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D31500

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Libris-

CharlesSSlichter
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

A Treatise on Elementary Dynamics. Crown 8vo.

Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 78. 6d.

Solutions of the Examples in the Elementary

Dynamics. Crown 8vo. 78. 6d.

The Elements of Statics and Dynamics. Fcap. 8vo.

Part I. Elements of Statics. Fourth Edition, 4s. 6d.
Part II. Elements of Dynamics. Fourth Ed. , 38. 6d.
The two Parts bound in one Volume. 7s. 6d.
"Mr Loney shows that he knows how to combine perspicuity with
brevity in a remarkable degree. One feature of both books is that
the author points out the portions that are adapted for a first reading,
and also those that are required for particular examinations."-
Guardian.
PART I. ELEMENTS OF STATICS.
"Students reading for the different examinations at Cambridge,
for the London University Matriculation, and intermediate Science,
and for the Woolwich Entrance Examinations , will find a statement
of the part of the book to be read on this subject. Mr Loney deserves
much praise for the uniformly high standard he has shown in this his
latest effort."-Glasgow Herald.

Solutions of the Examples in the Elements of

Statics and Dynamics. Ex. Fcap. 8vo. 78. 6d.
Mechanics and Hydrostatics for Beginners. Ex.
Feap. 8vo. Third Edition. 3s. 6d.

Plane Trigonometry. In two Parts. Crown 8vo. Second

Edition. Part I. up to and including the Solution of
Triangles. 58.
Part II. De Moivre's Theorem and the higher por-
tions. 3s. 6d.
The two Parts bound in one Volume. 7s. 6d.
NATURE says ; " ...It would be difficult to find a better introduc-
tion to Plane Trigonometry."
The SCHOOL GUARDIAN says ; 66 ...It is a model of method,
clearness, and accuracy ; and the simplicity of its explanations, its
numerous illustrative diagrams, and its large and varied collection of
exercises and examples combine to render it especially suitable for the
use of young pupils and private students....The typography of the
volume is in every respect admirable....'
 The SCHOOLMASTER says ; 66 ...Mr Loney, using the soundest
judgment in his choice of matter, presents it with inimitable brevity
and clearness ; the publishers, too, have vied with the author in their
efforts to excel, and, as a result, the book is in every way worthy of
commendation ."
The SCOTSMAN says ; " ...It expounds the subject with a skill
and fulness which give evidence of a peculiar experience in teaching
and of a special appreciation of the needs of students. "
The PRACTICAL TEACHER says ; " ...Among its numerous
competitors it cannot fail to attain a deservedly high and popular
position."
The NATIONAL TEACHER (Ireland) says ; " ...Seldom do such
books come under the notice of the reviewer. For conciseness and
clearness it has few compeers. It is deep without dullness ; compre-
hensive without wearisomeness. It comes before us with a newness
and freshness almost amounting to novelty...."""
The SPEAKER says ; "Mr Loney as a writer of elementary
mathematical treatises maintains a high standard. His Elementary
Dynamics is marked by its brevity and clearness and deserves its
success....The Cambridge Press has every reason to be proud of its
achievement ."
The EDUCATIONAL REVIEW says ; "...The author has not
made a special point of developing any one particular branch of the
subject, but his work is of uniform character throughout, and, we
may add, of uniformly good quality....The arrangement of sections is
excellent ; the attention is clearly directed to important points, and
the style in which the book is produced may be fairly described as
luxurious."
The GLASGOW HERALD says ; "...Mr Loney's text-book is sure
to be widely used in the several mathematical classes where sound work
is expected. The publisher's part of the work is also most admirably
done."
The UNIVERSITY CORRESPONDENT says ; " ...It is well
written and the chapters relating to the changes of sign and mag-
nitude of trigonometrical ratios in different quadrants are especially
deserving of praise...."
SCIENCE AND ART says ; "...In the analytical part of the
subject, considerable attention has been given to complex quantities ,
and the author is to be congratulated on the lucid way in which he
has treated them....The book may be strongly recommended as a
first-rate text-book."

London : C. J. CLAY AND SONS,

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
AVE MARIA LANE .
Glasgow : 263, ARGYLE STREET.
 THE ELEMENTS

OF

COORDINATE GEOMETRY .
 THE ELEMENTS

OF

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

BY

S. L. LONEY, M.A. ,
LATE FELLOW OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
PROFESSOR AT THE ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE.

London :
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK.
1895

[All Rights reserved .]

KD31500

HARVARD
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
47762

Cambridge:
PRINTED BY J. & C. F. CLAY,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
 PREFACE .

IN the following work I have tried to present the

elements of Coordinate Geometry in a manner
suitable for Beginners and Junior Students. The
present book only deals with Cartesian and Polar
Coordinates. Within these limits I venture to hope

that the book is fairly complete, and that no proposi-

tions of very great importance have been omitted.

The Straight Line and Circle have been treated

more fully than the other portions of the subject,
since it is generally in the elementary conceptions
that beginners find great difficulties.

There are a large number of Examples, over 1100

in all, and they are, in general, of an elementary
character. The examples are especially numerous in
the earlier parts of the book.
vi PREFACE .

I am much indebted to several friends for reading

portions of the proof sheets, but especially to Mr W.
J. Dobbs, M.A. who has kindly read the whole of the
book and made many valuable suggestions.

For any criticisms, suggestions, or corrections, I

shall be grateful .

S. L. LONEY.

ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE,

EGHAM, SURREY.
July 4, 1895.
 CONTENTS.

CHAP. PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION. ALGEBRAIC RESULTS 1
II. COORDINATES . LENGTHS OF STRAIGHT LINES AND
AREAS OF TRIANGLES 8
Polar Coordinates 19

III. Locus. EQUATION TO A LOCUS 24

IV. The Straight Line . RECTANGULAR COORDINATES . 31

Straight line through two points . 39
Angle between two given straight lines 42
Conditions that they may be parallel and per-
# 583

pendicular 44
Length of a perpendicular 51
Bisectors of angles 58
8285

V THE STRAIGHT LINE. POLAR EQUATIONS AND

OBLIQUE COORDINATES 66
Equations involving an arbitrary constant 73
Examples of loci 80
888

VI. EQUATIONS REPRESENTING TWO OR MORE STRAIGHT

LINES 88
*

Angle between two lines given by one equation 90

General equation of the second degree 94

VII. TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 109

Invariants 115
viii CONTENTS.

СНАР. PAGE
VIII. The Circle . 118
Equation to a tangent 126
Pole and polar 137
Equation to a circle in polar coordinates 145
Equation referred to oblique axes 148
Equations in terms of one variable 150

IX. SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES . 160

Orthogonal circles 160
Radical axis 161
Coaxal circles 166

X. Conic Sections . THE PARABOLA 174

Equation to a tangent 180
Some properties of the parabola 187
Pole and polar 190
Diameters 195
Equations in terms of one variable 198

XI. THE PARABOLA (continued ) 206

Loci connected with the parabola • 206
Three normals passing through a given point . 211
Parabola referred to two tangents as axes · 217

XII. THE ELLIPSE 225

Auxiliary circle and eccentric angle 231
Equation to a tangent 237
Some properties of the ellipse 242
Pole and polar · 249
Conjugate diameters 254
Four normals through any point 265
Examples of loci 266

XIII. THE HYPERBOLA 271

Asymptotes 284
Equation referred to the asymptotes as axes 296
One variable. Examples • 299
 CONTENTS. ix

CHAP. PAGE
XIV. POLAR EQUATION TO A CONIC 306
Polar equation to a tangent, polar, and normal . 313
XV. GENERAL EQUATION. TRACING OF CURVES 322
Particular cases of conic sections . 322
Transformation of equation to centre as origin 326
Equation to asymptotes 329
Tracing a parabola 332
Tracing a central conic . 338
Eccentricity and foci of general conic 342

XVI. GENERAL EQUATION 349

Tangent 349
Conjugate diameters 352
Conics through the intersections of two conics . 356
The equation S = Xuv · 358
General equation to the pair of tangents drawn
from any point 364
The director circle . 365
The foci 367
The axes 369
Lengths of straight lines drawn in given directions
to meet the conic . 370
Conics passing through four points 378
Conics touching four lines . 380
The conic LM= R² . 382

XVII. MISCELLANEOUS PROPOSITIONS 385

On the four normals from any point to a central
conic 385
Confocal conics 392
Circles of curvature and contact of the third order . 398
Envelopes 407

ANSWERS . i-xiii
 ERRATA.

Page 87, Ex. 27, line 4. For " R" read " S."
"" 235, Ex. 18, line 3. For " odd " read " even."
99 line 5. Dele " and Page 37, Ex. 15."
99 282, Ex. 3. For " transverse " read " conjugate."
 CHAPTER I:

INTRODUCTION.

SOME ALGEBRAIC RESULTS.

1. Quadratic Equations. The roots of the quad-

ratic equation
ax² + bx + c = 0
may easily be shewn to be

- b + √b² - 4ac - b − √b² - 4ac

and
2a 2a

They are therefore real and unequal, equal, or imaginary,

according as the quantity b2-4ac is positive, zero, or negative,
i.e. according as b² ≥ 4ac.

2. Relations between the roots of any algebraic equation

and the coefficients of the terms of the equation.
If any equation be written so that the coefficient of the
highest term is unity, it is shewn in any treatise on Algebra
that
(1) the sum of the roots is equal to the coefficient of
the second term with its sign changed,
(2) the sum of the products of the roots, taken two
at a time, is equal to the coefficient of the third term ,
(3) the sum of their products, taken three at a time,
is equal to the coefficient of the fourth term with its sign
changed,
and so on.
D
5 L. 1
2 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

Ex. 1. If a and ẞ be the roots of the equation

b с
ax² +bx + c = 0, i.e. x² + a x + a
b
we have a +B = - a and aẞ ==

Ex. 2. If a, ß, and y be the roots of the cubic equation

ax³ + bx² + cx + d = 0,
ს с d
i.e. of x3 + x² + x + == 0,
a a a

we have a +B+y= a
с
By +ya + aß =
d
and αβγ= a

3. It can easily be shewn that the solution of the

equations
а₁x + by + c₁z = 0,
and ax + b₂y + c₂z = 0,
х y ช
is =
b₁₂ - b₂c₁ C2 = C1 -- ab₁
a₁₂-

Determinant Notation .

a1 , a2
4. The quantity is called a determinant of the
b1, b2
second order and stands for the quantity ab₂- ab₁ , so that
a1, a2| = ab , — a ინ ,
b1 , b2
2,
Exs. (i) = 2x5-4x3 = 10-12 = -2 ;
4,
3, -41
(ii) -
-7, -6 = − 3 × ( − 6) − ( − 7) × ( − 4) = 18 – 28 = -10.
-
 DETERMINANTS. 3

a1, a2, az
5. The quantity b₁, b₂, bз . (1)
| C1 , C2 , C3
is called a determinant of the third order and stands for the
quantity
|b₂, bз| -- b₂, b₂ +as | b₁,
19 b₂ |
a2 (2) ,
C2, C3 C1, C3 C1,
i.e. by Art. 4, for the quantity
-
а1 (b2c3 — b3c2) -- a₂ (b₁C3 − b¿¢1) + α3 (b1C2 — b₂C1) ,
i.e. - -
aq (ხი — ხე ,) + a, ( bgc, — ba) + a (b,c , — ხი ).
6. A determinant of the third order is therefore reduced
to three determinants of the second order by the following
rule :
Take in order the quantities which occur in the first row
of the determinant ; multiply each of these in turn by the
determinant which is obtained by erasing the row and
column to which it belongs ; prefix the sign + and al-
ternately to the products thus obtained and add the
results.
Thus, if in (1 ) we omit the row and column to which a₁
belongs, we have left the determinant | ხა , ხვ and this is the
C2, C3
coefficient of a, in (2) .
Similarly, if in (1 ) we omit the row and column to which
| b₁ , b3 | and this
a, belongs, we have left the determinant
C1, C3
with the sign prefixed is the coefficient of a2 in (2).
1, -2 , 3
7. Ex. The determinant - 4, 5, 6
-7, 8, 9
15, -6 - 4, 61 --4, 5
= 1x - ( −2) × --7, - + ( - 3) ×
8, -9 - 7, 8
= {5x (-9) -8x ( −6 )} + 2x { (- 4 ) ( -9)– (- 7) (- 6) }
-3x{(-4) x8- (- 7) x5}
= { - 45 + 48 } +2 { 36-42 } −3 { −32 + 35}
= 3-12-9-18.
1-2
4 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

A1, A2, A3, A4

ხე , ხი , ხვ , ხე
8. The quantity
C1, C2, C3, C4
dy, da, dз, ds
is called a determinant of the fourth order and stands for
the quantity

| ხი , ხვ , b
ხ,4 ხ,, ხვ , ხ. |
α1 C2, C3 , C4 - AC1 , C3 , C4
d2, dз, ds dy , dз, ds
b₁, ba, bal b₁, b₂, bg
+ α3 C1, C2, C4 -α4 × C1 , C2, C3 ,
d₁ , da, ds d1 , d2, dз
and its value may be obtained by finding the value of each
of these four determinants by the rule of Art. 6.
The rule for finding the value of a determinant of the
fourth order in terms of determinants of the third order is
clearly the same as that for one of the third order given in
Art. 6.
Similarly for determinants of higher orders.

9. A determinant of the second order has two terms.

One of the third order has 3 × 2, i.e. 6 , terms. One of the
fourth order has 4 × 3 × 2, i.e. 24, terms, and so on.

10. Exs. Prove that

79

2, -3 - 6, 5, -3,
(1) 4, 8 = 28. (2) = 82. (3) - 2, 4, - 8 98.
-4,
9, 3, - 10
19, 8, 7 a, b,
(4) 6, 5, 40. (5) a, - b, c = 4abc.
3, 2, 1 a, b, -c
|a, h, g
(6) | h, b, f = abc + 2ƒgh – af² – bg² – ch².
g, f, c
 ELIMINATION. 5

Elimination .

11. Suppose we have the two equations

a + ay = 0 .... (1),
b₁x + b₂y = 0 ..... (2),
between the two unknown quantities x and y. There must
be some relation holding between the four coefficients a1 , a2,
b₁, and b₂. For, from ( 1) , we have
৪।১৯১
৪।১

a2
2
α1
х b2
and, from (2), we have
y b₁
Ꮳ
Equating these two values of we have
У
ba a2
,
b₁ a
i.e. aba — a, b, = 0 (3).
The result (3) is the condition that both the equations
(1) and (2) should be true for the same values of x and y.
The process of finding this condition is called the elimi-
nating of x and y from the equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , and the
result (3) is often called the eliminant of ( 1 ) and (2) .
Using the notation of Art. 4, the result (3) may be
a1, a2 == 0.
written in the form
b1, b2
This result is obtained from ( 1 ) and ( 2) by taking the
coefficients of x and y in the order in which they occur in
the equations, placing them in this order to form a determi-
nant, and equating it to zero.

12. Suppose, again, that we have the three equations

а₁x + а₂y + αзz = 0 ……….. (1),
b₁x + b₂y + b₂z = 0 .... (2),
and C₁x + C₂Y + Cz≈ = 0 (3),
between the three unknown quantities x, y, and z.
6 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

By dividing each equation by ≈ we have three equations

XC
between the two unknown quantities and . Two of
2 2
these will be sufficient to determine these quantities. By
substituting their values in the third equation we shall
obtain a relation between the nine coefficients.
Or we may proceed thus. From the equations ( 2) and
(3) we have
X Y 2
b₂cз -
– b3c₂ bзc₁ -− b₁c3 b₁₂ -
— b₂c₁
Substituting these values in (1 ), we have
а₂ (b₂C3 --
— b3¤₂) + α² (b₂c₁ -− b₁c3) + αz (b₁₂ - b₂c₁) = 0 ... (4 ).
This is the result of eliminating x, y, and z from the
equations (1), (2), and (3) .
But, by Art. 5, equation (4) may be written in the form
A1, A2, A3
b1,
ხე , ba, b₂
ხვ = 0.
C1, C2 , C3
This eliminant may be written down as in the last
article, viz. by taking the coefficients of x, y, and z in the
order in which they occur in the equations ( 1) , (2), and (3),
placing them to form a determinant, and equating it to
zero.

13. EX. What is the value of a so that the equations

ax + 2y + 3z = 0, 2x - 3y + 4z = 0,
and 5x +7y - 8z = 0
may be simultaneously true ?
Eliminating x, y, and z , we have
a, 2, 3
2, -3, 4 0,
5, 7, -8
i.e. a [(- 3) ( -8) - 4 × 7] -2 [ 2x ( -8) -4 x 5] +3 [ 2x7-5x ( -3 ) ] = 0,
i.e. a[ 4] -2 [ 36] +3 [29] = 0,
72 +87 159
so that a=
4
 ELIMINATION. 7

14. If again we have the four equations

а₁X + ɑ¿Y + Aç≈ + α¸µ = 0,
b₁x + b₂y + b²≈ + b¸µ = 0,
C₁x + C₂Y + Cz≈ + c₁u = 0,
and d₁x + d₂y + dзz + d¸u = 0,
it could be shewn that the result of eliminating the four
quantities x, y, z, and u is the determinant
а1, A2, аz, a4
b1, ba, bз, b
b4
= 0.
C1, C2 , C3, C4
d₁, da, da , ds
A similar theorem could be shewn to be true for n
equations of the first degree, such as the above, between
n unknown quantities.
It will be noted that the right-hand member of each of
the above equations is zero.
 CHAPTER IL

COORDINATES. LENGTHS OF STRAIGHT LINES AND

AREAS OF TRIANGLES.

15. Coordinates . Let OX and OY be two fixed

straight lines in the plane of the paper. The line OX is
called the axis of x, the line OY the axis of y, whilst the
two together are called the axes of coordinates.
The point is called the origin of coordinates or, more
shortly, the origin.
From any point P in the P
P₂
2
plane draw a straight line
parallel to OY to meet OX
in M. M4
The distance OM is called X ' M₂ M3 O M X
the Abscissa, and the distance
MP the Ordinate of the point
P, whilst the abscissa and the
ordinate together are called
its Coordinates.
Distances measured parallel to OX are called XC, with
or without a suffix, (e.g. x1 , x2... x' , x' ,... ) , and distances
measured parallel to OY are called y, with or without a
suffix, (e.g. Y1 , Y2 , ……. Y', Y'',...).
If the distances OM and MP be respectively x and y,
the coordinates of P are, for brevity, denoted by the symbol
(x, y).
Conversely, when we are given that the coordinates of
a point P are (x, y) we know its position. For from O we
have only to measure a distance OM ( = x) along OX and
 COORDINATES. 9

then from M measure a distance MP ( = y) parallel to OY

and we arrive at the position of the point P. For example
in the figure, if OM be equal to the unit of length and
MP= 20M, then P is the point ( 1, 2).
16. Produce XO backwards to form the line OX ' and
YO backwards to become OY'. In Analytical Geometry
we have the same rule as to signs that the student has
already met with in Trigonometry.
Lines measured parallel to OX are positive whilst those
measured parallel to OX' are negative ; lines measured
parallel to OY are positive and those parallel to OY' are
negative.
If P₂2 be in the quadrant YOX' and P₂M2, drawn
parallel to the axis of y, meet OX' in M₂ , and if the
numerical values of the quantities OM, and MP, be a
and b, the coordinates of Pare ( a and b) and the position
of P, is given by the symbol ( a, b).
Similarly, if P,3 be in the third quadrant X'OY ', both of
its coordinates are negative, and, if the numerical lengths
of OM, and MP, be c and d, then P,3 is denoted by the
symbol ( c, d).
Finally, if P lie in the fourth quadrant its abscissa is
positive and its ordinate is negative.
17. Ex. Lay down on paper the position of the points
(i) (2 , −1), (ii) ( −3 , 2) , and (iii) ( -2 , −3) .
To get the first point we measure a distance 2 along OX and then
a distance 1 parallel to OY ' ; we thus arrive at the required point.
To get the second point, we measure a distance 3 along OX' , and
then 2 parallel to OY.
To get the third point, we measure 2 along OX' and then
3 parallel to OY'.
These three points are respectively the points P4 , P2, and P3 in
the figure of Art. 15.
18. When the axes of coordinates are as in the figure
of Art. 15, not at right angles, they are said to be Oblique
Axes, and the angle between their two positive directions
OX and OY, i.e. the angle XOY, is generally denoted by
the Greek letter w.
10 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

In general, it is however found to be more convenient to

take the axes OX and OY at right angles. They are then
said to be Rectangular Axes.
It may always be assumed throughout this book that
the axes are rectangular unless it is otherwise stated .

