometer gauge length = cm
Yield point load = kg-f
Ultimate load = kg-f
Breaking load = kg-f
Final (reduced) diameter, (df) = cm
Final distance between punch marks = cm
Reduced cross sectional Area , Af = cm2

5678 79 :;<=8 >6;?9

1. -./01 234/22 = @A;B;?7= CA6DD D<C9;6?7= 7A<7 = kg / cm2

= N/mm2

H  
2. E03.FG3/ 234/22 = I J K   K   

= kg / cm2

= N/mm2

  " "  K 

3. LMF.NG0 O4/GP.NQ 234/22 = I J K   K   

= kg / cm2

= N / mm2
  " "  K 
4. R3SG0 O4/GP.NQ 234/22 = T K  K   K   

= kg / cm2

= N / mm2

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Strength of materials laboratory manual

UK   JJ  J V &W X  '

5. /4R/N3GQ/ /0MNQG3.MN =  J JJ  J V
× 100 =

× 100

=
I J  X" K   )
6. /4R/N3Q/ 4/1SR3.MN .N G4/G = I J  
× 100

& X W '
= × 100 =


 ×
7. YM1S0S2 MZ 0G23.R.3[ = 
=  ×
= kg / cm2

= N/ mm2

RESULTS
1. Yield Point Stress = N/ mm2
2. Ultimate Stress = N/ mm2
3. N o m i n a l B re a ki n g s t r e s s = N/ mm2
4. Actual Breaking stress = N/ mm2
5. P e r c e n t a ge E l o n ga t i o n =
6. Pe r ce nt a ge R ed uc t i o n i n are a =
7. Modulus of Elasticity = N/ mm2

INFERENCES

(A comparison of obtained results with standard / desirable values is expected.)

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RELEVANT I.S. SPECIFICATIONS

1) IS 3803 (part 1 ) —1989 — Steel — conversion of elongation values

2) IS 2062 —1999 — Steel for general structural purposes
3) IS 1608 — 1995 — Mechanical testing of metals — tensile testing.,

STUDY OF AMSLER 30 T U.T.M

TESTING MACHINE PROPER

This is constructed on the principle of a hydraulic press. Oil which is used as the pressure
fluid, is forced by high pressure pump into the cylinder of the testing machine. The cylinder
and ram are arranged on top of an upright frame and the cylinder base is rigidly connected by
columns to the machine base. The lower gripping head for tensile tests is attached to the
machine base and it is also provided with vertical adjustment. An adjustable cross head which
carries the upper gripping head for tensile tests is connected to the ram. If the ram within the
cylinder is pushed upwards by oil pressure, it carries with it the cross head and thus applies a
tensile load to a specimen held between the two grips. Compression and transverse tests are
made in the space between the cross head and the cylinder base.

PENDULUM DYNAMOMETER OR LOAD INDICATOR

A pendulum dynamometer is set up on the floor of the testing laboratory by the side
of the testing machine proper and is connected to the latter by pipes. The load exerted is
read on a large dial arranged for different load ranges. The dynamometer is also provided with
a diagram recorder for registering the load and the corresponding deformation of the specimen.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE

The operator, after fixing the specimen in the testing machine, stands in front of the
dynamometer where the control valves (inlet and return) are situated and from where he can
observe the specimen, the load indicator and the diagram recorder during the test. After
having started the pump and closed the release valves, he opens the inlet valve, so that the
pressure oil can flow into the loading ram of the machine and force it upwards there by stressing
the specimen.

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RAM ADJUSTMENT

The machine is equipped with two rams, one being arranged coaxially with the other.
If both the arms operate simultaneously the machine can be loaded up to maximum capacity, i.e.
30 T. If co-axial ram (of 1/10 th the section of the main ram) alone operates, the maximum load
attainable is 1/10 th.
Adjusting the Co axial ram
-

Open the release valve on the left hand of the pendulum dynamometer and allow the
rams to settle on the bottom of the cylinder. The rams are in their lowest position when the
lower red ring is fully covered by the cylinder hood .Now move the lever between the inlet and
release valves on the pendulum dynamometer into the desired position as marked.

PENDULUM BALANCE WEIGHT

In order that the pendulum always hang vertical when the ram is slightly raised (zero
position of the pointer), a balance weight is fitted to the pendulum carrier. The rod carrying
the balance weight can be displaced and fixed by means of a thump screw anywhere between
the two extreme positions marked respectively "large ram" and "small ram". If both the rams
operate simultaneously the counter weight must be towards the inner position marked "large
ram", but if the coaxial ram only operate, it should be towards the outer position marked
'small ram".

Before a test is started the pendulum bar should be adjusted to a truly vertical position.
First insert the specimen (in the case of tensile tests, grip only the upper end of the specimen)
then raise the loading ram by about 1 cm or so, until the red ring is visible, and then slightly
displace the balance weight until the pendulum hangs vertically, i.e., until the spirit level on
the pendulum carrier indicates the horizontal.

SETTING THE PENDULUM ROD

The pendulum dynamometer is arranged for measuring ranges which are marked on the
pendulum rod above the supporting holes. In order to adjust the pendulum rod, remove the
weight and draw the pin back with one hand while raising or lowering the pendulum rod with
other hand; again insert the pin at the desired measuring range.

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PENDULUM WEIGHT

Pendulum weight is not used at all measuring ranges. Those ranges for which it must be
fixed to the pendulum rod, are engraved on the weight (30 t and 20 t range). It needs to be noted
that pendulum weight is different from pendulum balance weight.

ZERO SETTING OF THE POINTER

Before a test is made, set the pointer to zero. For this purpose, raise the working ram of
the testing machine a little from the bottom of its cylinder by pumping oil, so that the weight of
the ram and the parts suspended on it inclusive of the weight of the specimen, may be
taken into consideration, i.e., will be eliminated when setting the pointer to zero. After the
ram has been raised (until the red ring is visible) turn the push rod about axis until the pointer
coincides exactly with the zero of the graduation on the dial.

GRIPPING ARRAGNEMENTS FOR TENSILE TESTS

Flat bars are gripped by the serrated flat jaws held by the wedges. Round bars are gripped
by jaws, having a serrated groove. In the case of thin wires which would not be held securely
or not gripped at all by the grooved jaws, use for each specimen end and grooved end one flat
jaws, or even two flat ones.

COMPRESSION TESTS
Fix the spherically seated compression plate by its shank to the cylinder base, and place
the lower compression plate on to the compression plate support.

TRANSVERSE TESTS

Machine is provided with two end supports displaceable along the full length of the seam
(cross head) and middle support attached from below to the cylinder base.

SHEARING TESTS FOR BARS

The bar (specimen) is passed through a system of three shearing rings of which the middle
one can slide between the two outer ones. If pressure is exerted on the middle ring the bar is
sheared off at the two planes where the inner ring touches the outer ones. This device is entered
with in the compression space of the testing machine.

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BRINELL HARDNESS TESTS

The machine is provided with an attachment consisting of holder and indenters with
Brinell Balls (5 mm and 10 mm diameters). The holder is fixed to the cylinder base and the
specimen to be tested is placed on the lower compression plate. During the test it is pressed
from below against the ball indenter. The diameter of the ball imprint is measured by means
of measuring microscope and Brinell hardness number is calculated.

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2.0 SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN

AIM

To determine the shear strength of the mild steel specimen

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

30 T UTM, Shear shackle, Vernier callipers, etc.

PRINCIPLE

When a body is subjected to external forces, it undergoes deformation. The material

of the body offers resistance to deformation by developing internal stresses. The stress at a
point on the plane passing through the point can be resolved in to two orthogonal components
– one perpendicular to the plane (normal stress, either tensile or compressive) and tangential
to the plane (shear stress). When there exist only uniform shear stress on the plane, it is called
a state of pure shear. The material behaviour under shear stress is obtained by conducting a
shear test. The maximum resistance offered by the material, under the action of shear force is
called ultimate shear stress of the material. The failure is due to sliding of molecules.