19. The system of coordinates spoken of in the last

few articles is known as the Cartesian System of Coordi-
nates. It is so called because this system was first intro-
duced by the philosopher Des Cartes. There are other
systems of coordinates in use, but the Cartesian system is
by far the most important.

20. To find the distance between two points whose co-

ordinates are given.
Let P, and P₂ be the two
given points, and let their co-
ordinates be respectively ( ₁ , Y₁)
and (x , y ). P2
Draw PM, and P,M, pa-
rallel to OY, to meet OX in
M, and M. Draw PR parallel
to OX to meet M₁P₁ in R. M₂ M, X
Then
PR = M,M₁ = OM₂ - OM2 - x - X21

RP₁ = M₁P₁-
1 M₂P2 = Y1 — Y2,
and ▲ P₂RP₁1 = ↳ OM₁P₁1 = 180° - P₁₁X= 180° — ∞.
We therefore have [ Trigonometry, Art. 164]
P₁P = P₂R + RP2-2P₂R . RP, cos PRP,
-
= (x₁ − x²)² + (Y1 — Y½)² — 2 (X₁ — X₂) (Yı— Y₂) cos ( 180° — w)
= (x₁ − x₂)² + (y1-2) ² + 2 (x1 - x ) (V1 - y₂) cos w ... (1 ).
If the axes be, as is generally the case, at right angles,
we have = 90° and hence cos w == 0.
The formula ( 1 ) then becomes
P₁P¸² = (x -− x₂)² + (Y1 − Y2)²,
 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS. 11

so that in rectangular coordinates the distance between the

two points (x , y ) and (x , y ) is
√ (X1 − x2) ² + (Y1 − Y₂) ² . . (2).
Cor. The distance of the point (x , y ) from the origin
2
is √x² + y², the axes being rectangular. This follows from
(2) by making both x and y, equal to zero.
21. The formula of the previous article has been proved for the
case when the coordinates of both the points are all positive.!
Due regard being had to the signs of the coordinates, the formula
will be found to be true for all
points.
As a numerical example, let
P be the point (5, 6) and P2
be the point ( − 7, – 4) , so that
we have 30
x₁ = 5, y₁ = 6, x2 = −7 , M₂
and Y2-4. M, X
Then
PR = M₂O+ OM₁ = 7 + 5 P₂ R
==
= −X2 + X1 ,
and
RP₁ =RM₁ + M₁P₁ = 4 + 6
= -Y₂ + Y1 .
The rest of the proof is as in the last article.
Similarly any other case could be considered .

22. To find the coordinates of the point which divides

in a given ratio (m₁ : m²) the line joining two given points
(x , y ) and (x2, y2).

P
R₂
R,

M₁ M M₂ X
Let P₁ be the point (x₁ , y₁), P₂2 the point (x2, y2), and P
the required point, so that we have
P₁P : PP₂2 :: m₁ : m².
12 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let P be the point (x, y) so that if P₁M₁ , PM, and

PM, be drawn parallel to the axis of y to meet the axis of
x in M₁ , M, and M₂, we have
OM₁ = x₁, M₁P₁ = y₁ , OM = x, MP = y, CM₂ = X2 ,
and M₂P₂2 = Y2.
Draw PR₁ and PR₂, parallel to OX, to meet MP and
M₂P, in R₁ and R, respectively.
Then P₁R₁ = M₁M = OM - OM₁ = x -x₁
PR₂ = MM₂ = OM, - OM = x, — X,
RP - MP - M₁P₁ = y - Y₁ ,
and -
R„P₂2 = M‚и– MP = Y½ — Y.
From the similar triangles P,R,P and PR,P, we have
m₁ P₁ PP_
P PR₁
= ᏢᎡ =x - x₁
M2 PP PR₂ x - x
.. m₁ (x2 - x) = m² (x -
− x₁),
i.e. x = MyX2 + M₂X1
mr + m²
m1 PP = R₁P y - yi
Again
m2 PP RP2 y2 - Y'
---
so that m₁ (Y2 − y) = m₂ (y -
— Y1),
m₁y2 + m₂y1
and hence y=
m₁ + m²
The coordinates of the point which divides P₁P₂ in-
ternally in the given ratio m₁ : m₂ are therefore
m₁x2 + m₂x1 and m₁y₂ + m₂yı
m₁ + m² m₁ + m²
If the point divide the line PP,2 externally in the
same ratio, i.e. so that P₁Q : QP₂ :: m₁ : m₂ , its coordinates
would be found to be
mix - mex and m₁₂ - my1 .
m₁ - m2 m₁ — m²
The proof of this statement is similar to that of the
preceding article and is left as an exercise for the student.
 LINES DIVIDED IN A GIVEN RATIO. 13

Cor. The coordinates of the middle point of the line

joining (x , y ) to (x₂, y₂) are
x1 + x2 and + ,·
2 2

23. Ex. 1. In any triangle ABC prove that

AB2 +AC2= 2 (AD² + DC²) ,
where D is the middle point of BC.
Take B as origin, BC as the axis of x , and a line through B per-
pendicular to BC as the axis of y.
Let BC- a, so that C is the point ( a, O) , and let A be the point
(x1 , y1).
a
Then D is the point (2, 0).
2
Hence AD2² = ( ₁₂
x1 − 2 ) ² + y₁², and DC² =-(1)*.

!
Hence | x₁² + y₁²2_- ax₁ + 2
2 (AD²+ DC²) = 2 [
= 2x + 2y2-2ax₁ + a².
Also AC² =( - a)² + y12,
and AB²=x²2 +y₁².
Therefore AB2 +AC2 = 2x + 2y₁2-2ax₁ + a³.
Hence AB2 +AC² = 2 (AD² + DC²) .
This is the well-known theorem of Ptolemy.
Ex. 2. ABC is a triangle and D, E, and F are the middle points
of the sides BC, CA , and AB ; prove that the point which divides AD
internally in the ratio 2 : 1 also divides the lines BE and CF in
the same ratio.
Hence prove that the medians of a triangle meet in a point.
Let the coordinates of the vertices A, B, and C be (x1 , Y1) , (x2 , y2),
and (x , y ) respectively.
The coordinates of D are therefore X2 +x3 and Y2 +Y3
2 2
Let G be the point that divides internally AD in the ratio 2 : 1,
and let its coordinates be x and y.
By the last article
2x X2+X3 + 1 × x1
2 - x1 + x2 + X3
T=
2 +1 3
So 7=Y1 +Y2 + Y33 .
14 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

In the same manner we could shew that these are the coordinates
of the points that divide BE and CF in the ratio 2 : 1 .
Since the point whose coordinates are
X1 + X2 + x3 and Y1 +Y2 +Y3
3 3
lies on each of the lines AD, BE, and CF, it follows that these three
lines meet in a point.
This point is called the Centroid of the triangle.

EXAMPLES. I.

Find the distances between the following pairs of points.

1. (2, 3) and (5, 7). 2. (4,7) and ( -1 , 5).
3. ( -3, -2) and ( -6, 7) , the axes being inclined at 60°.
4. (a, o) and (o, b). 5. (b + c, c + a) and (c + a, a +b).
6. (a cosa, a sin a) and (a cos ß, a sin ß).
7. (am¸², 2am ) and (am², 2am ).
8. Lay down in a figure the positions of the points (1, 3) and
(-2, 1), and prove that the distance between them is 5.
9. Find the value of x, if the distance between the points (~1 , 2)
and (3, 4) be 8.
10. A line is of length 10 and one end is at the point (2, - 3) ;
if the abscissa of the other end be 10, prove that its ordinate must be
3 or -9.
11. Prove that the points (2a , 4a) , (2a , 6a) , and (2a + √3a, 5a)
are the vertices of an equilateral triangle whose side is 2a.
12. Prove that the points ( -2, −1) , (1 , 0) , (4, 3) , and ( 1 , 2) are
at the vertices of a parallelogram.
13. Prove that the points (2, − 2) , ( 8, 4) , (5, 7) , and ( -1 , 1 ) are
at the angular points of a rectangle.
14. Prove that the point ( , ) is the centre of the circle
circumscribing the triangle whose angular points are (1, 1 ) , (2, 3),
and ( -2, 2).
Find the coordinates of the point which
15. divides the line joining the points (1, 3) and (2, 7) in the
ratio 3 : 4.
16. divides the same line in the ratio 3 : -4.
17. divides, internally and externally, the line joining ( 1, 2)
to (4, 5) in the ratio 2 : 3.
[Exs. I.] EXAMPLES. 15

18. divides, internally and externally, the line joining ( --3, - 4)

to ( -8, 7) in the ratio 7 : 5.
19. The line joining the points (1, - 2) and ( 3, 4) is trisected ;
find the coordinates of the points of trisection.
20. The line joining the points ( −6 , 8) and (8, −6 ) is divided
into four equal parts ; find the coordinates of the points of section.
21. Find the coordinates of the points which divide, internally
and externally, the line joining the point (a + b, a - b) to the point
(a- b, a + b) in the ratio a : b.
22. The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are ( 1 , 1),
(x2, y2) and (x , y ). The line joining the first two is divided in the
ratio : k, and the line joining this point of division to the opposite
angular point is then divided in the ratio m : k + l. Find the
coordinates of the latter point of section .
23. Prove that the coordinates, x and y, of the middle point of
the line joining the point (2, 3) to the point (3, 4) satisfy the equation
x − y + 1 = 0.
24. If G be the centroid of a triangle ABC and O be any other
point, prove that
3 (GA² + GB² + GC²) = BC² + CA² +AB²,
and OA² + OB²+ OC² = GA² + GB² + GC² + 3GO².
25. Prove that the lines joining the middle points of opposite
sides of a quadrilateral and the line joining the middle points of its
diagonals meet in a point and bisect one another.
26. A, B, C, D... are n points in a plane whose coordinates are
(x1 , y1), (x2, y2) , (x , y ), .... ABis bisected in the point G₁ ; GC is
divided at G, in the ratio 1 : 2 ; G₂D is divided at G in the ratio
1 : 3 ; GE at G4 in the ratio 1 : 4, and so on until all the points are
exhausted. Shew that the coordinates of the final point so obtained are
X1 + Xq + Xz + . + xn and Y1 + Y₂ + Y3 + ... + Yn
n n
[This point is called the Centre of Mean Position of the n given
points. ]
27. Prove that a point can be found which is at the same
distance from each of the four points
a a a
and ammmz,
(am
am , 1) , ( am , 1) , (am , ) , (ammm , mm₂m ).
₂

24. To prove that the area of a trapezium, i. e. a quad-

rilateral having two sides parallel, is one half the sum ofthe
two parallel sides multiplied by the perpendicular distance
between them.
16 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let ABCD be the trapezium having the sides AD and

BC parallel.
A D N
Join AC and draw AL perpen-
dicular to BC and CN perpendicular
to AD, produced if necessary.
Since the area of a triangle is one B
half the product of any side and the
perpendicular drawn from the opposite angle, we have
area ABCD = ▲A BC ÷ ▲ACD

1
= } . BC . AL + } . AD . CN
= } (BC + AD) × AL.

25. To find the area of the triangle, the coordinates of

whose angular points are given, the axes being rectangular.
Let ABC be the triangle
and let the coordinates of its
angular points A, B and C be
(x , y ), ( 2, y2), and (x , y ). B
Draw AL, BM, and CN per- A
pendicular to the axis of x, and
let A denote the required area.
Then N M X

A trapeziumALNC +trapezium CNMB- trapezium ALMB

= }LN (LA + NC) + }NM (NC + MB) - − LM (LA + MB),
by the last article,
- -
= { [ (x, − X₁) (Y1 + Y3) + (X2 − X3) (Y2 + Yз) − (X2 − X¸) (Y₁ + Y₂) ].
On simplifying we easily have
▲ = = (X132 − X21 + X2Y3 − X3№2 + X3Y1 − X1Y3) ,
or the equivalent form
- -
▲ = 1 [X₁ (Y2 − Y3) + X₂ (Y3 − Y1) + X3 (Y1 — Y₂)].
If we use the determinant notation this may be written
(as in Art. 5)
X1 , 1 , 1
A= X2, Y2 , 1
X3, Y3 , 1
Cor. The area of the triangle whose vertices are the
origin (0, 0) and the points (x , y ) , (xa, ya) is (XY₂ - XY1 ).
 AREA OF A QUADRILATERAL. 17

26. In the preceding article, if the axes be oblique, the perpen-

diculars AL, BM, and CN, are not equal to the ordinates y₁ , y₂ , and
y3, but are equal respectively to y, sin w, y, sin w, and y, sin w.
The area of the triangle in this case becomes
sin w {x₁₂ − x₂Y1 + X2Y3 − X3Y2 + X3Y1 − X1Y3} ,
x1 , Y1 , 1
i.e. sin wxx2, y2,
x3, Y3, 1
27. In order that the expression for the area in Art. 25 may be
a positive quantity (as all areas necessarily are) the points A, B, and
C must be taken in the order in which they would be met by a
person starting from A and walking round the triangle in such a
manner that the area of the triangle is always on his left hand.
Otherwise the expressions of Art. 25 would be found to be negative.

28. To find the area of a quadrilateral the coordinates

of whose angular points are given.

R N M X

Let the angular points of the quadrilateral, taken in

order, be A, B, C, and D, and let their coordinates be
respectively (x1, Y1 ) , (X2 , y2) , (X3 , yз), and (x , y ).
Draw AL, BM, CN, and DR perpendicular to the axis
of x.
Then the area of the quadrilateral
= trapezium ALRD + trapezium DRNC + trapezium CNMB
- trapezium ALMB
=}LR (LA + RD) + ÖRN ( RD + NC) + ½ NM (NC + MB)
-
−}LM(LA + MB)
= } {(x, − X₁) (Y1 + Y₁) + (X3 − X4) (Yз + Ys) + ( X2 − X3) (Ys + Y2)
--
— (X2 — X₁) (Y1 + Y2)}
= }{( » »J) + (3 − 3 ) + ( 34 - 3) +( 1− 1) }.
L. 2
18 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

29. The above formula may also be obtained by

drawing the lines OA, OB, OC and OD. For the quadri-
lateral ABCD
= ΔΟΒΕ + ΔΟCD - ΔΟΒΑ - ΔΟΑΡ.
But the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle OBC
are (0, 0), (2 , y2) and (x , y ) ; hence, by Art. 25, its
area is (x - X3Y2).
So for the other triangles.
The required area therefore
-
= } [(X¸¥³ — X₂Y2) + (XзY₁ — X¸Yз) — (X₂Y₁ — X₁у½) — (X₁у¸ — x₁Y₁)]
-
= { [ (×₁у½ − x¸¥1) + (X2Y3 − X3Y2) + (X¸Y¸ — XÂYз) + (X¸у1 − x₁₁)].
In a similar manner it may be shewn that the area
of a polygon of n sides the coordinates of whose angular
points, taken in order, are
(x1 , Y1), (X2, y2), (X3 , Y3) , ... (xn , Yn)
is } [ (X₁¥2 — X₂¥1) + (X₂Y3 −
— Xs¥2) + ... + (Xn¥ı — X¸¥n) ] -

EXAMPLES. II.

Find the areas of the triangles the coordinates of whose angular

points are respectively
1. (1 , 3) , ( −7 , 6) and (5, -1) . 2. (0, 4) , (3, 6) and ( −8 , − 2) .
3. (5 , 2), ( -9, -3) and ( -3 , −5).
4. (a, b + c), (a, b − c) and ( −a, c).
5. (a, c + a), (a, c) and ( -a, cc- – a).
6. (a cos 1 , b sin ₁) , (a cos 2 , b sin ø½) and (a cos ø3, b sin ø3).
7. (am², 2am ) , (am,², 2am ) and (am,², 2am ).
8. {amm , a (m₂ + m2) } , { am,m , a (m, + m²) } and
{amm , a (m +m₁)} •
a a a)
and
9. {am , 1}, {am₂, m) y}] {am ,m).
Prove (by shewing that the area of the triangle formed by them is
zero) that the following sets of three points are in a straight line :
10. (1 , 4) , (3, −2), and ( −3, 16).
11. ( -1, 3 ), ( −5 , 6) , and ( -8, 8) .
12. (a, b + c), (b , c + a), and (c, a + b).
 [Exs. II.] POLAR COORDINATES. 19

Find the areas of the quadrilaterals the coordinates of whose

angular points, taken in order, are
13. (1, 1) , (3, 4) , (5 , −2) , and (4 , -7).
14. ( −1 , 6), ( −3, −9) , (5, −8) , and (3, 9) .
15. If O be the origin , and if the coordinates of any two points
P₁ and P₂ be respectively (a₁ , y₁ ) and (x2, y2) , prove that
OP . OP2.cos P₂OP₂ = 12 + Y1Y2
30. Polar Coordinates . There is another method,
which is often used, for determining the position of a point
in a plane.
Suppose to be a fixed point, called the origin or
pole, and OX a fixed line, called the initial line.
Take any other point P in the plane of the paper and
join OP. The position of P is clearly known when the
angle XOP and the length OP are given.
[For giving the angle XOP shews the direction in which OP is
drawn, and giving the distance OP tells the distance of P along this
direction.]
The angle XOP which would be traced out by the line
OP in revolving from the initial line OX is called the
vectorial angle of P and the length OP is called its radius
vector. The two taken together are called the polar co-
ordinates of P.
If the vectorial angle be 0 and the radius vector be r, the
position of P is denoted by the symbol (r, 0).
The radius vector is positive if it be measured from the
origin along the line bounding the vectorial angle ; if
measured in the opposite direction it is negative.
31. Ex. Construct the positions of the points (i) (2 , 30°),
(ii) (3 , 150°) , (iii) ( -2 , 45°) , (iv)
-3, 330°) , (v) (3, -210°) and (vi) 2
-3, -30°) . P
(i) To construct the first point,
let the radius vector revolve from
X
OX through an angle of 30°, and
then mark off along it a distance
equal to two units of length. We Μ
thus obtain the point P₁.
(ii) For the second point, the radius vector revolves from OX
through 150° and is then in the position OP₂ ; measuring a distance 3
along it we arrive at P2.
2-2
20 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