TEST SETUP

The test is done in UTM with the help of shear shackle. The shear shackle consists of
three circular hardened collars for inserting the specimen and the stress yoke. The middle ring
can slide in between the two outer rigs. The shackle is placed in UTM and a compressive
force is applied. Load is gradually increased till the specimen fails by shear.

PROCEDURE

Measure the diameter of the rod at three places using vernier callipers or screw gauge.
Determine the area A0. For mild steel, the maximum shear stress may be taken as 5000
kg/cm2 . Calculate the ultimate load from the relation

ܷ݈‫ = ݀ܽ݋ܮ ݁ݐܽ݉݅ݐ‬5000 × 2 ‫ܣ‬଴

Select the loading range of the machine using the computed ultimate load capacity of the
specimen. The specimen is inserted in shear shackle. External load is applied to the specimen
so as to induce pure shear stress across two neighbouring cross section of the rod. As the load

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is gradually increased, the shear stress also increases till the rod gets sheared across the
section.

If Pu is the ultimate load (in Kg) at which shear failure takes place, the ultimate shear
stress is obtained using the relation

ܲ௨
߬௨௟௧ = (݇݃/ܿ݉ଶ )
2 ‫ܣ‬଴

Where ‫ܣ‬଴ is the cross sectional area of the specimen in cm2. 2 ‫ܣ‬଴ is used to account for
double shear. There is small bending effect over the short length of the specimen which is
neglected. The value ߬௨௟௧ obtained represents only an average value based on the assumption
that shear stress is uniformly distributed across the section.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Diameter of specimen, d = mm

Cross sectional area, ‫ܣ‬଴ = cm2

Approximate ultimate strength = 5000 × 2 ‫ܣ‬଴ = kg.

Range selected =

Maximum load, ܲ௨ = kg.

Ultimate shear stress = ܲ௨ / 2 ‫ܣ‬଴ = kg/cm2

Measurement of diameter ‘d’ of the rod

Sl No. Main scale reading Vernier scale reading Total reading Average
diameter (d) mm
1
2
3

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RESULT

Ultimate shear stress on the material of the specimen =

INFERENCES

(A comparison of obtained results with standard / desirable values is expected.)

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS

IS 5242 -1979 (Reaffirmed in 2006)

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3.0 BENDING TEST ON TIMBER BEAM

AIM

To determine the following properties of the timber specimen by conducting static

bending test

1. Fibre stress at limit of proportionality

2. Modulus of rupture
3. Modulus of elasticity
4. Elastic resilience

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

U.T.M., scale, deflection measuring unit

PRINCIPLE

In a bending test, the test specimen is subjected to transverse loading so as to produce

bending of the beam. According to the theory of simple bending, the normal stress and strain
across any cross section of the beam is linear. According to the theory of simple bending, also
known as Euler-Bernoulli beam theory,

‫ܯ‬ ߪ ‫ܧ‬
= =
‫ܫ‬ ‫ݕ‬ ܴ

the strain across the cross section of the beam specimen is related to the radius of curvature
(R) of the deflected beam and indirectly to the deflection. Hence, for a given beam, the
deflection can be expressed as a function of loading, material property E and geometric
properties.

The test is done in U.T.M. The timber beam is supported at a convenient span and
central concentrated load is applied. Standard size of the specimen is 5 cm × 5 cm × 75 cm.
Where a standard specimen cannot be obtained, the dimensions of the test specimen shall be
such as to make the span equal to 14 times the depth. Central deflections at load intervals of
50 kg are noted.

PROCEDURE

Measure the size of the specimen and fix the span. Assuming extreme fibre stress,
ߪ as 1000 kg / cm2, calculate the maximum central load (W) the specimen can carry.

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ܹ‫ܮ‬
‫=ܯ‬ = ߪܼ
4

4ߪܼ
ܹ=
‫ܮ‬

Where, M is the maximum bending moment and Z is the section modulus given by

ܾ ݀ଶ
ܼ=
6

Where b and d are the breadth and depth of the specimen

Select a suitable loading range. Mount the beam which supports over the cross head at
correct span and place the specimen. Fix the central loading device. Start the motor and make
the ram in the floating range. Adjust the pointer of the dial to zero. Raise the cross head so
that the central loading device just touches the top of the beam specimen. Adjust the
deflection dial to zero reading. Open the inlet valve and load the specimen. Note down the
deflections corresponding to load increments until the specimen fails. Note down the
maximum load also. Draw the load deflection curve. Determine the slope of the straight
portion of the graph (P1 / ∆1).

L/2 L/2
Load

∆
WL/4

Deflection
Fig.3.1 Schematic of load and corresponding Fig.3.2 Standard load deflection curve for
BMD specimen

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Table 1. Load – deflection data

Load, kg
Dial
reading
Central
deflection,
mm

1. Span of the test specimen, L (cm) =

2. Breadth of the test specimen, b (cm) =
3. Depth of test specimen, d (cm) =
௕ௗమ
4. Section modulus, Z = ሺܿ݉ଷ ሻ =
଺

5. Moment of inertia, ‫ ܾ݀ = ܫ‬ଷ /12 =

6. Load at proportionality limit , P (from graph) =
7. Maximum Load, P1 =
8. Fibre stress at limit of proportionality (from graph) =
9. Modulus of rupture = P1 L / 4 Z =
10. Modulus of elasticity = P L3 / 48 I ∆ =
11. Elastic resilience = work to limit of proportionality / volume
=
RESULTS
1.) Fibre stress at limit of proportionality =
2.) Modulus of rupture =
3.) Modulus of elasticity =
4.) Elastic resilience =

INFERENCES

RELEANT INDIAN STANDARDS

I.S. 1708 (Parts 1 to 18) 1986 (Reaffirmed in 2005); I.S 2408 – 1963; I.S 3629 - 1986

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4.0 COMPRESSION TEST ON TIMBER

AIM

To determine the compressive strength of timber parallel to the grain

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

UTM., Compressometer, specimen and scale.

PRINCIPLE

The compressive strength of timber specimen is done in UTM with a suitable

cpmpressometer. Deformations under compression test shall be measured correct to 0.02 mm
by means of a suitable compressometer over a central gauge length of 150 mm. The readings
at maximum load shall be recorded. Compressive stress at a limit of proportionality and at
maximum load is to be obtained.

TEST SET UP

The test is done in 30T UTM by selecting a suitable range. The wooden specimen is
placed between the top and movable middle cross head. Compressometer attached to both
cross heads gives the compression as the material gets compressed.

The specimen is 50 × 50 × 200 mm in size. It shall be absolutely free from any defect
and shall not have a slope of grain more than 1 in 20 parallel to its longitudinal edges. The
end planes of the specimen shall be perfectly at right angles to the length of the specimen. (If
standard dimensions are not obtained, the length of the specimen shall be four times the
shorter dimension of the cross section)

PROCEDURE

Measure the size of the specimen and its length. Place the specimen in the movable
crosshead of the UTM. Open the inlet valve, close the outlet valve and make the ram in
floating stage. Slowly raise the movable head till it touches the platen placed in the upper
crosshead. Ensure that the end of the rectangular specimen are smooth and parallel and
normal to the axis. Fix the compressometer on the movable cross head and adjust the dial to
zero. The load shall be applied continuously during the test to cause the movable head of the
testing machine to travel at a constant rate of 0.03 mm per minute per cm length of the

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specimen, that is 0.6 mm per minute. Load the specimen to failure. Note down the maximum
load. Draw the load Vs compression graph.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATONS

Table 1: Range selection

Sample Size of sample Area (mm2) Max. failure load

No (kg)
1
2
3

Table 2: Computation of stress and strain from load- deformation data

Load (kg)
Deformation 1
for sample
2
3
Strain 1
for sample
2
3
Stress 1
(kg/cm2)
2
for sample
3
Modulus of 1
elasticity
2
(kg/cm2)
3
Comp. 1
stress at
2
max load
(kg/cm2) 3

Compressive stress at limit of proportionality (P’/ A) = kg/cm2

Compressive stress at maximum load (P / A) = kg/cm2

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Modulus of elasticity in compression parallel to grain (P L/A.∆) = kg/cm2

Where

P = maximum load

P’ = Load at limit of proportionality

L = Gauge length of specimen

A = Area of cross section

∆ = Deformation obtained from the graph

RESULT

1. Compressive stress at limit of proportionality =

2. Compressive stress at maximum load =
3. Modulus of elasticity in compression parallel to grain =

INFERENCE // DISCUSSION

Depending on the Modulus of elasticity of tested specimen, mention the type of

timber based on I.S. specifications.