(iii) For the third point, let the radius vector revolve from OX
through 45° into the position OL. We have now to measure along
OL a distance - 2, i.e. we have to measure a distance 2 not along OL
but in the opposite direction. Producing LO to P , so that OP¸ is
2 units of length, we have the required point P3 .
(iv) To get the fourth point, we let the radius vector rotate from
OX through 330° into the position OM and measure on it a distance
-3, i.e. 3 in the direction MO produced. We thus have the point P2,
which is the same as the point given by (ii).
(v) If the radius vector rotate through -210°, it will be in the
position OP2 , and the point required is P₂.
(vi) For the sixth point, the radius vector, after rotating through
-30°, is in the position OM. We then measure -3 along it, i.e. 3 in
the direction MO produced, and once more arrive at the point P₂.
32. It will be observed that in the previous example
the same point P,2 is denoted by each of the four sets of
polar coordinates
(3, 150 °), ( −3, 330 °) , (3, -− 210 ° ) and ( −3 , − 30 °) .
In general it will be found that the same point is given
by each of the polar coordinates
-- -
(r, 0), (−r, 180° + 0), {r, − (360 ° – 0)} and { —r, --— ( 180 ° – 0) } ,
or, expressing the angles in radians, by each of the co-
ordinates
(~', 0), (− r, π + 0) , { r, - − 0) } and { −r, — (π -
− ( 2π - — 0)}.
It is also clear that adding 360° (or any multiple of
360°) to the vectorial angle does not alter the final position
of the revolving line, so that (r, 0) is always the same point
as (r, 0 + n . 360° ), where n is an integer.
So, adding 180° or any odd multiple of 180 ° to the
vectorial angle and changing the sign of the radius vector
gives the same point as before. Thus the point
[−r, 0 + (2n + 1 ) 180° ]
is the same point as [-r, + 180° ] , i.e. is the point [r, 0].
33 .
To find the length of the straight line joining two
points whose polar coordinates are given.
Let A and B be the two points and let their polar
coordinates be (r₁ , 0₁) and (r₂ , 02) respectively, so that
OA = r₁, OB = r₂, ≤ XOA = 0 ,, and ▲ XOB = 02.
 POLAR COORDINATES. 21

Then (Trigonometry, Art. 164)

AB² = OA² + OB² – 20A . OB cos AOB
= r² + r₁² - 2r₁₂ cos (0₁ - 0₂).
34. To find the area of a triangle the coordinates of
whose angular points are given.
Let ABC be the triangle and let (~1 , 0₁) , (~2, 0₂) , and
( 3, 03) be the polar coordinates of
its angular points.
We have
AABC = A0BC + AOCA B
-DOBA ...... (1 ). A
Now
AOBC = 10B.OC sin BOC
[Trigonometry, Art. 198 ] X
= -
= 1r₂r¸ sin (03 − 0₂2).
So ▲ OCA = ¿OC . OA sin COA = ½r¸r, sin (01 – 03),
and -
▲ OAB = 10A . OB sin AOB = {r₁r, sin (0, — 0₂)
= 2
rr, sin (0-0₁).
Hence (1 ) gives
AABC = } [rry sin (0g – 0 , ) + ry ” ( sin 0 – 6 )
+ rr, sin (0-0 ) ].
35. To change from Cartesian Coordinates to Polar
Coordinates, and conversely.
Let P be any point whose Cartesian coordinates, referred
to rectangular axes, are x and y,
and whose polar coordinates, re-
ferred to as pole and OX as
initial line, are (r, 0).
Draw PM perpendicular to OX
so that we have
OM = x, MP = y, ▲ MOP = 0,
and OP= = r. X' O x M X
From the triangle MOP we iy'
have
x = OM = OP cos MOP = r cos 0 ………….. ( 1 ) ,
y = MP = OP sin MOP = r sin (2),
r = OP = √√OM² + MP² = √ x² + y² .(3),
22 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

and
MP y
tan 0 = . (4).
OM x
Equations (1 ) and (2) express the Cartesian coordinates
in terms of the polar coordinates.
Equations (3) and (4) express the polar in terms of the
Cartesian coordinates.
The same relations will be found to hold if P be in any
other of the quadrants into which the plane is divided by
XOX' and YOY'.

Ex. Change to Cartesian coordinates the equations

0
(1) r = a sin 0, and (2) r² = a³ ,cos
(1) Multiplying the equation by r, it becomes r² = ar sin 0,
i.e. by equations (2) and (3) , x² +y² = ay.
(2) Squaring the equation (2), it becomes
0 a
ra cos2 (1+ cos 0),
2 2
i.e. 2r2ar + ar cos 0,
i.e. 2 (x² + y²) = a√x² + y² + ax,
i.e. (2x² +2y² - ax)² = a² (x² + y²) .

EXAMPLES . III.

Lay down the positions of the points whose polar coordinates are
1. (3, 45°). 2. (-2, -60°) . 3. (4, 135°). 4. (2, 330°).
π
5. (-1, -180°). 6. (1 , -210°) . 7. (5, -675°). 8.
(a, 1).
π
9. a,
(2a, - ). 10. (-a ). 3
11. (-2a, -27).
Find the lengths of the straight lines joining the pairs of points
whose polar coordinates are
12. (2, 30°) and (4, 120°) . 13. (-3, 45°) and (7, 105°).
and За,
14. (a, (3a, 7).
[Exs. III.] EXAMPLES . 23

π
and 3, form an equi-
15. Prove that the points (0, 0) , (3 , 5) , (3. )
lateral triangle .
Find the areas of the triangles the coordinates of whose angular
points are
16. (1, 30°) , (2, 60°) , and (3 , 90°) .
17. ( -3, -30°) , (5, 150°) , and (7, 210°) .
a, and
18. (-a,·T),
%) , (α, 1), 3 ).
(-2a, -27
Find the polar coordinates (drawing the figure in each case) of the
points
19. x = √3, y = 1. 20. x= √3, y = 1. 21. x = ---- 1, y = 1 .

Find the Cartesian coordinates (drawing a figure in each case) of

the points whose polar coordinates are

22.
(5, 1) . 23. ( -5, ). 24. ( 5, - ).
Change to polar coordinates the equations
25. x² +y² = a². 26. y= x tan a. 27. x² +y2 = 2ax.
28. x² - y² = 2ay. 29. xy2 (2a - x). 30. (x² + y²)² = a² (x² — y²).
Transform to Cartesian coordinates the equations
31. r= a. 32. 0 tan-¹m. 33. ra cos 0.
34. ra sin 20. 35. 2a2 cos 20. 36. 72 sin 20 = 2a2.
0
37. r2 cos 20 a². 38. + cosa . 39. rasin .
2
40. r (cos 30+sin 30) = 5k sin 0 cos 0.
 CHAPTER III.

LOCUS. EQUATION TO A LOCUS.

36 . WHEN a point moves so as always to satisfy a

given condition, or conditions, the path it traces out is
called its Locus under these conditions.
For example, suppose O to be a given point in the plane
of the paper and that a point P is to move on the paper so
that its distance from O shall be constant and equal to a.
It is clear that all the positions of the moving point must
lie on the circumference of a circle whose centre is 0 and
whose radius is a. The circumference of this circle is
therefore the " Locus " of P when it moves subject to the
condition that its distance from O shall be equal to the
constant distance a.

37. Again, suppose A and B to be two fixed points in

the plane of the paper and that a point P is to move in
the plane of the paper so that its distances from A and B
are to be always equal. If we bisect AB in C and through
it draw a straight line (of infinite length in both directions)
perpendicular to AB, then any point on this straight line
is at equal distances from A and B. Also there is no
point, whose distances from A and B are the same, which
does not lie on this straight line. This straight line is
therefore the " Locus " of P subject to the assumed con-
dition.

38. Again, suppose A and B to be two fixed points

and that the point P is to move in the plane of the paper
so that the angle APB is always a right angle. If we
describe a circle on AB as diameter then P may be any
 EQUATION TO A LOCUS. 25

point on the circumference of this circle, since the angle

in a semi-circle is a right angle ; also it could easily be
shewn that APB is not a right angle except when P lies
on this circumference. The "Locus " of P under the
assumed condition is therefore a circle on AB as diameter.

39. One single equation between two unknown quan-

tities x and y, e.g.
x+y-1 . (1),
cannot completely determine the values of x and y.

P₂
M OM X
P3

Such an equation has an infinite number of solutions.

Amongst them are the following :
x=0,) x= 1,) X = 2,1 X = 3,
" ...
y= 1 ' y = 0ƒ ' y = -1 ' y = -25
x = - 1, x = - 2,
" " ...
y= 2ƒ y= 3}
Let us mark down on paper a number of points whose
coordinates (as defined in the last chapter) satisfy equation
(1).
Let OX and OY be the axes of coordinates.
If we mark off a distance OP₁ (= 1 ) along OY, we have
a point P, whose coordinates (0, 1 ) clearly satisfy equation
(1).
If we mark off a distance OP₂2 (= 1 ) along OX, we have
a point P₂2 whose coordinates ( 1 , 0) satisfy (1) .
26 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Similarly the point P¸ , (2 , − 1 ) , and P₁, (3, − 2), satisfy

the equation (1) .
Again, the coordinates (−- 1 , 2) of P,5 and the coordinates
(-2, 3) of P.6 satisfy equation ( 1 ) .
On making the measurements carefully we should find
that all the points we obtain lie on the line PP, (produced
both ways ).
Again, if we took any point Q, lying on P,P2, and draw
a perpendicular QM to OX, we should find on measurement
that the sum of its x and y (each taken with its proper
sign) would be equal to unity, so that the coordinates of Q
would satisfy (1).
Also we should find no point, whose coordinates satisfy
(1), which does not lie on P¸Ð½ .
All the points, lying on the straight line P₁P2, and no
others are therefore such that their coordinates satisfy the
equation (1 ).
This result is expressed in the language of Analytical
Geometry by saying that ( 1 ) is the Equation to the Straight
Line P₁P2.

40. Consider again the equation

x² + y² = 4 ....... . (1).
Amongst an infinite number of solutions of this equa-
tion are the following :
x = 2,1 X = √31 x = √21 x= 1
"
y= y= 1 J y= √√2) y = √35 '

x = 01 x=- X=- x=-

y = 25 ' y= √3 y y= 1
x=- x = - √2,
x = - √3,1 x = -- 1,
, >
y = 0 S y = -1 J y =-√25' 3}:
y =-√3)
x == 0, x= 1 ,
"
x= √2, and x= √3)
y= y= √3) y= 1/2/ y = -1f
 27
EQUATION TO A LOCUS. 27

All these points are respectively represented by the

points P1, P2, P3, ... P16, and they
will all be found to lie on the PY PAP
dotted circle whose centre is O
and radius is 2. P
Also, if we take any other
point on this circle and its
ordinate QM, it follows, since P :0 MP X
OM² + MQ² = 0Q2-4, that the x
and y of the point Q satisfies ( 1) . Pil Piz
The dotted circle therefore
passes through all the points whose 13
coordinates satisfy (1).
In the language of Analytical Geometry the equation
(1 ) is therefore the equation to the above circle.
41. As another example let us trace the locus of the
point whose coordinates satisfy the equation
y² = 4x......... . ( 1) .
If we give x a negative value we see that y is im-
possible ; for the square of a
real quantity cannot be nega-
tive.
We see therefore that there
are no points lying to the left P
of OY.
If we give x any positive
X
value we see that y has two
real correspondingvalues which
are equal and of opposite signs.
The following values,
amongst an infinite number of
others, satisfy ( 1), viz.
x= 0, x= 1, 1 x= 2,
y = 0 ' y =+ 2 or -25' y = 2 /2 or or -
-2 / ,
2√2}
x= 4 x = 16, x= + ∞ ,
...
y = + 4 or - y = 8 or -8} , y = + ∞ or - }:
The origin is the first of these points and P₁1 and Q1 ,
P₂2 and Q₂, P, and Q. , ... represent the next pairs of points.
28 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

If we took a large number of values of x and the

corresponding values of y, the points thus obtained would
be found all to lie on the curve in the figure.
Both of its branches would be found to stretch away to
infinity towards the right of the figure.
Also, if we took any point on this curve and measured
with sufficient accuracy its x and y the values thus obtained
would be found to satisfy equation (1).
Also we should not be able to find any point, not lying
on the curve, whose coordinates would satisfy ( 1) .
In the language of Analytical Geometry the equation
(1 ) is the equation to the above curve. This curve is called
a Parabola and will be fully discussed in Chapter X.

42. If a point move so as to satisfy any given condition

it will describe some definite curve, or locus, and there can
always be found an equation between the x and y of any
point on the path.
This equation is called the equation to the locus or
curve. Hence

Def. Equation to a curve. The equation to a

curve is the relation which exists between the coordinates of
any point on the curve, and which holds for no other points
except those lying on the curve.

43. Conversely to every equation between x and y it

will be found that there is, in general, a definite geometrical
locus.
Thus in Art. 39 the equation is x + y = 1 , and the
definite path, or locus, is the straight line P、 P₂ (produced
indefinitely both ways).
In Art. 40 the equation is x² + y² = 4, and the definite
path, or locus, is the dotted circle.
Again the equation y = 1 states that the moving point
is such that its ordinate is always unity, i.e. that it is
always at a distance 1 from the axis of x. The definite
path, or locus, is therefore a straight line parallel to OX
and at a distance unity from it.
 EQUATION TO A LOCUS. 29

44. In the next chapter it will be found that if the

equation be of the first degree (i.e. if it contain no
products, squares, or higher powers of x and y) the locus
corresponding is always a straight line.
If the equation be of the second or higher degree, the
corresponding locus is, in general, a curved line.
45. We append a few simple examples of the forma-
tion of the equation to a locus.
Ex. 1. A point moves so that the algebraic sum of its distances
from two given perpendicular axes is equal to a constant quantity a ;
find the equation to its locus.
Take the two straight lines as the axes of coordinates. Let (x, y)
be any point satisfying the given condition . We then have x + y = a.
This being the relation connecting the coordinates of any point
on the locus is the equation to the locus.
It will be found in the next chapter that this equation represents
a straight line.
Ex. 2. The sum of the squares of the distances of a moving point
from the two fixed points (a, 0) and ( -a, 0) is equal to a constant
quantity 2c2. Find the equation to its locus.
Let (x, y) be any position of the moving point. Then, by Art. 20,
the condition of the question gives
{ (x − a)² + y²} + { (x + a)² + y²} = 2c²,
i.e. x² + y² = c² - a².
This being the relation between the coordinates of any, and every,
point that satisfies the given condition is, by Art. 42, the equation to
the required locus.
This equation tells us that the square of the distance of the point
(x, y) from the origin is constant and equal to c² - a², and therefore
the locus of the point is a circle whose centre is the origin.
Ex. 3. A point moves so that its distance from the point ( -1, 0)
is always three times its distance from the point (0, 2).
Let (x, y) be any point which satisfies the given condition. We
then have
-
V (x + 1 )2+ (y_0)2= 3N/ ( z – 0) 2 + ( y - 2) ,
so that, on squaring,
x² +2x + 1 + y2 = 9 (x2 + y² - 4y + 4),
i.e. 8 (x² + y²) -2x - 36y + 35 = 0.
This being the relation between the coordinates of each, and
every, point that satisfies the given relation is, by Art. 42, the
required equation.
It will be found, in a later chapter, that this equation represents
a circle.
30 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. IV.
By taking a number of solutions, as in Arts. 39-41 , sketch
the loci of the following equations :
1. 2x +3y = 10. 2. 4x - y = 7. 3. x² - 2ax + y² = 0 .
4. x² - 4ax + y² + 3a² = 0. 5. y² = x. 6. 3x = y² - 9.
7. x2 y2
+ = 1.
4 9
A and B being the fixed points (a, 0) and 0) respectively,
obtain the equations giving the locus of P, when
8. PA2 -PB² a constant quantity = 2k².
9. PA = nPB, n being constant.
10. PA + PB = c, a constant quantity.
11. PB²+ PC² = 2PA2, C being the point (c, 0).
12. Find the locus of a point whose distance from the point (1, 2)
is equal to its distance from the axis of y.
Find the equation to the locus of a point which is always equi-
distant from the points whose coordinates are
13. (1, 0) and (0, −2). 14. (2, 3) and (4, 5) .
15. (a + b, a − b) and (a − b , a + b).
Find the equation to the locus of a point which moves so that
16. its distance from the axis of x is three times its distance from
the axis of y.
17. its distance from the point (a, 0) is always four times its dis-
tance from the axis of y.
18. the sum of the squares of its distances from the axes is equal
to 3.
19. the square of its distance from the point (0, 2) is equal to 4.
20. its distance from the point ( 3 , 0) is three times its distance
from (0, 2).
21. its distance from the axis of x is always one half its distance
from the origin.
22. A fixed point is at a perpendicular distance a from a fixed
straight line and a point moves so that its distance from the fixed
point is always equal to its distance from the fixed line. Find the
equation to its locus, the axes of coordinates being drawn through
the fixed point and being parallel and perpendicular to the given
line.
23. In the previous question if the first distance be (1 ) , always half,
and (2) , always twice, the second distance, find the equations to the
respective loci.
 CHAPTER IV.

THE STRAIGHT LINE. RECTANGULAR COORDINATES.

46 . To find the equation to a straight line which is

parallel to one of the coordinate axes.
Let CL be any line parallel to the axis of y and passing
through a point Ở on the axis of х
x such that OC = c.
Let P be any point on this line whose coordinates are
X and y.
Then the abscissa of the point P is Y
always c, so that
x = c ..... . (1 ).
This being true for every point on C X
the line CL (produced indefinitely both
ways), and for no other point, is, by
Art. 42, the equation to the line.
It will be noted that the equation does not contain the
coordinate y.
Similarly the equation to a straight line parallel to the
axis of x is y = d.

Cor. The equation to the axis of x is y = 0.

The equation to the axis of y is x = 0.

47. To find the equation to a straight line which cuts

off a given intercept on the axis of y and is inclined at a
given angle to the axis of x.
Let the given intercept be c and let the given angle be a.
32 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let C be a point on the axis of y such that OC is c.

Through C draw a straight
line LCL'inclined at an angle
a (= tan¯¹m) to the axis of x,
so that tan a = m.
The straight line LCL' is N:
therefore the straight line
required, and we have to 心 M X
find the relation between the
coordinates of any point P lying on it.
Draw PM perpendicular to OX to meet in N a line
through C parallel to OX.
Let the coordinates of P be x and y, so that OM= x
and MP = y.
Then MP = NP + MN = CN tan a + OC = m . x + c,
i.e. y = mx + c.
This relation being true for any point on the given
straight line is, by Art. 42, the equation to the straight
line.
[In this, and other similar cases, it could be shewn,
conversely, that the equation is only true for points lying
on the given straight line. ]
Cor. The equation to any straight line passing through
the origin, i.e. which cuts off a zero intercept from the axis
of y, is found by putting c = O and hence is y = mx.
48. The angle a which is used in the previous article is the
angle through which a straight line, originally parallel to OX, would
have to turn in order to coincide with the given direction, the rotation
being always in the positive direction. Also m is always the tangent
of this angle. In the case of such a straight line as AB, in the figure
of Art. 50, m is equal to the tangent of the angle PAX (not of the
angle PAO). In this case therefore m, being the tangent of an obtuse
angle, is a negative quantity.
The student should verify the truth of the equation of the last
article for all points on the straight line LCL', and also for straight
lines in other positions, e.g. for such a straight line as A,B, in the
figure of Art. 59. In this latter case both m and c are negative
quantities.
A careful consideration of all the possible cases of a few proposi-
tions will soon satisfy him that this verification is not always
necessary, but that it is sufficient to consider the standard figure.
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. 33

49. Ex. The equation to the straight line cutting off an

intercept 3 from the negative direction of the axis of y , and inclined
at 120° to the axis of X, is
y=x tan 120° +( − 3),
i.e. y = -x√3-3,
i.e. y +x√/3 + 3 = 0.
50. Tofind the equation to the straight line which cuts
offgiven intercepts a and b from the axes.
Let A and B be on OX and OY respectively, and be
such that OA = a and OB = b.
Join AB and produce it in-
definitely both ways. Let P be
any point (x, y) on this straight
line, and draw PM perpendicular B P
to OX.
OM A X
We require the relation that
always holds between x and y, SO
long as P lies on AB.
By Euc. VI . 4, we have
OM PB MP AP
and
ОА AB " OB AB'
ом MP PB + AP
+ 1,
ОА OB AB
X y
i.e. + = 1.