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS

I.S. 1708 (Parts 1 to 18) 1986 (Reaffirmed in 2005)

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5.0 SPRING TEST

AIM
To find the modulus of rigidity of the material of the given spring specimen and also
its stiffness.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Spring testing apparatus,

apparatus, springs for tension and compression test, vernier calipers
and balance.

Fig.5.1 Spring Test Apparatus

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PRINCIPLE

A helical spring is formed when a wire of solid circular cross section is wound on a
circular core in a spiral form. The spring can undergo considerable amount of
deformation without getting permanently distorted. Hence, it can store strain energy.
Stresses induced in the body of the spring under axial load are predominantly due to
torsion.
on. Since the line of action of external load is eccentric with respect to the reaction at any
section of the spring (distance equal to mean radius of the coil) a couple is set up causing a
twisting action. In addition, small values of bending moment, axial
axial force and shear force
are also present. Under axial load, the spring is subjected to both twisting
twisting and bending. At
any point in the coil, the tangent to the helical center line is not perpendicular to the axial
force. If W is the axial force, the component parallel to the tangent at any point

 sin  produces the bending moment M and
 cos  produces torque T, where  is the
angle of helix. Angle of helix is the angle between the plane of the coil and the plane
perpendicular to the axiss of the helix.

Fig.5.2 Angle of helix of spring

The major parameters of the spring such as pitch (p),

( wire diameter (d), Mean diameter (D
( m)
or mean radius (R),
), free length, pitch angle or angle of helix (α)
( ) etc are shown in Fig. 2 and
Fig.3.

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Fig.5.3. Spring parameters

2πR

Fig. 5.4. Definition of pitch and angle of helix of a spring

From Fig.3. the angle of helix α, can be written as


 =   
2

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Fig.5.5. Spring subjected to axial load

When a spring is subjected to axial loading (tension or compression), at any cross section, the
spring will be subjected to two moment components, viz. bending moment M and torsinal
moment (T).

= sin 
= Cos 
#!$ℎ
  ℎ!" =
2

Equating the work done by axial load to to tal strain energy in bending and torsion to
obtain
&'()* + ,-. / .2,3 / 6 ,7+3 /
%=  + 
01 4 8

where E = 2 N (1+1/m) (assuming 1/m = 0.3)

64R3 n sec α cos2 α 2 sin2 α
9 = A + D
4
d % 1 2.6

When coils are wound very closely, angle of helix becomes very small. Hence effect of
W Sin  may be neglected. Hence
64  E 
%=
9 F'

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Open coiled springs are those for which the effect of angle of helix cannot be neglected
under the action of axial load, both torsional and bending moments are to be considered. If
effect of angle of helix is negligible, they are known as closed coiled helical springs. Hence
only the effect of torsion is considered.
The maximum shear stress max, Gmax is given
16  cos 
GHIJ =
F'

TEST SET UP

The spring testing machine consists of a graduated scale with a sliding vernier fitted
to a metallic angle frame. One end of the spring is passed through the hook of the sliding
vernier and the other end is suspended from an adjustable hook fitted to the metallic
frame. Another hook is provided at the bottom of the sliding arm on which a pan is attached
to add weights.

PROCEDURE

Suspend the spring between sliding vernier and adjustable hook. Adjust the top hook
so that the zero of the vernier coincides exactly with the zero of the graduated scale. Suspend
the pan of known weight from the bottom hook of the sliding vernier and note the
deflection. Gradually add weights to the pan and note the corresponding deflection. Note
the deflection on removing the weights one by one. Find the mean deflection. Draw the
graph load versus deflection. The straight line curve proves that deflection is
proportional to load. The procedure is repeated for tension test and compression test.
Measure the diameter, d of the wire, external and internal diameters D1 and D2 of the coil,
number of turns of the spring, length of the spring, etc.

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OBSERVATIONS
SPRING UNDER TENSION

1. Measurement of outer diameter of the coil (D)

Sl. Main scale Vernier scale Total reading Average diameter (D)
No. reading reading (mm)
1

2. Measurement of diameter of the wire (d)

Sl. Main scale Vernier scale Total reading Average diameter (d)
No. reading reading (mm)
1

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SPRING UNDER COMPRESSION

Table 1: Measurement of outer diameter of the coil (D)

Sl. No. Main Scale Vernier Scale Total Reading Average

Reading Reading diameter (D)
mm
1

Table 2: Measurement of diameter of the wire (d)

Sl. No. Main Scale Vernier Scale Total Reading Average

Reading Reading diameter (d)
mm
1

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Table 3: Geometric properties of spring

Spring under tension Spring under compression

Diameter of wire, d
Mean radius of coil,
R = (D1 + D2)
4
D1 – outer diameter of coil

D2 – inner diameter of coil

No. of turns, n
Length of the wire, l
Pitch, p =l / n

Tan  = p / 2 R

K!6 
K$  (LM  + 6
)
N1 + 1POQ

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Table 4: Load-deflection data

Extension Scale Reading Compression Scale Reading

Sl. Load Load Load Deflection Load Load Deflection

No. gms increasing decreasing Mean mm increasing decreasing Mean mm

For closed coiled spring,

64  E 
%=
9 F'
Where W = load

R = mean radius of the coil

n = no. of turns

d = diameter of wire of the spring

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% = deflection for a load W

For open coiled spring

64RE n sec α cos6 α 2 sin6 α
%= R + U
d' N E

where  is the angle of helix.

W and % are obtained from the graph.

Stiffness: it is the load required to produce unit axial deformation.

RESULT

Modulus of rigidity of the material of spring under tension = kg/cm2

Stiffness of spring under tension = kg/cm2

Modulus of rigidity of the material of spring under compression = kg/cm2

Stiffness of the spring under compression = kg/cm2

INFERENCE / DISCUSSION

(Comment on the material property of the spring specimens based on test results.)

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS

I.S. 7906 (Part 1) : 2004;

I.S. 7907 (Part 5) : 2004

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6.0 TORSION TEST ON WIRES

AIM

To determine the Modulus of rigidity of the material of the wire.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Torsion disc, stand, wooden disc, cylinders of known weight, stopwatch and
screw gauge.

PRINCIPLE

Whenever a filament (thread, string, wire etc.) is twisted, forces come into play that
makes it untwist. These are called torsional forces. A weight suspended by an elastic wire
and in equilibrium when twisted slightly, in one direction begins to oscillate about its
equilibrium position, i.e., it becomes a torsion pendulum (Fig.1).

Fig.6.1 Torsion pendulum apparatus

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The period of oscillation for a torsion pendulum is given by

‫ܫ‬ଵ ‫ܮ‬
‫ݐ‬ଵ = 2ߨඨ
ܰ‫ܬ‬

t1 is the time for oscillation of the pendulum without cylinder weights.

‫ܫ‬ଶ ‫ܮ‬
‫ݐ‬ଶ = 2ߨඨ
ܰ‫ܬ‬

t2 is the time for oscillation of the pendulum with cylinder weights attached to disc

I1 is the mass M.I. of the disc about the vertical axis through the center of the disc.

I2 is the mass M.I. of the disc about the vertical axis through the center of the disc with the
cylinder weights.

J is the polar M.I. of the wire.

L is the length of pendulum

w is the weight of one cylinder

2a is the c/c distance between cylinders

r is the radius of the cylinder.

Squaring the two time periods and taking the difference

4 ߨ ଶ ‫ ܮ‬ሺ‫ܫ‬ଶ − ‫ܫ‬ଵ ሻ
‫ݐ‬ଶଶ ି ‫ݐ‬ଵଶ =
ܰ‫ܬ‬

௥మ
‫ܫ‬ଶ − ‫ܫ‬ଵ = 2 ‫ ݓ‬ቀܽଶ + ቁ
ଶ
From which

Table 1: relation between wire diameter and length of specimen

Dia of wire Free length between grips
0.4mm up to 7 mm 200 dia
lmm to 5mm 100dia
5mm to 12.5mm 50 dia

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TEST SET UP

The wire is gripped between the grips of stand and the wooden disc and the length
between the grips is noted. Give a small oscillatory motion to the wire by twisting the disc,
Start the stop watch and measure the time of oscillation.

PROCEDURE

Find the diameter, d of the wire in mm using screw gauge and weight of the
cylinder weights. Suspend the disc horizontally by the wire and clamp it on the stand.
Measure the length of the wire between the points of suspension and point of oscillation.
Give a twist to the disc and allow it to oscillate. When the oscillation becomes steady,
start the stopwatch and note the time for 50 oscillations and calculate t1 period of
oscillation. Place cylinder weights on the small rods fixed to the disc and find t2 –
period of oscillation with weights. Repeat for three different lengths

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Table 2: Measurement of dia of wire (Least count = mm)

Sl. No. Main scale Vernier scale Total Average diameter

reading reading reading of wire ,d mm

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Table 3: Measurement of dia of cylinder weight (Least count = mm)

Sl. No. Main scale Vernier scale Total reading Average diameter
reading reading of cylinder, mm

Diameter of wire, d =

c/c distance between cylinder, 2a =

Weight of one cylinder, w =

Radius of cylinder, r =

Polar moment of inertia of wire, J = ߨ d4/32 =

I2 – I1 = 2w (a2 + r2 / 2 ) =

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Wire Length of t1 Time for 50 oscillations t2 N Mean N Mass

material pendulum Time for 50 oscillations
without weight MI
without weight (sec) (sec) kg/cm2 kg/cm2
L

1 2 mean 1 2 mean

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ସ గమ ௅ ሺூమ ିூభ ሻ
ܰ=
௃ ൫௧మమ ି ௧భమ ൯
=

RESULT

Modulus of rigidity of the material of the wire = kg/cm2

Mass M.I. of the disc =

REFERENCE

IS 1717-1985-Method for simple torsion test for wire

DISCUSSIONS
Discuss on the obtained values of modulus of rigidity for the materials tested with those of
standard values.

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7.0 HARDNESS TEST

GENERAL

The hardness of a material determines the degree of resistance it offers against

indentation and scratches from other bodies. There are in general three types of tests for
testing hardness of material.

1. Scratch test

2 . Indentation tes t

3. Rebound test

In scratch test, a diamond point is pressed into the surface and then pulled
across it to make a scratch. The hardness is then measured by the force required to make a
scratch of given width.

In indentation test, a body of standard shape is pressed into the material and the
hardness is measured by the load required to produce a certain indentation.

In the rebound test, an instrument called seleroscope is used in which a small

hammer tipped with a diamond is made to fall inside a glass tube from a given height. The
hammer strikes the test surface and rebounds. The height of rebound is a measure of hardness.

In material testing, the resistance of the material to permanent indentation by

another hard metal is commonly taken as the measure of hardness. In case of most of the
materials and alloys, there is reasonable correlation between ultimate strength and the hardness
indices. The tensile strength of steel can be estimated with sufficient accuracy for many
commercial purposes from its Brinell Hardness Number (BHN).

There are three standard tests used in the laboratory. They are Brinell hardness test,
Rockwell hardness test and Vickers hardness test. Mohr's scale (Table 1) is an arbitrary
scale of material hardness, based on the resistance to scratching. A hard material can
make a scratch on a softer material.

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Table 7.1 Mohr’s Scale

Material Hardness
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Flouspar 4
Apatite 5
Feldspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10

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VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

AIM

To study the Avery Visual hardness-testing machine and to find the Vickers
hardness number of the specimens supplied.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Avery Vickers Hardness testing machine.

Fig.7.1. Vickers hardness Testing Machine

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PRINCIPLE

The test consists in forcing a diamond indenter in the form of a right pyramid with a
square base and specified angle
= 135° between opposite faces at the vertex into the
specimen under a load F and measuring the diagonal d of the indentation left on the
surface of the test piece after the removal of the load. The hardness number, expressed as a
number, leaving out the dimensional unit of kg/mm2 given by

 2  sin (
2)
 = =
 

The symbol HV indicates that the Vickers hardness has been determined under
standard conditions. For special test conditions the symbol HV is supplemented by an
index giving at the first place the applied loads and the second place duration of the load.

For example while using a load of 30 kgf for a period of 5 seconds, the following
shall be used. HV 30/5

TEST SETUP:

The surface of the test piece shall be sufficiently smooth. The thickness of the test
piece shall be at least 15 times the diagonal of the indentation. The distance between the
center of any indentation and the edge of the test piece or the edge of any other
indentation shall not be less than 2.5 times the diagonal of the indentation. The standard test
load shall be 30 kgf for steel and 10 kgf for light metals. It is also possible to use the loads in
the range of 5 to 100 kgf. Standard duration of load is 10 to 15 seconds for steel and 30 + 2
seconds for light metals. For tests on curved surfaces, the hardness value should be
corrected by the use of approximate factors as per IS 1501-2002.

PROCEDURE

Clean the specimen and place it on the flat table. Screw up until a sharp view of the
surface appears on the ground glass screen. Keep the diamond penetrator and load the
correct weight on the weight hanger. Raise the hand lever by about 30°. It will then travel
automatically to stop. (At that time the penetrator and microscope move backwards in line
and a vertical penetration is made). Pull the lever forward to its original position. Measure
the diagonal of the impression on the measuring screen in two perpendicular directions.
Calculate the hardness number.

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Mean
Material Load Diagonal HV Mean HV
diagonal
(kgf)

D1 (mm) D2 (mm)

RESULT
Vickers Hardness number of:

i.

ii.

iii.

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS

IS 1501: 2002 / ISO 6507 -1 : 1977 Method for Vickers Hardness Test for metallic materials.

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aboratory manual

F - applied load in kgf.

F
d - diagonal of indentation in mm.
HV - Vickers Hardness

= applied load /
area of indentation

≅ 1.854 F/d2

Penetration


Mean diameter , d=


Indentation

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ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM

To study the Lucknik hardness testing machine and to find the Rockwell hardness
number of the materials of given specimens.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Lucknick Hardness testing machine

Specimens for testing
Ball indenter and diamond cone indenter.

PRINCIPLE

The test consists in forcing an indenter of standard type (cone or ball ) into the
surface of the test piece in two operations and measuring the permanent increase of the
depth of indentation 'e' of this indenter under specified conditions. The unit of
measurement of 'e' is mm from which a number known as Rockwell hardness is
deduced.

The load and the indenter to be used for a particular test are decided from an
approximate relative hardness of different materials (Table 1). In general for hard
materials diamond cone indenter is used and for soft materials steel ball indenter is used.