This is therefore the required equation ; for it is the

relation that holds between the coordinates of any point
lying on the given straight line.
51. The equation in the preceding article may be also obtained
by expressing the fact that the sum of the areas of the triangles OPA
and OPB is equal to OAB, so that
axy + bxx = { a × b,
and hence x y
+ = 1.
a
52. Ex. 1. Find the equation to the straight line passing
through the point (3, 4) and cutting off intercepts, equal but of
opposite signs, from the two axes.
Let the intercepts cut off from the two axes be of lengths a and
-a.
L. 3
34 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The equation to the straight line is then

x y
+ = 1,
a -a
i.e. x - y = a .. .(1).
Since, in addition , the straight line is to go through the point
(3, 4) , these coordinates must satisfy (1) , so that
3 - ( - 4) = a,
and therefore a = 7.
The required equation is therefore
x - y = 7.
Ex. 2. Find the equation to the straight line which passes through
the point ( 5, 4) and is such that the portion of it between the axes is
divided by the point in the ratio of 1 : 2.
x y
Let the required straight line be a + b = 1. This meets the axes
in the points whose coordinates are ( a , 0) and (0, b).
The coordinates of the point dividing the line joining these
points in the ratio 1 : 2, are (Art. 22)
2.a + 1.0 2.0 + 1.6 2a b
and i.e. and
2 +1 2 +1 3 3
If this be the point ( 5 , 4 ) we have
2a b
-5= and 4=
3 3'
so that a = - 1 and b = 12.
The required straight line is therefore
x y
-15 + 12 = 1,
i.e. 5y - 8x = 60.

53. To find the equation to a straight line in terms of

the perpendicular let fall upon it from the origin and the
angle that this perpendicular makes with the axis ofx.
Let OR be the perpendicular from O and let its length
be p.
Let a be the angle that OR makes
with OX.
Let P be any point, whose co-
ordinates are x and y, lying on AB ;
draw the ordinate PM, and also ML A X
perpendicular to OR and PN perpen- M
dicular to ML.
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. 35

Then OL OM cos a ..... . (1),

and LR = NP = MP sin NMP.
But L NMP= 90° — ▲ NMO = MOL = a.
LR = MP sin a (2).
Hence, adding (1 ) and (2), we have
OM cos a + MP sin a = OL + LR = OR = p,
i.e. x cos a + y sin a = p .
This is the required equation.
54. In Arts. 47 --- 53 we have found that the correspond-
ing equations are only of the first degree in x and y. We
shall now prove that
Any equation of the first degree in x and y always repre-
sents a straight line.
For the most general form of such an equation is
Ax + By + C = 0 ..... ... (1),
where A, B, and C are constants, i.e. quantities which do
not contain x and y and which remain the same for all
points on the locus.
Let (x₁ , Y1), (x2, y2), and (x , y ) be any three points on
the locus of the equation (1).
Since the point (x , y₁ ) lies on the locus, its coordinates
when substituted for x and y in ( 1 ) must satisfy it.
Hence Ax₁ + By + C = 0 ..(2).
So Ax2 + By₂ + C = 0 .. (3),
and Ax3 + By + C = 0 .. (4).
Since these three equations hold between the three quanti-
ties A, B, and C, we can, as in Art. 12 , eliminate them.
The result is
X1, Y1, 1
X21 Y2, 1 = 0 ... (5) .
X3, Y3, 1
But, by Art. 25, the relation (5) states that the area of the
triangle whose vertices are (x , y ), ( 2, y2), and (x , y ) is
zero.
Also these are any three points on the locus.
3-2
36 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

The locus must therefore be a straight line ; for a curved

line could not be such that the triangle obtained by joining
any three points on it should be zero.
55. The proposition of the preceding article may also be deduced
from Art. 47. For the equation
Ax +By + C = 0
A C
may be written y= - x
B B'
and this is the same as the straight line
y = mx + c,
A C
if m= - and c= -
B B'
But in Art. 47 it was shewn that y = mx + c was the equation to
a straight line cutting off an intercept c from the axis of y and
inclined at an angle tan-¹m to the axis of x.
The equation Ax + By + C = 0
C
therefore represents a straight line cutting off an intercept - from
B
the axis of y and inclined at an angle tan-¹ to the axis of x.
:(-{
(-11)
56. We can reduce the general equation of the first
degree Ax + By + C = 0 ....... ..... (1)
to the form of Art. 53.
For, if p be the perpendicular from the origin on (1)
and a the angle it makes with the axis, the equation to the
straight line must be
x cos a + y sin a - p = 0 (2).
This equation must therefore be the same as (1) .
COS a sin a
Hence =
Α B 꿈,
C
COS a sin a √cos² a + sin² a 1
i.l. Ρ
P= = = =
-A -B √A² + B²
√A² + B²
Hence
A ---B C
COS α = sin a = and p =
NA2 +B2 √A² +B²' √A² + B²
The equation (1) may therefore be reduced to the form (2)
by dividing it by A + B and arranging it so that the
constant term is negative.
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. 37

57. Ex. Reduce to the perpendicular form the equation

x + y√√3 + 7 = 0 ..... . (1).
Here
√A²+B²= EN √1 +3 = √√4 = 2.
Dividing (1) by 2, we have

fx+ y √³
2 + + = 0,
i.e.
= (- 3) + y (-
x ) - ; = 0,
i.e.
x cos 240° +y sin 240° – =0.
58. To trace the straight line given by an equation of
the first degree.
Let the equation be
Ax + By + C -= 0 …………... .(1).
(a) This can be written in the form
XC
+ 2 = 1.
C
A B

Comparing this with the result of Art. 50, we see that it

C
represents a straight line which cuts off intercepts - A and

from the axes. Its position is therefore known.

B
If C be zero, the equation (1 ) reduces to the form
A
y B

and thus (by Art. 47, Cor.) represents a straight line

passing through the origin inclined at an angle tan -¹
一 )
(
to the axis of x. Its position is therefore known .
(B) The straight line may also be traced by fmding
the coordinates of any two points on it.
C
If we put y = 0 in ( 1 ) we have x = - A' The point

therefore lies on it.

(-1, 0)
38 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

C
the point
If we put x = 0, we have y = B' so that
lies on it.
B)
(0, -9
Hence, as before, we have the position of the straight
line.
59. Ex. Trace the straight lines
(1) 3x - 4y + 7 = 0 ; (2) 7x + 8y + 9 = 0 ;
(3) 3y = x ; (4) x = 2 ; (5) y = −2.

B₁
(4)
(1)
(3)
O

X' A, A2 A4 X
(2) 2
B

(5) B5

(1) Putting y = 0, we have x = -

and putting x=0, we have y = 1.
Measuring 04₁ ( = − }) along the axis of x we have one point on
the line.
Measuring OB₁ ( = ) along the axis of y we have another point.
Hence A,B₁ , produced both ways, is the required line.
(2) Putting in succession y and x equal to zero, we have the
intercepts on the axes equal to - and - g.
If then 04, - and OB₂ = - §, we have A,B₂ the required line.
(3) The point (0, 0) satisfies the equation so that the origin is on
the line.
Also the point (3 , 1 ), i.e. C₂ , lies on it. The required line is
therefore OC3.
(4) The line x = 2 is, by Art. 46, parallel to the axis of y and passes
through the point A4 on the axis of x such that 044 = 2.
(5) The line y = − 2 is parallel to the axis of x and passes through
the point B on the axis of y, such that OВ = − 2.
60. Straight Line at Infinity. We have seen
that the equation Ax + By + C = 0 represents a straight line
 STRAIGHT LINE JOINING TWO POINTS. 39

C C
which cuts off intercepts -- and from the axes of
A B
coordinates.
If A vanish, but not B or C, the intercept on the axis
of xᏣ is infinitely great. The equation of the straight line
then reduces to the form y = constant, and hence, as in
Art. 46, represents a straight line parallel to Ox.
So if B vanish, but not A or C, the straight line meets
the axis of y at an infinite distance and is therefore parallel
to it.
If A and B both vanish, but not C, these two in-
tercepts are both infinite and therefore the straight line
0.x + 0.y + C = 0 is altogether at infinity.
61. The multiplication of an equation by a constant
does not alter it. Thus the equations
2x - 3y + 5 = 0 and 10x - 15y + 25 = 0
represent the same straight line.
Conversely, if two equations of the first degree repre-
sent the same straight line, one equation must be equal to
the other multiplied by a constant quantity, so that the
ratios of the corresponding coefficients must be the same.
For example, if the equations
а₁x + b₁y + c₁ = 0 and Д₁x + B₁y + С₁ = 0
we must have
а1 b₁ = C1
=
A B C₁
62. To find the equation to the straight line which
passes through the two given points (x', y') and (x" , y").
By Art. 47, the equation to any straight line is
y = mx + c ...... . ( 1 ).
By properly determining the quantities m and c we can
make (1) represent any straight line we please.
If (1) pass through the point (x', y'), we have
y' = mx + c.. .. (2) .
Substituting for c from (2), the equation (1 ) becomes
y - y' m (x - x ') . (3).
40 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

This is the equation to the line going through (x', y' ) making
an angle tan-¹m with OX. If in addition (3) passes through
the point (x" , y' ) , then
y'" -- y':'= m (x" — x′),

m y" -y'
giving x" -x''
Substituting this value in (3), we get as the required
equation
y" -y'
y-y ' = X" -· X' (x - x') .

63. Ex. Find the equation to the straight line which passes
through the points ( −1 , 3) and (4, −2) .
Let the required equation be
y = mx + c........ . (1).
Since (1) goes through the first point, we have
3m + c, so that c = m + 3.
Hence (1) becomes
y= mx + m + 3 ... . (2).
If in addition the line goes through the second point, we have
-2 = 4m + m + 3, so that m = - − 1.
Hence (2) becomes
y = −x + 2, i.e. x + y = 2.
Or, again, using the result of the last article the equation is
-2-3
y - 3 == (x + 1) = − x − 1,
4 - (- 1)
i.e. y + x= 2.

64. To fix definitely the position of a straight line we

must have always two quantities given . Thus one point
on the straight line and the direction of the straight line
will determine it ; or again two points lying on the straight
line will determine it.
Analytically, the general equation to a straight line
will contain two arbitrary constants, which will have to be
determined so that the general equation may represent any
particular straight line.
Thus, in Art. 47, the quantities m and c which remain
the same, so long as we are considering the same straight
line, are the two constants for the straight line.
 EXAMPLES. 41

Similarly, in Art. 50, the quantities a and b are the

constants for the straight line.

65. In any equation to a locus the quantities x and y,

which are the coordinates of any point on the locus, are
called Current Coordinates ; the curve may be conceived as
traced out by a point which " runs " along the locus.

EXAMPLES. V.

Find the equation to the straight line

1. cutting off an intercept unity from the positive direction of the
axis of y and inclined at 45° to the axis of x.
2. cutting off
inclined an intercept - 5 from the axis of y and being equally
to the axes .
3. cutting off an intercept 2 from the negative direction of the
axis of y and inclined at 30° to OX.
4. cutting off an intercept - 3 from the axis of y and inclined at
an angle tan-1 to the axis of x.
Find the equation to the straight line
5. cutting off intercepts 3 and 2 from the axes.
6. cutting off intercepts -– 5 and 6 from the axes.
7. Find the equation to the straight line which passes through the
point (5, 6) and has intercepts on the axes
(1) equal in magnitude and both positive,
(2) equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
8. Find the equations to the straight lines which pass through
the point (1 , - 2) and cut off equal distances from the two axes.
9. Find the equation to the straight line which passes through
the given point (x , y') and is such that the given point bisects the
part intercepted between the axes.
10. Find the equation to the straight line which passes through
the point ( -4, 3) and is such that the portion of it between the axes
is divided by the point in the ratio 5 : 3.
Trace the straight lines whose equations are
11. x + 2y + 3 = 0. 12. 5x - 7y - 9 = 0.
13. 3x + 7y = 0. 14. 2x - 3y + 4 = 0.
Find the equations to the straight lines passing through the
following pairs of points .
15. (0, 0) and ( 2, −2). 16. (3, 4) and (5, 6).
17. ( 1, 3) and (6 , 7) . 18. (0, - a) and (b , 0).
42 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. V.]

19. (a, b) and (a + b, a −- b).

20. (at₁², 2at₁) and (at,², 2at ). 21.
(at ) and (at 4)
).
22. (a cos p₁, a sin ø1) and (a cos 42 , a sin 42) .
23. (a cos 1 , b sin ø₁) and (a cos 2 , b sin ½) .
24. (a sec 1 , b tan ₁ ) and (a sec 42, b tan ø2)•
Find the equations to the sides of the triangles the coordinates of
whose angular points are respectively
25. ( 1, 4), (2 , -
− 3) , and ( −1, − 2).
26. (0, 1), (2, 0) , and ( −1, − 2) .
27. Find the equations to the diagonals of the rectangle the
equations of whose sides are x = a , x = a' , y = b , and y = b'.
28. Find the equation to the straight line which bisects the
distance between the points (a, b) and (a', b') and also bisects the
distance between the points ( -a, b) and (a', — b′).
29. Find the equations to the straight lines which go through the
origin and trisect the portion of the straight line 3x + y = 12 which
is intercepted between the axes of coordinates.

Angles between straight lines.

66. To find the angle between two given straight lines.

Let the two straight lines be AL, and AL,, meeting the
axis of x in L1 and L2.

Cal

I. Let their equations be

y= mx + c₁ and y = mx + c₂ .. . (1 ).
By Art. 47 we therefore have
tan AL₁ X = m₁ , and tan AL, X = m₂•
Now LL₂ALLAL₁X - LALX.
tan L₁AL₂ = tan [AL₁X - AL₂ X]
tan AL₁X - tan AL₂X - my - m₂
1 + tan AL₁X. tan ALX 1 + m₁m²
 ANGLES BETWEEN STRAIGHT LINES. 43

Hence the required angle = LL, AL,

= tan -1 m₁ - m2 (2).
1 + m₁m²
[In any numerical example, if the quantity (2) be a positive quan-
tity it is the tangent of the acute angle between the lines ; if negative,
it is the tangent of the obtuse angle. ]
II. Let the equations of the straight lines be
A₁x + B₁y + С₁ = 0,
and
Ax + By + C₂ - = 0.
By dividing the equations by B, and B₂, they may be
written
A₁ C₁
y X "
B B₁
A2
and
y - C₂
B₂
Comparing these with the equations of ( I. ), we see that
A1 A2
ՊՈՆ == and M2
B₁' Ba
Hence the required angle
Ꭺ A2
-4B₁ - (- 4B2)
tan-1 M1 — m² = tan -1
1 + m₁m₂ 1+ A₁
B (一 )

tan -1 B₁₂ – A₁В₂ (3).

A₁A₂ + B₁B₂
III. If the equations be given in the form
x cos a + y sin a - p₁ = 0 and x cos ẞ + ysin ẞ - P₂ = 0,
the perpendiculars from the origin make angles a and ẞ
with the axis of x.
Now that angle between two straight lines, in which
the origin lies, is the supplement of the angle between the
perpendiculars, and the angle between these perpendiculars
is B - a.

[ For, if OR, and OR, be the perpendiculars from the origin upon
the two lines, then the points O, R1, R2, and A lie on a circle, and
hence the angles R₂OR, and RAR, are either equal or supplementary.]
4.4 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

67. To find the condition that two straight lines may

be parallel.
Two straight lines are parallel when the angle between
them is zero and therefore the tangent of this angle is zero.
The equation (2) of the last article then gives
m₁ = m2.
Two straight lines whose equations are given in the
"m " form are therefore parallel when their " m's " are the
same, or, in other words, if their equations differ only in
the constant term.
The straight line Ax + By + C' = 0 is any straight line which is
parallel to the straight line Ax + By + C = 0 . For the " m's " of the
two equations are the same.
Again the equation A (x - x') + B (y - y ) = 0 clearly represents the
straight line which passes through the point (x', y') and is parallel to
Ax +By + C = 0.
The result ( 3) of the last article gives, as the condition
for parallel lines,
B₁₂- A₁B₂ = 0,

i.e.
B₁ B₂
68. Ex. Find the equation to the straight line, which passes
through the point (4, −5), and which is parallel to the straight line
3x + 4y + 5 = 0 ........ .(1).
Any straight line which is parallel to (1) has its equation of the
form
3x +4y + C = 0 ........... .. (2) .
[For the "m" of both ( 1) and (2) is the same. ]
This straight line will pass through the point (4, -− 5) if
3x4 +4x ( -5) + C = 0,
i.e. if C=20-12 = 8.
The equation (2) then becomes
3x +4y + 8 = 0.
69. To find the condition that two straight lines, whose
equations are given, may be perpendicular.
Let the straight lines be
y = m₁x + C1 ,
and y = m₂x + C2.
 CONDITIONS OF PERPENDICULARITY. 45

If be the angle between them we have, by Art. 66,

m₁ - m²
tan 0:= . ( 1 ).
1 + m₁m²
-
If the lines be perpendicular, then = 90° , and therefore
tan 0= ∞o .

The right-hand member of equation ( 1 ) must therefore

be infinite, and this can only happen when its denominator
is zero.