Table 7.: Indenter selection based on material type

SI Material Indenter Total Scale Scale

load (kg) symbol
No
Very hard and Diamond
A Black
1. thin cone. 60
Diamond
C Black
2. Very hard cone 150
Steel ball
100 B Red
3. Soft 1.5875mm ∅
Steel ball
4. Soft and Thin 1.578mm ∅ 60 F Red

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F0 = Initial or preliminary load

F1 = Additional load

F = Fo + F1

e = permanent increase of depth of intention under the preliminary load after removal of
additional load. This is expressed in the units of 0.002mm.

The Rockwell Hardness number is defined as the ratio

 =  − 

Where K = 100 for C scale (Cone penetrator)

K = 130 for B scale (Ball penetrator)

Hence for Rockwell hardness C, the hardness number

 = 100 − 

The preliminary load F0 = 10 kg and additional load F1 = 100 kg and hence the total load, F=
F0 + F1 = 10 + 140 = 150. The range of scale is 0-100 and black scale is used.

Similarly for Rockwell hardness B, the hardness number

 = 130 − 

The preliminary load F0 = 10 kg and additional load F1 = 90 kg and hence the

total load .

F= F0 + F1 = 10 + 90 = 100. The range of the scale is 30-130 and red scale is used.

ep= Depth of indentation due to Fo

ea = increase in depth of indentation due to F1

TEST REQUIREMENTS

The surface of test piece shall be smooth and even free from oxide scales and
foreign matter. The thickness of test piece shall be atleast 8 times the permanent increase
of depth `e'. The distance between the centers of two adjacent impressions shall be at
least 4 times the diameter of indentation and the distance from the center of the
indentation to the side of the test piece shall be atleast 2.5 times the diameter of

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indentation. The dial of the indicator shall be set at initial position and the loads increased
without sudden shock within 2 to 8 seconds.

EQUIPMENT

Lucknik hardness testing machine

Fig.7.2. Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine

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PROCEDURE
Put the required weight on the pan. Insert the indenter and fasten with a screw. Place the
specimen on the object table and turn the wheel to raise the elevation screw until the
specimen touches the indenter. Turn the wheel slowly to make the indenter penetrate the
specimen until the small pointer of the dial indicator is on the red dash. Now the
specimen is subjected to the preliminary load of 10Kgf. Bring the pointer to read zero for C
scale (black) or 30 of B scale (red). Press the releasing device to increase the load from F0
to F1 including a further driving of the indenter into the specimen.

Keep the load stationary for 4 to 6 seconds for hard materials and 6 to 8 seconds for soft
materials Release the load by turning the crank in the reverse direction. The reading
corresponds to the position of the big pointer gives the hardness number directly (black
scale HRC and red scale HRB).
OBSERVATIONS

Material Indenter Load HRC Mean HRB Mean HRB

(kgf) HRC

RESULT
Rockwell hardness number of 1.
2.

DISCUSSION
Compare the hardness of materials tested

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS

I.S. 1586 : 2000 Method of Rockwell Hardness Test for Metallic Materials

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BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM

To find the hardness of the material of the test specimen using Brinell Hardness
Testing Machine.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Brinell Hardness Testing Machine, specimens for test , travelling microscope and
stop watch.

PRINCIPLE

As mentioned earlier a complete and satisfactory general definition of hardness is

not available. The principle used in finding the Brinell Hardness number is based on the
resistance of the material to permanent indentation. A hardened steel ball with diameter D
(mm) is forced into the test surface under a specified load P for a duration of time ranging
from 10 to 15 seconds. The hardness index is determined by the ratio of the load P (kg) to
the curved surface area (A) of the ball imprint. i.e. BHN = P/A.

Fig.7.3 Indentation produced

If d is the diameter of the impression in millimeters at the surface,

 (  !" #) = $!%&' '!&/ )"*&+ &"& !* ,--%&%,!-

.
= ; 3ℎ" ′ℎ5 ,6 %ℎ 7%ℎ !* ,--%&%,!- ,- 88
/0ℎ

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.
=
0
/ 90 − √0  −  ;
2
2.
/090 − √0  −  ;

HBS = Brinell Hardness in case where a steel ball is used as indenter for materials whose
HB is not exceeding 450

HBW = Brinell Hardness in case where a hard metal ball is used as indenter for
materials whose HB is not exceeding 650

Eg. 160 HBS 10 /3000 /15 = Brinell hardness of 160 determined with a steel ball of 10
mm diameter and with a test force of 3000 kg applied for 15 sec.

Normally a ball indenter of 10 mm nominal diameter shall be used. Balls of diameter 1,

2, 2.5 and 5 mm are also used. It shall be of hardened and tempered steel with a hardness
of at least 850 hardness value.

TEST REQUIREMENTS

1. The surface of the test piece shall be sufficiently smooth and even.

2. The thickness of the test piece shall not be less than 8 times the depth of indentation,
h

3. The distance to the center of indentation from the edge of test piece shall be at least
2.5 times the diameter of the indentation and the distance between the centers of
two adjacent indentations shall be at least 4 times the diameter of the indentation

4. The test load is applied without shock or vibration. The test load shall be
maintained for 10 or 15 seconds.

5. It is desirable that the diameter 'd' of the indentation should range between
0.25D and 0.5D

The ratio of F /D2 shall be chosen according to the material as shown in table below.

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Material F/ D2
Mild steel 30
Brass 10 or 15
Copper 10
Aluminium 5
Tiny lead 1

(A) BRINELL HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE (ELECTRICALLY

OPERATED ) -

TEST SET UP

The machine is designed with a hydraulic power pack and control circuit for
effortless loading / unloading operation. A dial gauge in front of the machine measures
depth of ball penetration. This facilitates precisition testing within tolerance limits. This
machine is designed to measure hardness of castings, forgings, other metals and alloys of all
kinds, hard or soft, whether flat, round or irregular in shape.

PROCEDURE

According to the material of the specimen and size of ball indenter, select the suitable
load and suspend it on the hanger. Float the machine using the power 'ON’ switch.
Place the specimen on the steel table. Raise the table with specimen by turning the
hand wheel until the specimen comes in contact with the steel ball. Slowly turn the hand
wheel till the small pointer on the dial comes to the red small dot. Apply load using the
loading lever on the side of the machine. The needle in the dial will start to move and then
will come to rest. Maintain the load for the specified time of 15 seconds. Release the load
using the loading lever to unload position. Lower the steel table by turning the hand wheel.
Remove the specimen and measure the diameter of indentation in two
perpendicular directions d1 and d2. The average of d1 & d2 is the diameter of the
indentation. Calculate the Brinell Hardness Number using the formula given.

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Fig. 7.4. Brinell Hardness Testing Machine (Electrically Operated)

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(B) BRINELL HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE (HYDRAULICALLY

OPERATED)

Fig.7.5. Brinell Hardness Testing Machine (Hydraulically operated)

TEST SET UP

The Brinell Hardness hydraulically operating testing machine consists of three

main units. At the front of the upper part of the body, the cylinder and the piston are
provided. They serve to transmit the produced pressure through the penetrator to the
specimen. Inside the upper rear body part, the pressure regulating unit is located, the task
of which consists of producing and maintaining a determined constant load during a
definite period of time. In the lower part of the body, lifting screw is provided on which
the worktable is mounted. The specimen is located on the table of the machine and by
rotating the hand wheel, the specimen is pressed against the ball.

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aboratory manual

PROCEDURE

Considering the material of the specimen and the size of the ball indenter, select
sel
the suitable load and suspend weights on the yoke tray accordingly. Insert the steel ball
indenter in position and place the specimen on the work table. Raise the specimen by
turning the hand wheel until the contact with the steel ball is obtained. Close
Clo the valve
and smoothly pump oil without causing any shock using the hand lever until the desired
load is obtained. Maintain the load for the specified time of 10 or 15 seconds for steel and
30 ± 2 seconds for light metals. Then slowly open the valve thereby
thereby releasing the oil
pressure and the load. Lower the specimen by turning the hand wheel. Remove the
specimen and measure the diameter of indentation in two perpendicular directions (d1 and
d2 ) The average of d1 and d2 is the diameter of indentation 'd'.. Calculate HBS using the
appropriate formula.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION

D (mm) Dia. of indentation

Materia1 Load Mean
dl d2 d (mm) HBS
(kg ) HBS
(mm) (mm)

RESULT

Brinell Hardness No of materials are

DISCUSSIONS

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS: I.S. 1500 : 2005

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8.0 TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN

AIM

To conduct the torsion test on the given cylindrical specimen and to find the Modulus
of Rigidity ( N ) of the material of the specimen.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Avery Torsion Testing Machine, specimen and vernier calipers

PRINCIPLE

A prismatic bar of arbitrary cross section when subjected to twisting moment, shear
stresses will be set up in the plane of any transverse cross section of the bar such that an equal
and opposite torque is developed to maintain equilibrium. The cross-sections of the bar will
generally undergo warping and the solution to the problem for stress and deformation can be
obtained only by solving the governing differential equations of theory of elasticity (Barron
De Saint Venant)

However, in the case of torsion of a circular shaft, since the section is symmetric about
a centroidal axis, warping of cross-sections does not occur and this simplifies the solution. A
strength of material solution which is also an exact solution in the case of circular shaft is
obtained using the following assumptions:

a) The cross sections of the shaft do not undergo warping and hence a plane section will
remain plane before and after the application of twisting moment.

b) The shearing stress at any point of the cross section is proportional to the radial
distance from the axis of the shaft and also to the length of shaft.

c) The shear stress is proportional to the angle of twist per unit length of the shaft.

Based on the above assumptions, the following relation can be established in the case of
cylindrical shaft subjected to equal and opposite twisting moments at the ends

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ܶ ߬ ܰߠ
= =
‫ܬ‬ ‫ݎ‬ ‫ܮ‬

Where T is the applied Torque in kg-cm

J is the Polar moment of inertia of shaft cross-section in cm4

τ – is the shear stress developed at a radial distance of R from the centre of shaft

N – Modulus of rigidity

L – gauge length of the rod

θ – angle of twist per unit length

It is clear from the above relation that the shear stress is maximum at the outer periphery of the
shaft, and varies linearly in the radial direction, having a zero value at the centre of any
transverse cross-section.

It should be understood that the shaft transmitting power rotates at uniform speed.
Whether it rotates at uniform speed or is at rest, the shear stresses and the resulting strain will
remain the same. Hence, the analysis of the problem of a rotating shaft solved by treating it to
be at rest, with one end fixed and a torque applied at the other end.

TEST SET UP

Avery torsion testing machine is so constructed as to subject the specimen to twisting

action in both directions of twist. The torque is applied by means of a hand operated worm
gear and worm wheel. The applied torque is measured by a lever system actuating a weighting
steel yard. The machine is supported on a cast iron base on which two standards are mounted -
one supporting the straining system and the other having the measuring system. The measuring
system consists of a main lever - two transmission levers - one steel yard graduated in kg-cm
units and a duplex jocky. If the two poises of the jocky are attached to each other then the range
of the machine will be 15000 kg-cm. If smaller poise alone is used, the range is reduced to 3000
kg-cm. The angular movements are measured by a torsion meter and a telescope.

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Fig.8.1 Torsion Testing Machine

PROCEDURE

Measure the diameter of the specimen and the gauge length of the given specimen. Mount
the specimen properly in the torsion meter using screws. Fix the torsion meter on the grips of the
torsion testing machine. With the poise at zero, adjust the steel yard to the horizontal using the
tare weight. Pull out the straining shaft and insert one end of the specimen into the chuck at
the straining end. Push slowly the straining shaft forward so that the other end of the specimen
enters the chuck at the measuring end. Check whether the specimen is tightly gripped. If the
gripping is loose, rotate the straining the wheel slowly till the grips bear on the specimen

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tightly. This is indicated by the steel yard showing a slight upward movement. Using the tare
weight, adjust the steel yard to be horizontal. Vernier in the moving poise should coincide with
the zero reading of the steel yard. Focus the telescope and see that one division (1°) on the
machine protractor is divided into 'n' divisions (usually 10 divisions) by graduations on the
telescope eyepiece.

Apply the torque with the hand wheel till the main protractor graduations has moved
through one division. The specimen has turned through (1/n° ). Make the steel yard
horizontal. Note the torque indicated by the vernier on the steel yard. Repeat the experiment
up to an angle of twist of 1°. Release the torque fully. Pull out the straining shaft and remove
the specimen. Plot the torque Vs angle of twist graph.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

( a ) Measurement of diameter of the specimen `d' in mm
Least count = mm

Table 1 Diameter of specimen

Vernier scale Main scale Diameter
Sl. No. Total reading
reading reading `d' in mm

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Table 2 Torque- twist data

Angle
1/10 2/10 3/10 4/10 5/10 6/10 7/10 8/10 9/10 1
of twist
Degrees
Torque
kg-cm

Gauge length =
Mean diameter, d =
Polar moment of Inertia =
Radius of specimen, R =

From T – θ curve, T =
θ (radians) =

் ௅
Modulus of rigidity, ܰ = × =
ఏ ௃

்೘ೌೣ × ோ
Max shear stress ߬௠௔௫ = =
௃

RESULT
Modulus of rigidity of the material of the rod =

DISCUSSION

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS

IS 6253-1971 - Method of simple torsion testing of Copper and Copper alloy wire

IS 4176-1967 - Method of simple torsion testing of Aluminium and Aluminium alloy wire

IS 1717-1971 - Method of simple torsion testing of steel wire

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9.0 IMPACT TEST

AIM

To draw the calibration curves of the machine used and to find the Impact values
(Izod and Charpy) of the materials of the standard specimen.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Avery impact testing machine, setting gauges and specimens for Izod and Charpy
test.

PRINCIPLE

The mechanical property toughness, is a measure of the energy that a material

absorbs during plastic deformation before its failure under impact loading. The material
properties influencing toughness are the strength of the material and its ductility viz. the
capability of the material to undergo plastic deformations before failure. Ductile materials
therefore have large toughness values whereas brittle materials have low toughness. This is
to obtain a measure of the toughness of the material in terms of the energy required to feature
the specimen under dynamic loading. The toughness of the material as determined by the
impact test is dependent on the temperature, the velocity of the impact, the size of the
specimen and the method of fixing.

At lower temperature, the ductility of the material is decreased and hence the
toughness also decreases. The higher the speed of loading, the lower will be the
toughness. Since brittle failure takes place at high-speed impact, the velocity ranges from 4
to 7 m/s. with an increase in dimensions of the specimen; there is a decrease in
toughness value, since the probability of having imperfections increase with volume.

Depending on the type of impact, impact testing may be classified as tensile

impact test and impact bending test. The most widely used in laboratories is impact
bending test, which is further classified into Izod and Charpy Impact tests.

In Charpy test, the standard specimen is supported as simply supported beam and the
impact load is applied at the center, while in Izod test, the specimen is held as a
cantilever and the load is applied at the free end. A triaxial state of stress is produced at the
base of the notch during the impact test. The brittleness of the material under this state of

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stress is greater than for a simple uniaxial stress. And hence the notch bar test provides a
most sensitive means of evaluating triaxial stress brittleness or notch sensitivity. The
impact value viz. the energy absorbed in the fracture of the specimen can be determined as
follows:

Calibration curves

Initial energy, ‫ܧ‬ଵ = ܹ ℎଵ

= ܹ (‫ ܮ‬− ‫ ܮ‬cos ߮ଵ ) (1)

Final energy, ‫ܧ‬ଶ = ܹ ℎଶ

= ܹ (‫ ܮ‬− ‫ ܮ‬cos ߮ଶ ) (2)

Loss of energy or impact value, ‫ܧ‬௅ = (‫ܧ‬ଶ − ‫ܧ‬ଵ ) = ܹ ‫( ܮ‬cos ߮ଵ − cos ߮ଶ )

Length of hammer, L = l m.