The condition of perpendicularity is therefore that

1 + m₁m₂ = 0, i.e. m₁m₂ ==: 1.
The straight line y = mx + c, is therefore perpendicular
1
to y = mx + c₁ , if m₂-
m1
It follows that the straight lines
A₁x + B₁y + C₁ = 0 and A, x + B₂y + C₂ = 0,
for which mi A₁ an m A2
d a are at right angles if
ВB、 Ba'

== 1 ,
(一 ) (一 )
ie, if A¸¹₂ + B¸B₂2 = 0 .
70. From the preceding article it follows that the two
straight lines
A₁ж + В₁у + С₁ = 0 .... (1 ),
and ·В₁x -
− А₂у + С₂ = 0 ... . (2) ,
are at right angles ; for the product of their m's
A₁ B₁ 1.
X
B₁ A₁
Also (2) is derived from (1 ) by interchanging the coefficients
of x and y, changing the sign of one of them, and changing
the constant into any other constant.
Ex. The straight line through (x', y' ) perpendicular to (1) is (2)
where
В₁x' – A₁y' + С₂ = 0, so that C₂ = A₁y' — B₁x'.
This straight line is therefore
B₁ (x - x') - A₁ (y — y') = 0.
46 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

71. Ex. 1. Find the equation to the straight line which passes
through the point (4, - – 5) and is perpendicular to the straight line
3x +4y + 5 = 0......... . (1).
First Method. Any straight line perpendicular to (1) is by the
last article
4x - 3y + C = 0......... .(2).
[ We should expect an arbitrary constant in (2) because there are
an infinite number of straight lines perpendicular to (1) .]
The straight line (2) passes through the point (4, - − 5) if
4x4-3x ( -5) + C = 0,
i.e. if C = 16-15 = - 31 .
The required equation is therefore
4x - 3y = 31.
Second Method. Any straight line passing through the given
point is
y − ( −5) = m (x - 4).
This straight line is perpendicular to (1) if the product of their
m's is -1,
i.e. if mx ( − ) = −1 ,
i.e. if m= 3.
The required equation is therefore
y + 5 =3 (x - 4),
i.e. 4x - 3y = 31.
Third Method. Any straight line is y = mx + c. It passes through
the point (4, - 5 ) , if
-5 = 4m + c... . (3).
It is perpendicular to (1) if
mx(- ): - 1. .. (4).
Hence m = and then (3) gives c = -3 .
The required equation is therefore y = 4x - 31,
i.e. 4x - 3y = 31 .
[In the first method, we start with any straight line which is
perpendicular to the given straight line and pick out that particular
straight line which goes through the given point.
In the second method, we start with any straight line passing
through the given point and pick out that particular one which is
perpendicular to the given straight line.
In the third method, we start with any straight line whatever and
determine its constants, so that it may satisfy the two given
conditions.
The student should illustrate by figures. ]
Ex. 2. Find the equation to the straight line which passes through
the point (x', y') and is perpendicular to the given straight line
yy' =2a (x + x').
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. 47

The given straight line is

yy' -2ax - 2ax' = 0.
Any straight line perpendicular to it is (Art. 70)
2ay +xy' + C = 0 ...... . (1) .
This will pass through the point (x , y ) and therefore will be the
straight line required if the coordinates x' and y' satisfy it,
i.e. if 2ay' + x'y' + C = 0,
i.e. if C = -2ay' - x'y'.
Substituting in (1 ) for C the required equation is therefore
2a (y - y') + y' (x − x') = 0 .
72. To find the equations to the straight lines which
pass through a given point (x', y') and make a given angle a
with the given straight line У = mx + c.
Let P be the given point and let the given straight line
be LMN, making an angle
with the axis of a such that
Pixy')
tan 0 = m . Ľ
In general (i.e. except when N
a is a right angle or zero) there Ø
are two straight lines PMR and R S X
PNS making an angle a with
the given line.
Let these lines meet the axis of x in R and S and let
them make angles and ' with the positive direction of
the axis of x.
The equations to the two required straight lines are
therefore (by Art. 62)
y - y' = tan × (x − x') (1),
and
y- y' = tan p' × (x - x'). ..(2).
Now φ = L LMR + RLM = a + 0,
and φ' = L LNS + ▲ SLN = ( 180 ° —- a) + 0.
Hence
tan a + tan tan a + m
tan = tan (a + 0) := =
1- tan a tan 1 m tan a
and tan o' = tan (180° +0 —
− a)
tan 0 - tan a m- tan a
= tan ( 0 − a) =
1 + tan tan a 1 + m tan a
48 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

On substituting these values in ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , we have as

the required equations
m + tan a
y - y' =
1 m tan a (x − x'),
m - tan a
and y - y'
1 + m tan a (x - x').

EXAMPLES . VI.
Find the angles between the pairs of straight lines
1. x - y√√3-5 and √3x + y = 7.
2. x - 4y = 3 and 6x - y = 11. 3. y = 3x + 7 and 3y - x = 8 .
4. y = (2-3) x + 5 and y = (2 + √3) x − 7.
5. (m² - mn) y = (mn + n²) x + n³ and (mn +m²) y = (mn − n²) x + m³.
6. Find the tangent of the angle between the lines whose inter-
cepts on the axes are respectively a, b and b, -a.
7. Prove that the points (2, 1) , ( 0, 2) , (2 , 3) , and (4, 0) are the
coordinates of the angular points of a parallelogram and find the
angle between its diagonals.
Find the equation to the straight line
8. passing through the point (2, 3) and perpendicular to the
straight line 4x - 3y = 10.
9. passing through the point ( -6, 10) and perpendicular to the
straight line 7x + 8y = 5.
10. passing through the point (2, 3) and perpendicular to the
straight line joining the points (5, 7) and ( -6, 3).
11. passing through the point ( -4 , -3) and perpendicular to the
straight line joining (1, 3) and (2, 7).
12. Find the equation to the straight line drawn at right angles to
Ꮖ
the straight line a - =1 through the point where it meets the axis
of x.
13. Find the equation to the straight line which bisects, and is
perpendicular to, the straight line joining the points (a , b) and
(a', b').
14. Prove that the equation to the straight line which passes
through the point (a cos³ 0, a sin³ 0) and is perpendicular to the
straight line x sec 0 + y cosec = a is x cos 0 -
− y sin 0 = a cos 20.
15. Find the equations to the straight lines passing through (x', y')
and respectively perpendicular to the straight lines
xx' +yy' = a²,
[Exs. VI.] EXAMPLES . 49

xx' yy' =
+
a2 b2 1,
and x'y + xy' = a².
16. Find the equations to the straight lines which divide, internally
and externally, the line joining ( -3, 7) to (5, - 4) in the ratio of 4 : 7
and which are perpendicular to this line.
17. Through the point (3, 4) are drawn two straight lines each
inclined at 45° to the straight line x - y = 2. Find their equations
and find also the area included by the three lines.
18. Shew that the equations to the straight lines passing through
the point (3, -2) and inclined at 60° to the line
√3x + y = 1 are y + 2 = 0 and y −√√3x + 2 + 3√ / 3 = 0.
19. Find the equations to the straight lines which pass through
the origin and are inclined at 75° to the straight line
x+y + √3 (y - x) = a.
20. Find the equations to the straight lines which pass through
the point (h, k) and are inclined at an angle tan-¹m to the straight
lin e y = mx + c.
21. Find the angle between the two straight lines 3x = 4y + 7 and
5y= 12x + 6 and also the equations to the two straight lines which
pass through the point (4 , 5) and make equal angles with the two
given lines.
73. To shew that the point (x , y ) is on one side or the
other of the straight line Ax + By + C = 0 according as the
quantity Ax' + By + C is positive or negative.
Let LM be the given straight line and P any point
(x', y').
Through P draw PQ, parallel to
the axis of y, to meet the given P(xy
M Q(x ,y")
straight line in Q, and let the co-
ordinates of Q be (x', y' ). Party (rty")
Since lies on the given line, we X
have
Ax' + By" + C = 0,
Ax' + C
so that y" =-- B .. ( 1 ).
It is clear from the figure that PQ is drawn parallel to
the positive or negative direction of the axis of y according
as P is on one side, or the other, of the straight line LM,
i.e. according as y" is > or < y',
i.e. according as y" - y' is positive or negative.
L. 4
50 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Now, by (1 ),
Ax' + C 1
y' — y' :== B
-y' — [Ax' + By + C'].
-y' = — B

The point (x', y') is therefore on one side or the other of

LM according as the quantity Ax' + By + C is negative or
positive.
Cor. The point (x', y') and the origin are on the same
side of the given line if Ax' + By' + C and A × 0 + B × 0 + C
have the same signs, i.e. if Ax' + By + C has the same sign
as C.
If these two quantities have opposite signs, then the
origin and the point (x', y') are on opposite sides of the
given line.

74. The condition that two points may lie on the

same or opposite sides of a given line may also be obtained
by considering the ratio in which the line joining the two
points is cut by the given line.
For let the equation to the given line be
Ax + By + C = 0...... .(1),
and let the coordinates of the two given points be (x , y₁)
and (x , y ).
The coordinates of the point which divides in the ratio
mm, the line joining these points are, by Art. 22,
and m₁y2 + m₂y1 (2).
my + m² my + m₂
If this point lie on the given line we have
A MyX2 + M 2X1 + B m₁y2+ m₂y1 + C = 0,
m₁ + m² my + m²
so that m1 Ax₁ + By₁ + C
. (3).
ՊՈՆ» Ax₂ + By + C
If the point (2) be between the two given points (x , y )
and (x2, y2), i.e. if these two points be on opposite sides of
the given line, the ratio m₁ : m, is positive.
In this case, by (3) the two quantities Ax + By₁ + C
and Ax + By + C have opposite signs.
The two points (x₁ , y₁) and (x,, y2) therefore lie on the op-
 LENGTHS OF PERPENDICULARS. 51

posite (or the same) sides of the straight line Ax + By + C = 0

according as the quantities Ax, + By₁ + C and Ax, + By₂ + C
have opposite (or the same) signs.

Lengths of perpendiculars.

75. To findthe length of the perpendicular let fallfrom

agiven point upon a given straight line.

R
Play')
M

(i) Let the equation of the straight line be

x cos a + y sin a -·p = 0 ....... . (1),
so that, if p be the perpendicular on it, we have
ON = p and XON = a.
Let the given point P be (x , y).
Through P draw PR parallel to the given line to meet
ON produced in R and draw PQ the required perpendicular.
If OR be p', the equation to PR is, by Art. 53,
x cos a + y sin a -- p' = 0.
Since this passes through the point (x' , y'), we have
x'cos a + y' sin a - p' = 0,
so that p' - x' cos a + y' sin a.
But the required perpendicular
= PQ = NR = OR -- - ON = p' — p
= x'cos α + y' sin a - p (2).
The length of the required perpendicular is therefore
obtained by substituting x and y' for x and y in the given
equation.
(ii) Let the equation to the straight line be
Ax + By + C = 0 …………………. .....(3),
equation being written so that C is a negative quantity.
4-2
52 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

As in Art. 56 this equation is reduced to the form (1 )

by dividing it by VA2 +B2. It then becomes
Ах By C
+ == 0.
NA2 + B2 √A² + B² √ò + B²
Hence
A B C
COS α = sin a = and -p =
A²
√ + B² NA2 + B2 VA2 +B2
The perpendicular from the point (x , y ) therefore
= x'cos a + y' sin a -Ρ
Ax' + By' + C
=
√A² + B2
The length of the perpendicular from (x , y ) on (3) is
therefore obtained by substituting x' and y' for x and y in
the left-hand member of ( 3), and dividing the result so
obtained by the square root of the sum of the squares of
the coefficients of x and y.
Cor . 1. The perpendicular from the origin
= C÷√A² + B².
Cor. 2. The length of the perpendicular is, by Art. 73,
positive or negative according as (x , y ) is on one side or
the other of the given line.
76. The length of the perpendicular may also be
obtained as follows :
As in the figure of the last article let the straight line
meet the axes in L and M, so that
C C
OL = and OM
A B*
Let PQ be the perpendicular from P (x, y ) on the
given line and PS and PT the perpendiculars on the axes
of coordinates.
We then have
ΔΡΜΙ + Δ ΜOL = SOLP + ΔΟΡΜ,
i.e. , since the area of a triangle is one half the product of
its base and perpendicular height,
PQ . LM + OL . OM = OL . PS + OM . PT.
 EXAMPLES . 53
383
2 2
But LM =
+ = √A² + B² × (− C'),
(-9 B) АВ
since C' is a negative quantity.
Hence

PQ × √A²+ B² C C C
AB x (−α) + Α΄ Β A x y + (− 1) xχα
1 x',,
so that Ax' + By + C
PQ
√A² + B²

EXAMPLES . VII.

Find the length of the perpendicular drawn from

1. the point (4, 5) upon the straight line 3x + 4y = 10 .
X y
2. the origin upon the straight line 3 = 1.
3. the point ( -3, --4) upon the straight line
12 (x + 6) = 5 (y - 2).
x
4. the point (b, a) upon the straight line a - = 1.
5. Find the length of the perpendicular from the origin upon the
straight line joining the two points whose coordinates are
(a cos a, a sin a) and (a cos ẞ, a sin ß).
6. Shew that the product of the perpendiculars drawn from the
two points ( ± √a² - b², 0) upon the straight line
X
a cos 0 + 32 sin 0 = 1 is b².
7. If p and p' be the perpendiculars from the origin upon the
straight lines whose equations are x sec 0 + y cosec 0 = a and
x cos 0 - y sin 0 = a cos 20,
prove that 4p² +p'² = a2.
8. Find the distance between the two parallel straight lines
y= mx + c and y = mx + d.
9. What are the points on the axis of x whose perpendicular
distance from the straight line X + y = 1 is a ?
a b
10. Shew that the perpendiculars let fall from any point of the
straight line 2x + 1ly 5 upon the two straight lines 24x + 7y = 20
and 4x - 3y = 2 are equal to each other.
54 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. VII.]

11. Find the perpendicular distance from the origin of the

perpendicular from the point (1, 2) upon the straight line
x- √3y +4 = 0.
77. To find the coordinates of the point of intersection
of two given straight lines.
Let the equations of the two straight lines be
а₁x + b₁y + c₁ = 0 (1),
and аx + b₂y + c₂ = 0 (2),
and let the straight lines be AL, and AL, as in the figure
of Art. 66.
Since ( 1 ) is the equation of AL₁ , the coordinates of any
point on it must satisfy the equation ( 1 ). So the coordi
nates of any point on AL, satisfy equation (2).
Now the only point which is common to these two
straight lines is their point of intersection A.
The coordinates of this point must therefore satisfy
both (1 ) and (2).
If therefore A be the point (x , y₁ ), we have
а₁x² + b₁₁ + c₁ = 0 ..... (3),
and ɑ„X1 + b ¿Y1 + c₂ = 0 ……… . (4).
Solving (3) and (4) we have (as in Art. 3)
X1 Y1 1
=
- - -
bac, — bee
so that the coordinates of the required common point are
b₁c₂ - b₁c and
ab₂ -ab₁ a₁₂-ab

78. The coordinates of the point of intersection found

in the last article are infinite if
ab₂- ab₁ = 0.
But from Art. 67 we know that the two straight lines
are parallel if this condition holds.
Hence parallel lines must be looked upon as lines whose
point of intersection is at an infinite distance.
 CONCURRENCE OF STRAIGHT LINES. 55

79. To find the condition that three straight lines may

meet in a point.
Let their equations be
а₁x + b₁y + c₁ = 0 . ( 1 ),
ax + b₂y + c₂ = 0 .. (2) ,
and . (3).
By Art. 77 the coordinates of the point of intersection
of (1) and (2) are
-
b,c, — ხა and c1a2 C₂α1 ..........
(4) .
a₁₂- ab₁ abab
If the three straight lines meet in a point, the point of
intersection of (1 ) and (2 ) must lie on (3 ). Hence the
values (4) must satisfy (3), so that
b₁c₂ - bac₁ c1a2 c2a1
Az x + bg x + C3 = 0,
ab₂ -ab₁ ab₂ -ab₁
i.e. aз (b₁₂ -
− b₂º1) + b² (С₁α₂ − с₂α₁) + с3 (ɑ¸b¸ — ɑ‚b₁) = 0,
i.e. a₁ (b₂c - bgc₂) + b₁ (с₂αз — с₁α₂) + с₁ (αb¸ — α¸b ) = 0 ... (5).
Aliter. If the three straight lines meet in a point let
it be (x , y ), so that the values x and y satisfy the
• equations ( 1), (2), and (3), and hence
a₁₁ + b₁₁ + c₁ = 0,
а„x₁ + b₂y₁ + c₂ = 0,
and а3X1 + b²Y1 + C3 = 0.
The condition that these three equations should hold
between the two quantities x and y₁ is, as in Art. 12,
a₁, b₁, c₁
a2, ba, ca 0,
az, bg, cz
which is the same as equation (5).
80. Another criterion as to whether the three straight
lines of the previous article meet in a point is the following.
If any three quantities p, q, and r can be found so
that
p(ax + by + c₁) + q (α₂x + b₂y + c₂) + r (αçX + b₂Y + €3) = 0
identically, then the three straight lines meet in a point.
56 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

For in this case we have

аx + by + с3 : - 2 (ax + b₁y + c) ·— 29 (α₂x + b₂y +c₂) .……. ( 1 ) .

r
Now the coordinates of the point of intersection of the
first two of the lines make the right-hand side of ( 1 ) vanish.
Hence the same coordinates make the left-hand side vanish.
The point of intersection of the first two therefore satisfies
the equation to the third line and all three therefore meet
in a point.
81. Ex. 1. Shew that the three straight lines 2x - 3y + 5 = 0,
3x +4y - 7 = 0, and 9x - 5y + 8 = 0 meet in a point.
If we multiply these three equations by 6, 2, and - 2 we have
identically
6 (2x - 3y + 5) +2 (3x + 4y --− 7) − 2 (9x - – 5y +8) = 0.
The coordinates of the point of intersection of the first two lines
make the first two brackets of this equation vanish and hence make
the third vanish. The common point of intersection of the first two
therefore satisfies the third equation. The three straight lines
therefore meet in a point.
Ex. 2. Prove that the three perpendiculars drawn from the
vertices of a triangle upon the opposite sides all meet in a point.
Let the triangle be ABC and let its angular points be the points
(x1 , y1), (X , Ya), and (x , y ) .
The equation to BC is y - y₂ = Y3- Y2 (x - Xg).
X3 - X2
The equation to the perpendicular from A on this straight line is
X3-3 (x - x1) ,
y -y1 =
Y3 -Y2
i.e. Y (Y3 - Y2) + (x3 - Xg) = Y1 (Y3 - Y₁) + X₁ (X3 - — X2) . (1).
So the perpendiculars from B and C on CA and AB are
Y (Y₁ - Y3) + x (x − x3) = Y₂ (Y1 - Y3) + X2 (X1Xg) .... (2),
and Y (Y2 - Y1 ) + X (X2 -− x1) = Y3 (Y2 - Y1 ) + X3 (X2X1 ) ......... (3).
On adding these three equations their sum identically vanishes.
The straight lines represented by them therefore meet in a point.
This point is called the orthocentre of the triangle.
82. To find the equation to any straight line which
passes through the intersection of the two straight lines
a + by + ci = 0 (1 ),
and ax + b₂y + c₂ 0 (2).
 INTERSECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES. 57

If (x , y ) be the common point of the equations ( 1 )

and (2) we may, as in Art. 77, find the values of x₁ and Y1,
and then the equation to any straight line through it is
y − y₁ = m (x − x₁),
where m is any quantity whatever.
Aliter. If A be the common point of the two straight
lines, then both equations (1 ) and (2 ) are satisfied by the
coordinates of the point A.
Hence the equation
а₁x + b₁y + c₁ + λ (α„x + b₂y + c₂) = 0......... (3 )
is satisfied by the coordinates of the common point A ,
where A is any arbitrary constant.
But (3), being of the first degree in x and y, always
represents a straight line.
It therefore represents a straight line passing through A.
Also the arbitrary constant A may be so chosen that ( 3)
may fulfil any other condition. It therefore represents
any straight line passing through A.
83. Ex. Find the equation to the straight line which passes
through the intersection of the straight lines
2x - 3y + 4 = 0, 3x + 4y - 5 = 0 …..………………. (1),
and is perpendicular to the straight line
6x - 7y + 8 = 0....... ..(2).
Solving the equations (1 ) , the coordinates x₁ , y₁ of their common
point are given by
X1 Yı 1
= = =17,
( -3) ( -5) −- 4 × 4 = 4 × 3-2x ( -5) = 2x4-3x
2 × 4-3 × (-3)
(·
so that x₁ -- and y₁ = }}.
The equation of any straight line through this common point is
therefore
y - 24m (x + 7).
This straight line is, by Art. 69, perpendicular to (2) if
mx = -1 , i.e. if m = -7.
The required equation is therefore
y − zz = −7 (x + 17),
i.e. 119x + 102y = 125.
58 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Aliter. Any straight line through the intersection of the straight

lines (1 ) is
2x - 3y + 4 + λ (3x + 4y - − 5) = 0 ,
i.e. (2 + 3λ) x + y (4λ -− 3) + 4 − 5λ = 0 .......... ..(3) .
This straight line is perpendicular to (2) , if
6 (2 + 3x) − 7 (4λ − 3 ) = 0, (Art. 69)
i.e. if X=38.
The equation (3) is therefore
x (2 + 1 ) + y ( 132 -
− 3) + 4-185 = 0,
i.e. 119x + 102y - 125 = 0.