Weight of hammer, W = 24 kg

El = 17 kg-m for Izod test and 30 kg-m for Charpy test. Substitute the corresponding
values in eqn. (1) and find ߮ଵ . To get a relation between EL and ߮, substitute for W , L and
߮ଵ . For varying values of ߮ calculate corresponding values of EL and draw a curve of EL Vs
߮, which is the calibration curve. Now during a test if the pointer indicates an angle ߮ଶ
after impact, the corresponding impact value can be read from the calibration curve.

Fig.9.1. Schematic of impact test

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TEST SETUP

The Avery impact testing machine consists of a pendulum with a hammer having a
striker at the end. The length of the pendulum is 1 m with a hammer weight of 24 kg. The
machine has the capacity 0-17 kg-m for Izod test (cantilever test) and 0-30 kg-m for Charpy
test (beam test). Two control levers are fitted to the test set up, one for releasing the
pendulum and the other for clamping the specimen. The angle of raise of pendulum after
impact is read from the dial. A stop is fitted to support the pendulum in the test position.
The specimen is placed properly at the base of the machine. On releasing, the pendulum
swings giving a hammer blow to the specimen thereby breaking it. In this process the
specimen absorbs some part of the energy of the pendulum and pendulum further swings to
the opposite direction. From the initial energy stored in the pendulum and final energy after
breaking the specimen, the energy absorbed by the specimen can be obtained. Two
ratchets are fitted to the pendulum lock at 17kg-m or 30kg-m height whichever can be
selected depending on the test to be performed.

PROCEDURE

a) Cantilever test
Fit the striker with the horizontal face in the position. The appropriate grips are
positioned. After inserting the test piece with the notch to the right, set the specimen for the
correct height with the setting gauge and lock the grips with the right hand lever. With
the safety lever in the Izod position, raise the pendulum to 17 kg-m position. Rotate the
pointer in the dial anticlockwise until it contacts the fixed pointer attached to the
pendulum. Release the pendulum by using left-hand lever. After the pendulum has passed
the test piece, it will move the maximum indicator pointer and leave it at a position
indicating the angle of rise of the pendulum after impact. Arrest the pendulum by catching
the handle with right hand. After putting the pendulum back raise the stopper to allow the
top of the pendulum to rest on it. Repeat the test by using the remaining two notches of
specimen. The average value is the impact value.

b) Charpy test
The striker with the central vertical edge in the striking position is fitted. Lock the
anvil. Place the test piece across the anvil with the notch to the left locating it centrally

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with the centering gauge. With the safety lever in the Charpy position, raise the pendulum to
30 kg-m position and release. Read the value indicated on the dial.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Calibration curve Test results

EL EL (kg-m) EL Mean
Name of
߮ (kg-m) Angle ߮ଶ
Charpy test (kg-m) EL (kg-m)
Izod
0
10
20
Izod
30
40
50
60
70
߮ଵ (Izod)
80 Charpy
90
100
߮ଵ (Charpy)

RESULT

a) Calibration curves were drawn.

b) Impact value of the materials of standard specimen (mild steel)
1. By Izod test =
2. By Charpy test =
DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the effect of the following factors in the impact value- size of specimen,
material properties and velocity of impact.

2. What is the engineering significance of the impact test?

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS
IS 1757-1988 — Method for Charpy impact test ( V- notch ) on metallic materials
IS 1598-1977 — Method for Izod impact test for metals

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Fig.2. Specimens and supports for Izod and Charpy test

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Fig.9.2 Impact Testing Machine

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10. VERIFICATION OF CLERK MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL THEOREM

AIM

To verify Clerk- Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem and to determine the Young’s modulus of
material of beam specimen in the apparatus

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Clerk-Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem apparatus

2. Tire weight
3. Dial gauge with magnetic stand

THE THEOREM

Clerk-Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem states that for a structure exhibiting linear- elastic
behaviour, the deflection at any point. A due to an applied load at some other point B will be
equal to the deflection at B when the same load is applied at A (Fig.1).

Fig.10.1. Schematic for Clerk-Maxwell reciprocal theorem

THE APPARATUS

Clerk-Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem apparatus consists of a rigid frame and a light beam. The
beam is provided with simple end supports over the rigid frame in the form of a hinge at one
end and a roller at other end. There is a tire rod assembly to load the beam using tire- weights
(Weight of this assembly is made equal to that of one tire —weight). There is also a travelling
pedestal to support the dial gauge for measuring deflections.

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PROCEDURE

Place the beam correctly over the supports. Mount the dial gauge on the pedestal, place it
under the beam exactly at mid- span and adjust it to read zero on the scale. Hang the tire rod
assembly exactly at quarter-span and note the dial gauge reading. Place the tire weights one
by one without any shock, noting the dial gauge reading every time a weight is placed.
Continue the observations while unloading the beam as well.

Repeat the process after interchanging the positions of the dial gauge and the tire rod
assembly.

Plot the load deflection curve for the two cases and show that both curves coincide, which
verifies the Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem.

OBSERVATIONS

a. Part A

Least count of dial gauge:

Relationship between dial gauge divisions and deflection (mm):

(i) Load at A ( Quarter-span position); deflection at B (mid-span)
Sl Loading Unloading Mean
No. Load Dial gauge Deflection Load Dial gauge Deflection Deflection
(gms) reading (mm) (gms) reading (mm) (mm)
(divisions) (divisions)

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(ii) Load at B (mid-span); deflection at A (Quarter-span position)

Sl Loading Unloading Mean
No. Load Dial gauge Deflection Load Dial gauge Deflection Deflection
(gms) reading (mm) (gms) reading (mm) (mm)
(divisions) (divisions)

b. Part B

Length of specimen, L =

Breadth of specimen, b =

Depth of specimen, d =

CALCULATIONS

Moment of Inertia of beam cross-section = bd3/12 =

11WL3
The deflection at quarter point due to load at the centre is given by δ = , from which the
768 EI
modulus of elasticity of material of beam specimen may be computed as

11  W  L3
E=  
768  δ  I

E =

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Result

(i) Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem is verified experimentally

(ii) The modulus of elasticity of material of beam specimen used in the experiment is
given by

Discussions

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11.0 FATIGUE TEST: STUDY OF EQUIPMENT

OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of fluctuating stress normally encountered in the cyclic
loading of the materials in service

INTRODUCTION

Most engineering failures are mainly due to fatigue in which the components are subjected to
fluctuation or cyclic loading such as suspended bridges, rails and air plane wings. Though the
fluctuating load is normally less than the yield strength of the materials, it results in fracture
behaviour which is more severe than that achieved from static loading.

Fatigue- ASTM definition

Fatigue is the progressive, localized, permanent structural change that occurs in materials
subjected to fluctuating stresses and strains that may result in cracks or fracture after a
sufficient number of fluctuations. Fatigue fractures are caused by the simultaneous action of
cyclic stress, tensile stress and plastic strain. If any one of these three is not present, fatigue
cracking will not initiate and propagate. The cyclic stress starts the crack and the tensile stress
produces crack growth.

The fatigue process

The process of fatigue consists of three stages:

• Initial fatigue damage leading to crack nucleation and crack initiation

• Progressive cyclic growth of a crack (crack propagation) until the remaining

uncracked cross-section of the part becomes too weak to sustain the imposed loads

• Final, sudden fracture of remaining cross-section

Fatigue cracking normally results from cyclic stresses that are well below the static yield
strength of the material.