Bisectors of angles between straight lines.

84. To find the equations of the bisectors of the angles

between the straight lines
а₁x + b₁y + c₁ = 0 (1),
and аx + by + c₂ = 0 ..... (2).

N2

PYN,

M , O /L, M2 X

Let the two straight lines be AL, and AL,, and let the
bisectors of the angles between them be A M₁ and AM¸ .
Let P be any point on either of these bisectors and
draw PÑ, and PN, perpendicular to the given lines.
The triangles PAN, and PAN, are equal in all respects,
so that the perpendiculars PN, and PN, are equal in
magnitude.
Let the equations to the straight lines be written
so that c, and c₂ are both negative, and to the quantities
2
√a² + b² and √a² + b² let the positive sign be prefixed.
 EQUATIONS TO BISECTORS OF ANGLES. 59

If P be the point (h, k), the numerical values of PN₁

and PN, are (by Art. 75)
a₂h + b₁k + c₁ C₂
and agh + b₂k + .(1).
2 2
√ay²+b₂2
If P lie on AM₁, i.e. on the bisector of the angle
between the two straight lines in which the origin lies, the
point P and the origin lie on the same side of each of the
two lines. Hence (by Art. 73, Cor. ) the two quantities (1 )
have the same sign as c, and c, respectively.
In this case, since c, and c₂ have the same sign, the
quantities (1 ) have the same sign, and hence
a₁h + b₁k + c₁ = + ah + bak + Ca
Ja₁₂² + b₁2 √a2 + b²
But this is the condition that the point (h, k) may lie on
the straight line
а₁x + b₁y + c₁ ax + b₂y + c₂
Ja₁² + b²2 2
√an² + b₂2
which is therefore the equation to AM .
If, however, P lie on the other bisector AM₂ , the two
quantities (1 ) will have opposite signs, so that the equation
to AM, will be
а₁x + b₁y + c₁ ax + b₂y + c₂
√a₁₂² + b₁²2 √a₂² + b₂2
The equations to the original lines being therefore
arranged so that the constant terms are both positive (or
both negative) the equation to the bisectors is
ax + by + _ + x + b₂y +C₂ ,
√a,² +b₂2
the upper sign giving the bisector of the angle in which
the origin lies.
85. Ex. Find the equations to the bisectors of the angles
between the straight lines
3x - 4y +7 = 0 and 12x - 5y - 8 = 0.
Writing the equations so that their constant terms are both
positive they are
3x - 4y +7 = 0 and -12x + 5y +8 = 0.
60 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The equation to the bisector of the angle in which the origin lies
is therefore
3x -4y + 7 = - 12x + 5y +8
"
√32 +42 √122+ 52
i.e. 13 (3x - 4y + 7) = 5 ( -− 12x + 5y +8),
i.e. 99x - 77y + 51 = 0.
The equation to the other bisector is
3x - 4y + 7 = - 12x + 5y +8
√32+42 √122 +52
i.e. 13 (3x - 4y + 7) +5 ( --
− 12x + 5y + 8) = 0,
i.e. 21x +27y - 131 = 0 .
86. It will be found useful in a later chapter to have
the equation to a straight line, which passes through a
given point and makes a given angle with a given line, in
a form different from that of Art. 62 .
Let A be the given point (h, k) and L'AL a straight
line through it inclined at an P
angle to the axis of x. Y
Take any point P, whose A(h,k)
coordinates are (x, y), lying on
this line, and let the distance L
AP be r.
Draw PM perpendicular M X
to the axis of x and AN perpendicular to PM.
Then x - h = AN AP cos 0 = r cos 0,
and y − k = NP = AP sin 0 = r sin 0.
x- h y - k
Hence = =r . (1).
Cos sin
This being the relation holding between the coordinates
of any point P on the line is the equation required.
Cor. From ( 1 ) we have
x = h + r cos 0 and y = k + r sin 0.
The coordinates of any point on the given line are
therefore h + r cose and k + r sin 0.

87. To find the length of the straight line drawn

through a given point in a given direction to meet a given
straight line.
 EXAMPLES. 61

Let the given straight line be

Ax + By + C = 0 ....... . ( 1 ).
Let the given point A be (h, k) and the given direction
one making an angle ✪ with the axis of x.
Let the line drawn through A meet the straight line
(1) in P and let AP be r.
By the corollary to the last article the coordinates
of P are
h + r cose and k + r sin 0.
Since these coordinates satisfy ( 1) we have
A (h + r cos 0) + B (k + r sin 0 ) + C = 0.
Ah + Bk + C
.. r = (2) ,
A cos + B sin 0
giving the length AP which is required.
Cor. From the preceding may be deduced the length
of the perpendicular drawn from (h, k) upon ( 1 ).
For the " m " of the straight line drawn through A is
A
tan and the " m " of (1 ) is ---
B'
Β
This straight line is perpendicular to ( 1 ) if
tan 0 x -- == 1,
‹ (− 1)
Ᏼ =-
B
i.e. if tan 0
A'
Cos sin 0 1
so that 9
A B √A² + B²
and hence
A² + B2
A cos + B sin 0 = = √A² + B².
√A² + B²
Substituting this value in (2) we have the magnitude
of the required perpendicular.

EXAMPLES. VIII.
Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the straight
lines whose equations are
1. 2x - 3y + 5 = 0 and 7x + 4y = 3.
62 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

x x y
2. = 1 and + = 1.
b a
a a
3. y = mx + and y = mx + •
m1 M2
4. x cos p₁ + y sin ₁ = a and x cos p₂ +y sin 4½ = a.
5. Two straight lines cut the axis of x at distances a and -— a and
the axis of y at distances b and b' respectively ; find the coordinates
of their point of intersection.
6. Find the distance of the point of intersection of the two
straight lines
2x - 3y + 5 = 0 and 3x + 4y = 0
from the straight line
5x - 2y = 0.
7. Shew that the perpendicular from the origin upon the
straight line joining the points
(a cos a, a sin a) and (a cos ß, a sin ß)
bisects the distance between them.
8. Find the equations of the two straight lines drawn through
the point (0, a) on which the perpendiculars let fall from the point
(2a , 2a) are each of length a.
Prove also that the equation of the straight line joining the feet
of these perpendiculars is y + 2x = 5a.
9. Find the point of intersection and the inclination of the two
lines
Ax +By = A + B and A (x - − y) + B (x + y) = 2B.
10. Find the coordinates of the point in which the line
2y - 3x + 7= 0
meets the line joining the two points (6, - 2) and ( -8, 7). Find also
the angle between them.
11. Find the coordinates of the feet of the perpendiculars let fall
from the point (5, 0) upon the sides of the triangle formed by joining
the three points (4, 3), ( 4, 3) , and (0, -5) ; prove also that the
points so determined lie on a straight line.
12. Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the
straight lines
2x - 3y = 1 and 5y - x = 3,
and determine also the angle at which they cut one another.
13. Find the angle between the two lines
3x +y + 12 = 0 and x + 2y - 1 = 0.
Find also the coordinates of their point of intersection and the
equations of lines drawn perpendicular to them from the point
(3, -2).
VIII.] EXAMPLES. 63

14. Prove that the points whose coordinates are respectively

(5, 1), (1, -1), and (11, 4) lie on a straight line, and find its intercepts
on the axes.
Prove that the following sets of three lines meet in a point.
15. 2x - 3y = 7, 3x - 4y = 13, and 8x - 11y = 33 .
16. 3x + 4y + 6 = 0, 6x + 5y + 9 = 0, and 3x + 3y + 5 = 0 .
x x
17. a +1, ī +1 a , and y = x.
18. Prove that the three straight lines whose equations are
15x - 18y + 1 = 0, 12x + 10y -3 = 0 , and 6x + 66y - 11 = 0.
all meet in a point.

twoShew
. also that the third line bisects the angle between the other
19. Find the conditions that the straight lines
y= m₁x + α₁ , y = mx + a2, and y = m3x + ag
may meet in a point.
Find the coordinates of the orthocentre of the triangles whose
angular points are
20. (0 , 0), (2, −1 ), and ( −1, 3).
21. (1, 0), (2, −4) , and (−5, −2) .
22. In any triangle ABC, prove that
(1) the bisectors of the angles A, B, and C meet in a point,
(2) the medians, i.e. the lines joining each vertex to the middle
point of the opposite side, meet in a point,
and (3) the straight lines through the middle points of the sides
perpendicular to the sides meet in a point.
Find the equation to the straight line passing through
23. the point (3, 2) and the point of intersection of the lines
2x +3y = 1 and 3x - 4y = 6.
24. the point (2, −9) and the intersection of the lines
2x +5y - 8 = 0 and 3x - 4y = 35.
25. the origin and the point of intersection of
x -y - 4= 0 and 7x + y + 20 = 0,
proving that it bisects the angle between them.
26. the origin and the point of intersection of the lines
Ꮖ X
= 1 and + = 1.
a+ = b a
27. the point (a, b) and the intersection of the same two lines.
28. the intersection of the lines
x- 2y - a -0 and x + 3y - 2a =0
64 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

and parallel to the straight line

3x +4y = 0 .
29. the intersection of the lines
x+2y +3 = 0 and 3x + 4y + 7 = 0
and perpendicular to the straight line
y - x = 8.
30. the intersection of the lines
3x - 4y + 1 = 0 and 5x + y - 1 = 0
and cutting off equal intercepts from the axes.
31. the intersection of the lines
2x -3y = 10 and x + 2y = 6
and the intersection of the lines
16x - 10y = 33 and 12x + 14y + 29 = 0.
32. If through the angular points of a triangle straight lines be
drawn parallel to the sides, and if the intersections of these lines be
joined to the opposite angular points of the triangle, shew that the
joining lines so obtained will meet in a point.
33. Find the equations to the straight lines passing through the
point of intersection of the straight lines
Ax + By + C = 0 and A'x + B'y + C' = 0 and
(1) passing through the origin,
(2) parallel to the axis of y,
(3) cutting off a given distance a from the axis of y,
and (4) passing through a given point (x', y') .
34. Prove that the diagonals of the parallelogram formed by the
four straight lines
√3x + y = 0, √3y + x = 0, √3x + y = 1, and √3y + x = 1
are at right angles to one another.
35. Prove the same property for the parallelogram whose sides
are
x y x y X x
+ = 1, + y = 2, and + y = 2.
a + -= 1 , ō a a b b a
36. One side of a square is inclined to the axis of x at an angle a
and one of its extremities is at the origin ; prove that the equations
to its diagonals are
y (cos a - sin a) = x (sin a + cos a)
and y (sin a + cos a) + x (cos a·--- sin a) =
= a.
Find the equations to the straight lines bisecting the angles
between the following pairs of straight lines, placing first the bisector
of the angle in which the origin lies.
37. x +y√3 = 6 + 2 /3 and x - y√3 = 6-2 /3.
VIII.] EXAMPLES. 65

38. 12x +5y - 4 = 0 and 3x +4y + 7 = 0 .

39. 4x +3y - 7 = 0 and 24x + 7y - 31 = 0.
40. 2x +y= 4 and y + 3x = 5.
2m 2m'
41. y - b = ; m² (x - a) and y- b —, -
1 - m'2 (x − a).
Find the equations to the bisectors of the internal angles of the
triangles the equations of whose sides are respectively
42. 3x + 4y = 6, 12x - 5y = 3, and 4x - 3y + 12 = 0 .
43. 3x + 5y = 15, x + y = 4, and 2x + y = 6.
44. Find the equations to the straight lines passing through the
foot of the perpendicular from the point (h, k) upon the straight line
Ax +By +C= 0 and bisecting the angles between the perpendicular
and the given straight line .
45. Find the direction in which a straight line must be drawn
through the point (1, 2), so that its point of intersection with the line
x+y=4 may be at a distance /6 from this point.

L. 5
 CHAPTER V.

THE STRAIGHT LINE (continued).

POLAR EQUATIONS. OBLIQUE COORDINATES.

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. LOCI.

88. To find the general equation to a straight line in

polar coordinates.
Let p be the length of the perpendicular OY from the
origin upon the straight line, and
let this perpendicular make an
angle a with the initial line.
Let P be any point on the
line and let its coordinates be r
X
and 0.
The equation required will
then be the relation between r, 0, p, and a.
From the triangle OYP we have
: rcos (a -
p = r cos YOP'= — 0) = r cos (0 — 'a).
The required equation is therefore
r cos (0 -
− a) = p.

[On transforming to Cartesian coordinates this equation becomes

the equation of Art. 53. ]

89. To find the polar equation of the straight line

joining the points whose coordinates are (r1 , 01) and (r2, 02).
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. OBLIQUE COORDINATES. 67

Let A and B be the two given points and P any point

on the line joining them
whose coordinates are r and
0. B
Then, since
ΔΑΟΒ = ΔΑΟΡ + Δ ΡΟΒ,
we have X

r₁r, sin AOB = r₁r sin AOP + { rr, sin POB,

i.e. r¸r, sin (0₂ -
— 0₁) = r₁r sin (0 -– 0¸ ) + rr, sin (02 -– 0),
i.e. sin (02-01) sin (0 - – 0₁) sin (0₂2 -— 0)
T2

OBLIQUE COORDINATES.

90. In the previous chapter we took the axes to be

rectangular. In the great majority of cases rectangular
axes are employed, but in some cases oblique axes may be
used with advantage.
In the following articles we shall consider the proposi-
tions in which the results for oblique axes are different
from those for rectangular axes. The propositions of Arts.
50 and 62 are true for oblique, as well as rectangular,
coordinates .

91. To find the equation to a straight line referred to

axes inclined at an angle w.
Let LPL' be a straight line which cuts the axis of Y at
a distance c from the origin and is
inclined at an angle to the axis P
of x.

Let P be any point on the

straight line. Draw PNM parallel N N'
Ľ
to the axis of y to meet OX in M, 3
and let it meet the straight line M X
through C parallel to the axis of x
in the point N.
Let P be the point (x, y), so that
CN = OM = x, and NPMP — OC = y — c.
5-2
68 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

Since CPN = L PNN' - — ▲ PCN' = : -0, we have

y - c NP = sin NCP sin 0
Xx CN sin CPN sin (w - 0)
sin 0
Hence y = x-: + C .... .. (1 ).
sin (w - 0)
This equation is of the form
y = mx + c,
where
sin 0 sin tan 0
m = sin (w - 0) sin w cos - cos o sin ✪ s
in w cos o tan o'
m sin w
and therefore tan 0 -
1 + m cos w
In oblique coordinates the equation
y = mx + c
therefore represents a straight line which is inclined at an
angle
m sin w
tan -1
1 + m cos w
to the axis of x.
Cor. From (1 ), by putting in succession equal to 90°
and 90° + w, we see that the equations to the straight lines,
passing through the origin and perpendicular to the axes of
х and
x and y, are respectively y y= x cos w.
COS W

92. The axes being oblique, to find the equation to the

straight line, such that the perpendicular on it from the origin
is of length p and makes angles a and ẞ with the axes of:
and y.
Let LM be the given straight line and OK the perpen-
dicular on it from the origin.
Y
Let P be any point on the
straight line ; draw the ordinate M
PN and draw NR perpendicular
to OK and PS perpendicular to
NR.
Let P be the point (x, y), so N
that ON = x and NP = y.
 THE STRAIGHT LINE . OBLIQUE COORDINATES . 69

The lines NP and OY are parallel.

Also OK and SP are parallel, each being perpendicular
to NR.
Thus
L SPN= L KOM = ß.
We therefore have
p = 0K= 0R + SP = ON cos a + NP cos ẞ = x cos a + y cos B.
Hence
x cos a + y cos ẞ − p = 0,
being the relation which holds between the coordinates of
any point on the straight line, is the required equation.

93. To find the angle between the straight lines

y = mx + c and y = mx + c',
the axes being oblique.
If these straight lines be respectively inclined at angles
and to the axis of x, we have, by the last article,
m sin w m ' sin w
tan 0 = and tan o' =
1 + m cos w 1 + m ' cos w
The angle required is 0 ~ 0'.
Now tan - tan o'
tan (0-0') =
1 + tan 0. tan o'
m sin w m' sin w
1 + m cos w 1 + m' cos w
m sin w m' sin w
1+
1 + m cos w 1 + m' cos w
m sin w (1 + m' cos w ) -- m' sin w ( 1 + m cos w)
(1 + m cos w) ( 1 + m' cos w ) + mm' sin² w
= (m -
— m') sin w
1 + (m + m²) cos w + mm' '
The required angle is therefore
(m - m') sin w
tan -1
1 + (m + m') cos w + mm' '
Cor. 1. The two given lines are parallel if m = m'.
Cor. 2. The two given lines are perpendicular if
1+ (m + m') cos w + mm' = 0.
70 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

94. If the straight lines have their equations in the

form
Ax + By + C = 0 and A'x + B'y + C' = 0,
Α A'
then m=- and m' = •
B B
Substituting these values in the result of the last article
the angle between the two lines is easily found to be
A'B - AB'
tan--1 sin w.
AA' + BB' -- (AB' + A'B) cos w
The given lines are therefore parallel if
A'B - AB' = 0.

They are perpendicular if

AA' + BB' = (AB' + A'B) cos w.

95. EX. The axes being inclined at an angle of 30°, obtain the
equations to the straight lines which pass through the origin and are
inclined at 45° to the straight line x + y = 1.
Let either of the required straight lines be y = mx.
The given straight line is y = −x + 1 , so that m' = − 1.
We therefore have
(m - m') sin w =:tan (± 45°),
1+ (m + m') cos w +mm'
where m':- - 1 and w = 30°.
m +1 - ± 1.
This equation gives
2+(m - 1) /3-2m
1
Taking the upper sign we obtain m = -
√3
Taking the lower sign we have m= — √3.
The required equations are therefore
1
y= √3x and y = - 5x,
√3
i.e. y +√√3x = 0 and √3y + x = 0.

96. To find the length of the perpendicular from the

point (x', y' ) upon the straight line Ax + By + C = 0, the axes
being inclined at an angle w , and the equation being written
so that C is a negative quantity.
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. OBLIQUE COORDINATES. 71

Let the given straight line meet the axes in L and M,

C C
so that OL- and OM
A Β΄
Let P be the given point (x , y).
Draw the perpendiculars PQ, PR,
and PS on the given line and the
two axes .
Taking O and P on opposite sides X
of the given line, we then have
ALPM + ▲MOL = ^ OLP + ^ 0PM,

i.e. PQ . LM + OL . OM sin w = OL . PR + OM . PS...(1).

Draw PU and PV parallel to the axes of y and x, so
that PU = y' and PV = x' .
Hence PR = PU sin PUR = y' sin w,
and PSPV sin PVS = x' sin w .
Also

LM= √OL2 + OM²¬20L . OM cos o

= C2 C2 1 2 cos w
+ 2 COS @ = --C
√A2 B2 AB √A2 B2 AB

since C is a negative quantity.

On substituting these values in (1 ), we have
1 1 2 cos w C2 si
PQ × (-α) × + nw
√ A2 B2 ᎪᏴ AB
C C
- x' sin ω,
A y' sin w B

Ax' + By' + C
so that PQ== sin w .
A2 + B2-2AB cos w

Cor. If w == 90° , i.e. if the axes be rectangular, we

have the result of Art. 75.
72 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. IX.

1. The axes being inclined at an angle of 60°, find the inclination

to the axis of x of the straight lines whose equations are
(1) y = 2x + 5,
and (2) 2y = (√3-1) x +7.
2. The axes being inclined at an angle of 120°, find the tangent
of the angle between the two straight lines
8x +7y = 1 and 28x - 73y = 101.
3. With oblique coordinates find the tangent of the angle
between the straight lines
y= mx + c and my +x = d.
11π 19π
4. If y = x tan 24 and y = x tan 24 represent two straight lines
π
at right angles, prove that the angle between the axes is 4
5. Prove that the straight lines y +x = c and y = x + d are at
right angles, whatever be the angle between the axes.
6. Prove that the equation to the straight line which passes
through the point (h, k) and is perpendicular to the axis of x is
x +y cosw = h + k cos w.
7. Find the equations to the sides and diagonals of a regular
hexagon, two of its sides, which meet in a corner, being the axes of
coordinates.
8. From each corner of a parallelogram a perpendicular is drawn
upon the diagonal which does not pass through that corner and these
are produced to form another parallelogram ; shew that its diagonals
are perpendicular to the sides of the first parallelogram and that they
both have the same centre.
9. If the straight lines y = mx + c₁ and y = mx +c₂ make equal
angles with the axis of x and be not parallel to one another, prove
that m₁ + m₂ + 2m₁m, cos w = 0.
10. The axes being inclined at an angle of 30°, find the equation
to the straight line which passes through the point ( -2, 3) and is
perpendicular to the straight line y + 3x = 6.
11. Find the length of the perpendicular drawn from the point
(4,3) upon the straight line 6x +3y - 10 = 0, the angle between the
axes being 60°.
12. Find the equation to, and the length of, the perpendicular
drawn from the point (1, 1) upon the straight line 3x + 4y + 5 = 0, the
angle between the axes being 120°.
[Exs. IX.] THE STRAIGHT LINE. PROBLEMS . 73

13. The coordinates of a point P referred to axes meeting at an

angle w are (h, k) ; prove that the length of the straight line joining
the feet of the perpendiculars from P upon the axes is
sin wh² + k² + 2hk cos w.
14. From a given point (h, k) perpendiculars are drawn to the
axes, whose inclination is w, and their feet are joined. Prove that
the length of the perpendicular drawn from (h, k) upon this line is
hk sin² w
/h2 + k2 +2hk cos w
and that its equation is hx - ky = h² - k².

Straight lines passing through fixed points.

97. Ifthe equation to a straight line be ofthe form
ax + by + c + λ (a'x + b'y + c') = 0 .. ………………. ( 1 ) ,
where is any arbitrary constant, it always passes through
one fixed point whatever be the value ofλ.
For the equation ( 1 ) is satisfied by the coordinates of
the point which satisfies both of the equations.
ax + by + c = 0,
and a'x + b'y + c = 0.
This point is, by Art. 77,
bc' - b'c ca' - c'a
ab'a'b' ab'a'b,
and these coordinates are independent of A.
Ex. Given the vertical angle of a triangle in magnitude and
position, and also the sum ofthe reciprocals of the sides which contain
it; shew that the base always passes through a fixed point.
Take the fixed angular point as origin and the directions of the
sides containing it as axes ; let the lengths of these sides in any such
triangle be a and b, which are not therefore given.
We have 1 1
= const. =14(say)..... ..(1).
a k
The equation to the base is
x
+ = 1,
a
x
i.e. , by (1), == 1 ,
a+ y a
i.e. y
y) + - 1-0.
((x -9)
74 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Whatever be the value of a this straight line always passes through

the point given by
x -y=0 and --1 = 0,
i.e. through the fixed point (k, k).

98. Prove that the coordinates of the centre of the

circle inscribed in the triangle, whose vertices are the points
(x1 , 1), (X2, y2), and (x , y ), are

ax₁ + bx² + сx³ and ayı + by2 + cys ,

a+b+c a+b+c
where a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
Find also the coordinates of the centres of the escribed
circles.
Let ABC be the triangle and let AD and CE be the
bisectors of the angles A and C
and let them meet in O'.
(x1,y1)
Then O' is the required point.
Since AD bisects the angle B
(X2 Y2)
BAC we have, by Euc. VI. 3, C( 33)
BD DC BD + DC a
= = =
BA AC ВА + АС b + c ' X
so that
ba
DC= =
'b +c'
Also, since C'O' bisects the angle ACD, we have
AO' AC b b+c
=
O'D CD ba a
b +c

The point D therefore divides BC in the ratio

BA AC, i.e. c : b.
Also O' divides AD in the ratio b + c : a.
Hence, by Art. 22, the coordinates of D are
cx3 + bx2 and cy3+ by2
c+b c+ b
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. PROBLEMS. 75

Also, by the same article, the coordinates of O' are

cx3 + bx₂ αx Cy + by₂
+ 1 ayı
(b + c) x c+ b (b + c) x c+b +
and ,
(b + c) + a (b + c) + a

i.e. ax₁ + bx₂ + cx3 and ayı + by2 + cys

a+ b+c a+b+ c
Again, if 0, be the centre of the escribed circle opposite
to the angle A, the line CO, bisects the exterior angle of
ACB.
Hence (Euc. VI. A) we have
AO, AC - b + c
=
O₁D CD a
Therefore O, is the point which divides AD externally in
the ratio b + c : α.
Its coordinates (Art. 22) are therefore
cx3 + bx₂ cys + by₂
(b + c) c + b -αx1 (b + c) c + b - ayı
and "
(b + c) ---
— a (b + c) — a
i.e. -ax₁ + bx₂ + cxz and -ay₁ + by + cy3
a+b+ c a + b+ c
Similarly, it may be shewn that the coordinates of the
escribed circles opposite to B and C are respectively
— ay₁ ---
- by₂
2 Y₂ +
+ cys
cys) ,
α -- b + c a b +c

and (αx₁ + bx2 --

− x3 ay₁ + by₂ - cyз
"
a+ b с a + b - cCys).

99. As a numerical example consider the case of the

triangle formed by the straight lines
3x +4y - 7 = 0, 12x + 5y - 17 = 0 and 5x + 12y - 34 = 0.
These three straight lines being BC, CA, and AB
respectively we easily obtain, by solving, that the points
A, B, and C are
52
(즉,
( 7
7 , 19), 16
(-10 16) and (1 , 1).
67
76 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Hence
-52 2 67 2 682 512
α= = +
√(15
16 1) + (18
16 1) - √ 16 16

17 85
= √√4² + 3² =
16 16 '
2 52
b= = =
√ (1-3)² + (1-19
)² - √72 + 17
/5 72 137'
and
2 5212 19
C= = 3961122
+ 165°
√( +116
5) + (167) -
33 429
169 -
112 112
Hence
85 2 170 85 19 1615
ax1 = 16 X 7 = 112 ; ayı 16
X
7 112
13 52 676 13 67 871
bx2 = X by2= X -
7 16 112 7 16 112
429 429
CX3 1125 and cy3 =
112 '

The coordinates of the centre of the incircle are therefore

170 676 429 1615 871 429

+
112 112 112 112 112 112
and
85 13 429 85 13 429
+ + +
16 7 112 16 7 112

-1 265
i.e. and
16 112'

The length of the radius of the incircle is the perpen-

dicular from (-1,215)

(- 16 ' upon the straight line

3x + 4y - 7 = 0,
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. PROBLEMS. 77

265
x -7
(3 × - 16) + (4 × 112)
and therefore
√32 +42
-21 + 1060-784 255 51
=
5 x 112 5 x 112 112 '
The coordinates of the centre of the escribed circle
which touches the side BC externally are
170 676 429 1615 871 429
+ + +
112 112 112 112 112 112
and
85 13 429 85 13 429
+ +
16 7 112 16 7 112
417 - 315
i.e. and
42 42
Similarly the coordinates of the centres of the other
escribed circles can be written down.

100. Ex. Find the radius, and the coordinates of the centre, of
the circle circumscribing the triangle formed by the points
(0, 1) , (2, 3), and (3, 5).
Let (x , y ) be the required centre and R the radius.
Since the distance of the centre from each of the three points is the
same, we have
x²+(y₁ - 1)²= (x₁− 2)² + (y₁− 3)² = (x₁− 3)² + (y₁ - 5)² = R²... (1).
From the first two we have, on reduction,
x₁ +y₁ = 3.
From the first and third equations we obtain
6x1 +8y₁ = 33.
Solving, we have x₁ = - and y₁ = ¹5 .
Substituting these values in (1) we get
R= √10.
101. Ex. Prove that the middle points of the diagonals of a com-
plete quadrilateral lie on the same straight line.
[Complete quadrilateral. Def. Let OACB be any quadrilateral.
Let AC and OB be produced to meet in E, and BC and OA to meet in
F. Join AB, OC, and EF. The resulting figure is called a complete
quadrilateral ; the lines AB, OC, and EF are called its diagonals, and
the points E, F, and D (the intersection of AB and OC) are called its
vertices . ]
78 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Take the lines OAF and OBE as the axes of x and y.

A F X
Let 04 = 2a and OB = 2b, so that A is the point (2a, 0) and B is
the point (0, 2b) ; also let C be the point (2h, 2k).
Then L, the middle point of OC, is the point (h, k), and M, the
middle point of AB, is (a , b) .
The equation to LM is therefore
k-b
y - b= h-- (x -
a − a),
i.e. (ha) y − (kb) x = bh — ak…….. .(1).
k- h
Again, the equation to BC is y -— 2b =' h --- x .
- 2bh
Putting y = 0, we have x= k- b ' so that F is the point
2bh
(+207, 0).
2ak
Similarly, E is the point ( 0, -2 a)
-bh
Hence N, the middle point of EF, is
k- b' Zak).
(~1h,
These coordinates clearly satisfy (1) , i.e. N lies on the straight
line LM.

EXAMPLES. X.

1. A straight line is such that the algebraic sum of the perpen-

diculars let fall upon it from any number of fixed points is zero ;
shew that it always passes through a fixed point.
2. Two fixed straight lines OX and OY are cut by a variable line
in the points A and B respectively and P and Q are the feet of the
perpendiculars drawn from A and B upon the lines OBY and OAX.
Shew that, if AB pass through a fixed point, then PQ will also pass
through a fixed point.
[Exs. X.] THE STRAIGHT LINE. PROBLEMS . 79

3. If the equal sides AB and AC of an isosceles triangle be pro-

duced to E and F so that BE . CF = AB2, shew that the line EF will
always pass through a fixed point.
4. If a straight line move so that the sum of the perpendiculars
let fall on it from the two fixed points (3, 4) and ( 7, 2) is equal to
three times the perpendicular on it from a third fixed point (1, 3),
prove that there is another fixed point through which this line always
passes and find its coordinates.
Find the centre and radius of the circle which is inscribed in the
triangle formed by the straight lines whose equations are
5. 3x + 4y + 2 = 0, 3x - 4y + 12 = 0, and 4x - 3y = 0.
6. 2x +4y + 3 = 0, 4x + 3y + 3 = 0, and x + 1 = 0.
7. y = 0, 12x - 5y = 0, and 3x + 4y - 7 = 0.
8. Prove that the coordinates of the centre of the circle inscribed
in the triangle whose angular points are (1, 2) , (2, 3), and (3, 1 ) are
8+ 10 16-10
and
6 6
Find also the coordinates of the centres of the escribed circles.
9. Find the coordinates of the centres, and the radii, of the four
circles which touch the sides of the triangle the coordinates of whose
angular points are the points (6, 0), (0, 6) , and (7, 7).
10. Find the position of the centre of the circle circumscribing
the triangle whose vertices are the points (2, 3) , (3, 4) , and (6, 8) .
Find the area of the triangle formed by the straight lines whose
equations are
11. y = x, y = 2x, and y = 3x + 4.
12. y + x = 0, y = x + 6, and y = 7x + 5.
13. 2y + x - 5 = 0, y + 2x - 7 = 0, and x − y + 1 = 0 .
14. 3x - 4y + 4a = 0, 2x - 3y + 4a = 0, and 5x −y + a = 0, proving also
that the feet of the perpendiculars from the origin upon them are
collinear.
15. y = ax - bc, y = bx- ca, and y = cx- ab.
a a a
16. y = mx +; , Y = Mqx + and y = mx +
m1 m2 Mg
17. y = m₁x + c₁ , y = m₂x + c₂ , and the axis of y.
18. y = mx + c₁ , y = mx + c₂ , and y = mx + C3 .
19.
lines Prove that the area of the triangle formed by the three straight
а₁x + by + c₁ = 0, a¿x + by + c2 = 0 , and ax + by + c = 0 is
2
a1, b₁ , c1
124 ძი, ხი , ძი ÷ (ab, — a ,b ) ( a, ხვ — a ვხი) (agხ, -
— aq ხვ) .
Qვ , ხვ , ძვ
80 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. X.]

20. Prove that the area of the triangle formed by the three straight
lines
x cos a + y sin a - P₁ = 0, x cos ẞ + y sin ẞ − p₂ = 0,
and x cos y +y sin y − P¸ = 0,
is { P, sin(y - 3) +Pasin (ay) + P, sin (3- a)}2
sin (7-8) sin (a -
− y) sin (ẞ -
− a)
21. Prove that the area of the parallelogram contained by the
lines
4y - 3x - a = 0, 3y - 4x + a = 0, 4y - 3x - 3a = 0,
and 3y - 4x + 2a =0 is a².
22. Prove that the area of the parallelogram whose sides are the
straight lines
а₁x + by + c₁ = 0, а₁x + by + d₁ = 0, ɑx + by + c2 = 0 ,
and а2x + by + d2 = 0
is (d - c₁) (da - ca)
a- ի , -— a, b,
23. The vertices of a quadrilateral, taken in order, are the points
(0, 0), (4, 0) , (6, 7), and (0, 3) ; find the coordinates of the point of
intersection of the two lines joining the middle points of opposite
sides.
24. The lines x + y + 1 = 0, x −y + 2 = 0, 4x + 2y + 3 = 0, and
x +2y - 4 = 0
are the equations to the sides of a quadrilateral taken in order ; find
the equations to its three diagonals and the equation to the line on
which their middle points lie.
25. Shew that the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the three
straight lines
a a a
y= mx + y = mx + m > and y =mx +;
m1 2 Mg
is the point
1 1 1 1
a, a + + +
(m1 m2 m3 mmm
26. A and B are two fixed points whose coordinates are (3, 2) and
(5, 1) respectively ; ABP is an equilateral triangle on the side of AB
remote from the origin. Find the coordinates of P and the ortho-
centre of the triangle ABP.

102. Ex. The base of a triangle is fixed ; find the

locus of the vertex when one base angle is double of the
other.
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. PROBLEMS . 81

Let AB be the fixed base of the triangle ; take its

middle point 0 as origin , the direc-
tion of OB as the axis of x and a
perpendicular line as the axis of y.
Let A0 = OB = a.

If P be one position of the A O B NX

vertex, the condition of the problem then gives
▲ PBA = 24 PAB,
i.e.
π- = 20,
i.e. tan = tan 20 .. .(1).
Let P be the point (h, k). We then have
k Ic
= tan 0 and = tan 4.
h+a h а
Substituting these values in ( 1 ), we have
kc
2
- kc h+a 2 (h + a) k
h-a k 2 (h + a)² —k² '
1
-(1-4a )
i.e.
- (h + a)² + k² = 2 (h² - a²),
i.e. k2-3h2-2ah + a² = 0.
But this is the condition that the point (h, k) should lie
on the curve

y² --
- 3x² - 2αx + a² = 0.
This is therefore the equation to the required locus.
103. Ex. From a point P perpendiculars PM and
PN are drawn upon two fixed lines which are inclined at an
angle w and meet in a fixed point 0 ; if P move on a fixed
straight line, find the locus of the middle point of MN.
Let the two fixed lines be taken as the axes. Let the
coordinates of P, any position of the
moving point, be (h, k).
Let the equation of the straight
line on which P lies be
P(h,k)
Ax + By + C = 0,
so that we have ო M
Χ
Ah + Bk + C = 0 ......
………….. (1) .
L. 6
82 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Draw PL and PL' parallel to the axes.

We then have
OM= OL + LM := OL + LP cos @ = h + k cos w,
and ON= OL' + L'N = LP + L'P cos w = k + h cos w.
M is therefore the point (h + k cos w, 0) and Nis the point
(0, k + h cos w).
Hence, if (x', y') be the coordinates of the middle point
of MN, we have
2x' = h + k cos w (2),
and 2y' = k + h cos w (3).
Equations (1 ), (2), and ( 3) express analytically all the
relations which hold between x', y', h, and k.
Also h and k are the quantities which by their variation
cause Q to take up different positions. If therefore between
(1), (2), and ( 3 ) we eliminate h and k we shall obtain a
relation between x' and y' which is true for all values of h
and k, i.e. a relation which is true whatever be the position
that P takes on the given straight line.
From (2) and (3) , by solving, we have
2 (y' - x' cos w)
h 2(x' - y' cos w) and k =
sin² w sin w
Substituting these values in (1 ), we obtain
2A (x' — y' cos w) + 2B (y' – x' cos w) + C sin² w = 0.
But this is the condition that the point (x , y ) shall
always lie on the straight line
-
2A (x -
− y cos w) + 2B (y − x cos w) + C sin³ w == 0,
i. e. on the straight line
-
x (A – B cos ∞) + y (B − A cos w) + } C sin² w = 0,
which is therefore the equation to the locus of Q.

104. Ex. A straight line is drawn parallel to the

base of a given triangle and its extremities are joined trans-
versely to those of the base ; find the locus of the point
of intersection of the joining lines.
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. PROBLEMS. 83

Let the triangle be OAB and take O as the origin and

the directions of OA and OB
as the axes of x and y.
Let OA = a and OB = b, B
so that a and b are given
quantities.
Let A'B' be the straight
line which is parallel to the A A' X
base AB, so that
OA' OB'
- = λ (say),
OA OB
and hence =
OA'λa and OB' = λb.
For different values of A we therefore have different
positions of A'B'.
The equation to AB' is
XC y
+ 1 . (1),
α λό
and that to A'B is
х y
+ =1 (2).
λα b
Since P is the intersection of AB' and A'B its coordi-
nates satisfy both (1 ) and (2) . Whatever equation we
derive from them must therefore denote a locus going
through P. Also if we derive from ( 1 ) and (2) an equation
which does not contain A, it must represent a locus which
passes through P whatever be the value of ; in other
words it must go through all the different positions of the
point P.
Subtracting (2) from (1), we have
х У
a (1 − 1) + ( − 1 ) = 0,
i.e. x
a-%
This then is the equation to the locus of P. Hence P
always lies on the straight line
b
y =- X,
a
6-2
84 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

which is the straight line OQ where OAQB is a parallelo-

gram.

Aliter. By solving the equations ( 1 ) and (2) we

easily see that they meet at the point
λ λ
a,
+1
( 41 1 + 1 6).
Hence, if P be the point (h, k), we have
λ λ
h= a and k :-- b.
2+1 2+1
Hence for all values of X, i.e. for all positions of the
straight line A'B' , we have
h k
-
α
But this is the condition that the point (h, k), i.e. P,
should lie on the straight line
X y
a b
The straight line is therefore the required locus.

105. Ex. A variable straight line is drawn through

a given point O to cut two fixed straight lines in R and S;
on it is taken a point P such that
2 1 1
+
OP OR OS;

shew that the locus of P is a third fixed straight line.