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Types of fatigue/cyclic loading

The applied stresses which are cyclic in nature, may be axial (tensile – compression), flexural
(bending) or torsional (twisting) in nature. The fluctuation of cyclic loading can even be of
three types:
o Zero-to-max-to-zero: where a structural part which is carrying no load is then subjected
to load, and, later the load is removed.

Stress
magnitude
(Tension)

Time
Fig.11.1. Fully reversing load
o Varying load superimposed over a constant load. The bottom cord truss members of a
rail road truss bridge are examples of members subjected to this type of loading. The
members have a constant static tensile load coming from the action of self weight of
the deck over which the fluctuating loads due to moving traffic loads gets superposed

Fluctuating component
Stress
magnitude Mean static
stress level

Time

Fig.11.2. Varying load superimposed over a constant load

o Fully reversing load: One cycle of this type of loading occurs when a tensile stress of
some magnitude is applied to an unloaded part and then released, then the
compressive stress of same magnitude is applied and released. (Fig.3) A rotating shaft
with a bending load applied to it is a good example of fully reversing load.

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Strength of materials laboratory manual

Stress
magnitude
(T)

Time
(C)

Fig.11.3. Fully reversing load

For the three cyclic loading cases described above, the amplitude of loading remains the same
in each cycle and such a fatigue loading is called constant amplitude fatigue loading. Another
situation that is frequently observed in practice is called variable amplitude fatigue loading
where the stress level may vary randomly in amplitude and frequency with cycle.

Nomenclature to describe fatigue test parameters

The applied stresses are described by three parameters.
o The mean stress (Sm): is the algebraic average of the maximum stress (Smax) and
minimum stresses (Smin) in one cycle.
Smax + Smin
Sm = (1)
2
In the completely reversed cycle test, the mean stress is zero.

Fig.11.4. Schematic to describe the loading parameters involved in cyclic stress testing
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Strength of materials laboratory manual

o The range of stress (Sr): is the algebraic difference between the maximum and
minimum stress in one cycle .
S r = Smax − S min (2)

o The stress amplitude (Sa): is one half the range of stress.

Sr Smax − Smin
Sa = = (3)
2 2

o Stress ratio: is the algebraic ratio of two specified stress value in a stress cycle. Two
commonly used stress ratios are (i) the ratio of alternating stress amplitude to the
mean stress (A = Sa / Sm) and (ii) the ratio of minimum stress to the maximum stress
(R = Smin / Smax).

If the stresses are fully reversed, the stress ratio R becomes -1; if the stresses are partially
reversed, R becomes a negative number less than 1. If the stress is cycles between two tensile
stresses, the stress ratio becomes a positive number less than 1. A stress ratio R = 1 indicates
no variation in stress.
These parameters significantly affect the fatigue behaviour of materials. For example,
increasing the maximum stress as well as mean stress and stress range leads to more severe
fatigue conditions. If the maximum and minimum stresses are tensile, they are considered to
be more dangerous than compressive stresses as the tensile stresses will open up the fatigue
cracks.

Fatigue life (Cyclic strength) and S-N curves

The fatigue life of any specimen or structure is the number of stress (strain) cycles required to
cause failure. This number is a function of many variables, including stress level, stress state,
cyclic wave form, fatigue environment and metallurgical condition of the material.
Laboratory tests are generally conducted to estimate the fatigue life of materials. In such
tests, the specimen will be subjected to alternating/cyclic loading and will be loaded till
failure. The number of cycles to failure according to cyclic stresses applied will be recorded.
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Strength of materials laboratory manual

The results of fatigue tests are usually presented in the form of maximum or minimum stress
of stress amplitude on y axis vs number of cycles to failure (N) on x-axis. A logarithmic scale
is used for representing the number of cycles. The resulting plot of the data is called an S-N
curve. (Fig 5)
The number of cycles of stress that a metal can endure before failure can be seen to increase
with decreasing applied stress. For some engineering materials such as steel and titanium, the
S-N curve becomes horizontal at a certain limiting stress. Below this limiting stress, known
as fatigue limit or endurance limit, the material can endure an infinite number of cycles
without failure.
Most nonferrous metals do not exhibit a fatigue limit. Instead, their S-N curve continues to
drop at a slow rate at high number of cycles as shown for aluminium alloy in Fig 5. For such
materials without a well defined fatigue limit, the fatigue strength which is the stress to which
the metal can be subjected for a specified number of cycles (~ 108), is generally considered
instead of the fatigue limit.

Fig. 11.5. Stress amplitude vs the number of cycles to failure – the S-N curve (ASM
International, 1986)
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Strength of materials laboratory manual

FATIGUE TESTING USING ROTARY BENDING FATIGUE TESTING MACHINE

WORKING PRINCIPLE
The schematic of a typical rotary pure bending fatigue testing machine with simply supported
specimen (subjected to four point loading) is shown in Fig.6. The two outer bearings act as
the support for the specimen whereas the load application to the specimen is through the
inner bearings. The four bearing systems are so positioned that the applied load imparts a
pure bending for the specimen for the gauge length region. (between the inner bearings). The
stress level the specimen is subjected to can be controlled through the weights suspended at
the centre as shown in Fig.6.

Fig.11.6. Schematic of Rotary bending fatigue testing machine with simply supported of four
point loaded specimen.(ASM International, 1986)

The loading arrangement induces tensile and compressive stresses in the extreme bottom and
top fibres of the specimen. With the loading arrangement in position, the specimen is rotated
at a predefined speed (r.p.m) using a motor arrangement. As a result the nature of stress in the
extreme fibres alternates between tension and compression, similar to fully reversed cyclic
loading. The test mechanism counts the number of cycles (rotating) until the specimen fails.

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Strength of materials laboratory manual

PRINCIPLE

Q/2 Q/2

a a a

Q/2 Q/2

Fig.11.7. Schematic of loading arrangement

The maximum bending moment in the gauge length portion for the applied load of Q is given
by

Q
M= a (4)
2

For the specific machine in SM lab, a = 100 mm

The maximum bending stress in extreme fibre (σ) for the specimen with circular cross-section
is related to the maximum BM through the relation

π d3
M =σ (5)
32

Hence the applied load Q can be related to the specimen dimensions and extreme fibre stress
through the relation

σ π d3
Q= (6)
1600

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

i. Polish the specimen surface as smooth as possible and observe for any defects and
deep scratch/ markings etc. The samples with such defects needs to the rejected

ii. Measure the dimensions of the given specimen

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Strength of materials laboratory manual

iii. Compute the load to be applied Q using Eq.(3). The bending stress σ to be used in
computation may be obtained from the following empirical relations.

For steel specimen, σ = 0.6 σb

For ferrous metals, σ = 0.46 σb

Where σb is the tensile strength of specimen in N/mm2 units

iv. Fit the specimen properly in the sample holder.

v. After fitting the sample, keep the desired load on the seat provided for the loads.

vi. Switch on the instrument to conduct the fatigue test and record the time for the failure,
when it occurs. From the time taken for fatigue failure, calculate the number of cycles
to failure ( N = R.P.M. × time for failure in minutes)

vii. Report the value of stress amplitude σa and N

viii. Report the appearance of fractured surface

ix. The experiment may be repeated for multiple specimens and S-N curve may be
plotted

RESULT

Rotary pure bending fatigue test was performed on the given specimen and the following
fatigue parameters were observed for the material

(i) Fatigue limit of the material of the given specimen =

(ii) Number of cycles to failure =

OBSREVATIONS

RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARDS

IS 5075 : 1985 (Reaffirmed on 2001) Method of rotating bar bending fatigue testing of metals

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