Take any two fixed straight lines, at right angles and
passing through O, as the axes and let the equation to the
two given fixed straight lines be
Ax + By + C = 0,
and 30.
A'x + B'y + C' =
Transforming to polar coordinates these equations are
1 A cos + B sin 1 A' cos + B' sin
and
C 2 C'
 THE STRAIGHT LINE. PROBLEMS. 85

1 1
If the angle XOR be the values of and are
OR OS
therefore
A cos + B sin 0 A' cos 0+ B' sin
and -
C C'
We therefore have
2 A cos 0+ B sin A' cos + B' sin
OP C C'
B B'
cos 0. sin 0.
= - (~
C + 4') . -(3 + 5
C') 5
The equation to the locus of P is therefore, on again
transforming to Cartesian coordinates,
A A' B
2:= - х
C + 4') - v (¿ + 5 ) ,
(4
and this is a fixed straight line.

EXAMPLES . XI.

The base BC ( = 2a) of a triangle ABC is fixed ; the axes being

BC and a perpendicular to it through its middle point, find the locus
of the vertex A, when
1. the difference of the base angles is given ( = a) .
2. the product of the tangents of the base angles is given ( = λ).
3. the tangent of one base angle is m times the tangent of the
other.
4. m times the square of one side added to n times the square of
the other side is equal to a constant quantity c².
From a point P perpendiculars PM and PN are drawn upon two
fixed lines which are inclined at an angle w, and which are taken as
the axes of coordinates and meet in O ; find the locus of P
5. if OM+ON be equal to 2c. 6. if OM - ON be equal to 2d.
7. if PM+PN be equal to 2c. 8. if PM - PN be equal to 2c.
9. if MN be equal to 2c.
10. if MN pass through the fixed point (a, b).
11. if MN be parallel to the given line y = mx.
86 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

12. Two fixed points A and B are taken on the axes such that
OA = a and OB = b ; two variable points A' and B' are taken on the
same axes ; find the locus of the intersection of AB' and A'B
(1) when OA'+OB'OA + OB,
1 1 1 1
and (2) when =
OA' OB' OA ов
13. Through a fixed point P are drawn any two straight lines to
cut one fixed straight line OX in A and B and another fixed straight
line OY in C and D ; prove that the locus of the intersection of the
straight lines AC and BD is a straight line passing through O.
14. OX and OY are two straight lines at right angles to one
another ; on OY is taken a fixed point A and on OX any point B;
on AB an equilateral triangle is described, its vertex C being on the
side of AB away from 0. Shew that the locus of C is a straight
line.
15. If a straight line pass through a fixed point, find the locus of
the middle point of the portion of it which is intercepted between two
given straight lines.
16. A and B are two fixed points ; if PA and PB intersect a
constant distance 2c from a given straight line, find the locus of P.
17. Through a fixed point O are drawn two straight lines at right
angles to meet two fixed straight lines, which are also at right angles,
in the points P and Q. Shew that the locus of the foot of the
perpendicular from O on PQ is a straight line.
18. Find the locus of a point at which two given portions of the
same straight line subtend equal angles.
19. Find the locus of a point which moves so that the difference
of its distances from two fixed straight lines at right angles is equal
to its distance from a fixed straight line.
20. A straight line AB, whose length is c, slides between two
given oblique axes which meet at 0 ; find the locus of the orthocentre
of the triangle OAB.
21. Having given the bases and the sum of the areas of a number
of triangles which have a common vertex, shew that the locus of this
vertex is a straight line.
22. Through a given point O a straight line is drawn to cut two
given straight lines in R and S ; find the locus of a point P on this
variable straight line, which is such that
(1) 20P = OR + OS,
and (2) OP² = OR . OS.
XI.] THE STRAIGHT LINE. EXAMPLES . 87

23. Given n straight lines and a fixed point 0 ; through O is

drawn a straight line meeting these lines in the points R1, R2, R3,
...R , and on it is taken a point R such that
n 1 1 1 1
= +
OR OR + OR + OR ORn
shew that the locus of R is a straight line.
24. A variable straight line cuts off from n given concurrent
straight lines intercepts the sum of the reciprocals of which is con-
stant. Shewthat it always passes through a fixed point.
25. If a triangle ABC remain always similar to a given triangle,
and if the point A be fixed and the point B always move along a
given straight line, find the locus of the point C.
26. A right-angled triangle ABC, having C a right angle, is of
given magnitude, and the angular points A and B slide along two
given perpendicular axes ; shew that the locus of C is the pair of
b
straight lines whose equations are y = x.
с
27. Two given straight lines meet in O, and through a given point
P is drawn a straight line to meet them in Q and R; if the
parallelogram OQSR be completed find the equation to the locus
of R.
28. Through a given point O is drawn a straight line to meet two
given parallel straight lines in P and Q; through P and Q are drawn
straight lines in given directions to meet in R; prove that the locus of
R is a straight line.
 CHAPTER VI.

ON EQUATIONS REPRESENTING TWO OR MORE

STRAIGHT LINES.

106 . SUPPOSE we have to trace the locus represented

by the equation
y² - 3xy + 2x² = 0 . (1).
This equation is equivalent to
(y - x) (y - 2x) = 0 ……... .(2) .
It is satisfied by the coordinates of all points which
make the first of these brackets equal to zero, and also by
the coordinates of all points which make the second
bracket zero, i.e. by all the points which satisfy the
equation
y - x = 0 ... . (3),
and also by the points which satisfy
y - 2x = 0 ...... ….. (4 ).
But, by Art. 47, the equation (3) represents a straight
line passing through the origin, and so also does equa-
tion (4).
Hence equation ( 1 ) represents the two straight lines
which pass through the origin , and are inclined at angles of
45° and tan¹ 2 respectively to the axis of x.
107. Ex. 1. Trace the locus xy = 0. This equation
is satisfied by all the points which satisfy the equation
x = 0 and by all the points which satisfy y = 0, i.e. by
all the points which lie either on the axis of y or on the
axis of x.
 EQUATIONS REPRESENTING STRAIGHT LINES. 89

The required locus is therefore the two axes of coordi-

nates.

Ex. 2. Trace the locus x² - 5x + 6 = 0. This equation

is equivalent to (x - 2) (x - 3) = 0 . It is therefore satisfied
by all points which satisfy the equation x - 2 = 0 and also
by all the points which satisfy the equation x - 3 = 0.
But these equations represent two straight lines which
are parallel to the axis of y and are at distances 2 and 3
respectively from the origin (Art. 46).
Ex. 3. Trace the locus xy. --- 4x - 5y + 20 = 0 . This
equation is equivalent to (x - 5) (y - 4) = 0, and therefore
represents a straight line parallel to the axis of y at a
distance 5 and also a straight line parallel to the axis of x
at a distance 4.

108. Let us consider the general equation

ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0 ......... ..(1 ).
On multiplying it by a it may be written in the form
- -
(a²x² + 2ahxy + h³y²) — (h² — ab) y² = 0,
i.e. {(ax + hy) + y√h² — ab} { (ax + hy) — y √h² — ab} = 0.
As in the last article the equation ( 1 ) therefore repre-
sents the two straight lines whose equations are
√h² -— ab = 0
ax + hy + y N ..(2),
and - y√h² -
ax + hy — — ab = 0 .......... (3 ) ,
each of which passes through the origin.
For (1) is satisfied by all the points which satisfy ( 2),
and also by all the points which satisfy (3).
These two straight lines are real and different if h² > ab,
real and coincident if h² = ab, and imaginary if h² < ab.
[ For in the latter case the coefficient of y in each of the
equations (2) and (3 ) is partly real and partly imaginary. ]
In the case when h² ab, the straight lines, though
themselves imaginary, intersect in a real point. For the
origin lies on the locus given by ( 1 ), since the equation ( 1)
is always satisfied by the values x = O and y = 0.
90 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

109. An equation such as ( 1 ) of the previous article,

which is such that in each term the sum of the indices of x
and y is the same, is called a homogeneous equation. This
equation (1 ) is of the second degree ; for in the first term
the index of x is 2 ; in the second term the index of both x
and У is 1 and hence their sum is 2 ; whilst in the third
term the index of y is 2.
Similarly the expression
3x + 4x³y - 5xy² + 9y³

is a homogeneous expression of the third degree.

The expression

3x²³ + 4x³y - 5xy² + 9y³ — 7xy

is not however homogeneous ; for in the first four terms

the sum of the indices is 3 in each case, whilst in the last
term this sum is 2.
From Art. 108 it follows that a homogeneous equation
of the second degree represents two straight lines, real and
different, coincident, or imaginary.

110. The axes being rectangular, to find the angle

between the straight lines given by the equation

ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0 ........... . (1).

Let the separate equations to the two lines be

y- m,x = 0 and y - m,x = 0 .... . (2),

so that (1 ) must be equivalent to

b (y - mx) (y -- m₂x) = 0 ……………… .. (3).
Equating the coefficients of xy and 2 in (1 ) and (3), we
have
− b (m₁ + m₂) = 2h, and bm¸m₂ = a,
2h α
so that m₁ + m₂ and mm2
b > b'
 CONDITIONS OF PERPENDICULARITY . 91

If be the angle between the straight lines ( 2 ) we

have, by Art. 66,
tan 0 - my - my √(m₂ + m )² — 4m¸m
1 + m₂m² 1 + m₂m²
4h2 4a
b2 b 2 /h2- ab
. (4).
α a+ b
1

Hence the required angle is found.

111. Condition that the straight lines of the previous

article may be (1) perpendicular, and (2) coincident.

(1) If a + b = 0 the value of tan is ∞o and hence is

90°; the straight lines are therefore perpendicular.
Hence two straight lines, represented by one equation,
are at right angles if the algebraic sum of the coefficients of
x² and y² be zero .
For example, the equations
x² - y² = 0 and 6x² + 11xy - 6y² = 0
both represent pairs of straight lines at right angles.
Similarly, whatever be the value of h, the equation
x² + 2hxy - y² = 0,
represents a pair of straight lines at right angles.
(2) If h² = ab, the value of tan ◊ is zero and hence is
zero. The angle between the straight lines is therefore
zero and, since they both pass through the origin, they are
therefore coincident.

This may be seen directly from the original equation.

For if h² = ab, i.e. h = √ab, it may be written
ax² + 2/ab xy + by² = 0,
i.e.
(√ax + √by)² = 0,
which is two coincident straight lines.
92 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

112. Tofind the equation to the straight lines bisecting

the angle between the straight lines given by
ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0 …………
. . (1) .
Let the equation ( 1) represent the two straight lines.

02

M₂

LOM, and LOM, inclined at angles 0, and 0,2 to the axis

of x, so that (1) is equivalent to
b (y - x tan 0₁ ) (y — x tan 0₂) = 0 .
Hence
2h α
tan 0₁ + tan 02 -- 02 = b ... (2).
and tan 6, tan 0,
b
Let OA and OB be the required bisectors.
Since L AOL₁ = L L₂OA,
.. LAOX - 0₁ = 0AOX.
.. 24 AOX = 0₁ + 02.
Also L BOX = 90° + 4 AOX.
.. 2 L4 BOX = 180 ° + 0₁1 + 0₂2..
Hence, if 0 stand for either of the angles AOX or BOX,
we have
2h
tan 20 = tan (0₁ + 0₂) = 1ta n 0₁ + tan 02
– tan 0, tan 02
-- a
by equations (2).
But, if (x, y) be the coordinates of any point on either
of the lines OA or OB, we have
tan 0 =y
=
 TWO STRAIGHT LINES. 93

2h 2 tan 0
tan 20 =
b α 1 - tan² 0

2Y
Ꮳ 2xy

1 y³ x² -
— y² '

i.e. x² - y2
=
a-b

This, being a relation holding between the coordinates

of any point on either of the bisectors, is, by Art. 42, the
equation to the bisectors.

118. The foregoing equation may also be obtained in the follow-

ing manner :
Let the given equation represent the straight lines
y- mx=0 and y - m, x = 0 ..... (1) ,'
2h a
so that my+ m₂= - b and my m (2).

The equations to the bisectors of the angles between the straight

lines (1) are, by Art. 84,
y - m₁x = y - m2x and y - m₁ x = -- y - mox
2
√1+ m³ √1+ m³ √1+ m₁2 √1+m³
or, expressed in one equation,
Jy - m₁ x - y - m₂x | | y - m₁x + y - m₂x =0,
√1+ m²²2 √1 + m²²] [√1+ m²²2 √1 + m²²)
i.e. (y - m₁x)² (y - mx)²
1+ m²2 1+ m² =0,
i.e. -
(1 +m2) (y²- 2m, xy + m, ²x²) – ( 1 + m³) ( y² - 2m, xy + m²²x²) = 0,
i.e.
(m¸² - — y²) + 2 (m¸m, -
— m²) (x² - − 1 ) (m¸ -
— m。) xy = 0,
i.e.
(m₁ +m2) (x² -− y²) + 2 (m₁ m² − 1 ) xy = 0.
Hence, by (2), the required equation is
2h
-b ( - y²) 9++22 ( -1) y = 0,
i.e. x y
² - ² = xy.
a-b h
94 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. XII.

Find what straight lines are represented by the following equations

and determine the angles between them.
1. x² - 7xy + 12y² = 0. 2. 4x² - 24xy + 11y² = 0.
3. 33x2-71xy – 14y² = 0. 4. x³ - 6x² + 11x - 6 = 0.
5. y² - 16 = 0. 6. y³ - xy2-14x² y + 24x³ = 0.
7. x2 + 2xy sec 0+ y² = 0. 8. x² + 2xy cot 0 + y² = 0.
9. Find the equations of the straight lines bisecting the angles
between the pairs of straight lines given in examples 2, 3, 8, and 9.
10. Shew that the two straight lines
x²(tan20 + cos20) - 2xy tan 0+ y² sin² 0 = 0
make with the axis of x angles such that the difference of their
tangents is 2.
11. Prove that the two straight lines
(x² +y²) (cos20 sin²a + sin²0) = (x tan a- y sin 0)²
include an angle 2a.
12. Prove that the two straight lines
x² sin²a cos20 +4xy sin a sin 0 + y² [4 cos a -
− (1 + cos a)² cos²0] = 0
meet at an angle a.

GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE.

114. The most general expression, which contains

terms involving x and y in a degree not higher than the
second, must contain terms involving x², xy, y², x, y, and a
constant.
The notation which is in general use for this ex-
pression is
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c ...... (1).
The quantity ( 1 ) is known as the general expression of
the second degree, and when equated to zero is called the
general equation of the second degree .
The student may better remember the seemingly
arbitrary coefficients of the terms in the expression (1)
if the reason for their use be given.
 GENERAL EQUATION TO TWO STRAIGHT LINES. 95

The most general expression involving terms only of

the second degree in x, y, and z is
ax² + by² + cz² + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy ...... (2 ),
where the coefficients occur in the order of the alphabet.
If in this expression we put z equal to unity we get
ax² + by² + c + 2fy + 2gx + 2hxy,
which, after rearrangement, is the same as ( 1 ).
Now in Solid Geometry we use three coordinates x, y,
and z. Also many formulæ in Plane Geometry are derived
from those of Solid Geometry by putting ≈ equal to unity.
We therefore, in Plane Geometry, use that notation
corresponding to which we have the standard notation in
Solid Geometry .

115. In general, as will be shewn in Chapter XV. ,

the general equation represents a Curve-Locus.
If a certain condition holds between the coefficients of
its terms it will, however, represent a pair of straight lines.
This condition we shall determine in the following
article.

116. To find the condition that the general equation

of the second degree
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ......... ( 1 )
may represent two straight lines.
If we can break the left-hand members of ( 1) into two
factors, each of the first degree, then, as in Art. 108, it
will represent two straight lines.
If a be not zero, multiply equation ( 1) by a and arrange
in powers of x; it then becomes

— 2afy -
a²x² + 2ax (hy + g) = — aby² - — ac.
On completing the square on the left hand we have
a²x² + 2ax (hy + g) + (hy + g)² = y² (h² — ab)
+ 2y (gh — af) + g² —- ac,
i.e.

(ax + hy +g) =± √y²(h² — ab) + 2y (gh— aƒ) + g² —ac ……

. (2).
96 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

From (2) we cannot obtain x in terms of y, involving

only terms of the first degree, unless the quantity under the
radical sign be a perfect square .
The condition for this is
(gh — af)² = (h² — ab) (g³ — ac),
i.e. g²h² - 2afgh + a²ƒ² = g²h² — abg² — ach² + a²bc.
Cancelling and dividing by a, we have the required
condition, viz.
abc + 2fgh - af² - bg² - ch² = 0 ...... ( 3 ).

117. The foregoing condition may be otherwise obtained thus :

The given equation, multiplied by (a), is
a²x² +2ahxy + aby² +2agx +2afy + ac = 0 ………………………….. (4).
The terms of the second degree in this equation break up, as in
Art. 108, into the factors
− y √h² -
ax + hy - – ab and ax + hy + y √√
/h² − ab.
If then (4) break into factors it must be equivalent to
{ax + (h - √h - ab ) y + A } { ax + (h + √h² - ab) y + B} = 0,
where A and B are given by the relations
a (A + B) = 2ga (5),
-- - . (6),
A (h + √h² − ab) + B (h − √h² — ab) = 2fa ....
and AB = ac. (7).
The equations (5) and (6) give
A +B = 2g, and A -- B = 2fa - 2gh
h2 -ab
The relation (7) then gives
- B)²
4ac =4AB = ( A + B)² − (A −
(fa -gh)2
=4g² — 4. h²- ab
i.e. (fa - gh)² = (g²- ac) (h² — ab),
which, as before, reduces to
abc +2fgh - af² — bg² — ch² = 0.
Ex. If a be zero, prove that the general equation will represent
two straight lines if
2fgh - bg2 - ch²=0.
If both a and b be zero, prove that the condition is 2ƒg – ch =0.
 GENERAL EQUATION TO TWO STRAIGHT LINES. 97

118. The relation (3) of Art. 116 is equivalent to the

expression
a, h, g
h, b, f = 0.
g, f, с

This may be easily verified by writing down the value

of the determinant by the rule of Art. 5.
A geometrical meaning to this form of the relation (3)
will be given in a later chapter.
The quantity on the left-hand side of equation (3) is
called the Discriminant of the General Equation.
The general equation therefore represents two straight
lines if its discriminant be zero.

119. Ex. 1. Prove that the equation

12x² + 7xy - 10y² + 13x + 45y – 35 = 0
represents two straight lines, and find the angle between them.
Here
a== 12, h = 3 , b = -10, g = 13 , f= 45 , and c = - − 35.
Hence abc +2fgh - af² – bg² – ch²
=12x(-10) x ( -35) + 2 × × × -12 × (4 )2- ( -10) × ( 2)²
- (- 35)( )2
=4200 +4025-6075 + 1800 + 1715
= -1875 + 7502 = 0.
The equation therefore represents two straight lines .
Solving it for x, we have
7y +13 10y2-45y + 35
12 +- (7324+13)² =
= 12 ++ (7y24
+13) 3
23y - 4312
24

.. x + 7y24
+13 ㄓ 23y - 43
24
i.e. x=2y - 7 or - 5y +5
3 4
The given equation therefore represents the two straight lines
3x =2y - 7 and 4x = -5y + 5.
L. 7
98 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The "m's" of these two lines are therefore and - , and the
angle between them, by Art. 66,
=tan-1 - (- #) = tan-1 ( -23).
1+ (-1)
Ex. 2. Find the value of h so that the equation
6x2 +2hxy + 12y² + 22x + 31y + 20 = 0
may represent two straight lines.
Here
a= 6, b = 12, g = 11 , f= 1, and c = 20.
The condition (3) of Art. 116 then gives
20h2-341h + 2907= 0,
i.e. (h - 17) (20h - 171) = 0 .
Hence h= or 7 .
Taking the first of these values, the given equation becomes
6x² + 17xy + 12y² + 22x + 31y + 20 = 0,
i.e. (2x +3y + 4) ( 3x +4y + 5) = 0.
Taking the second value, the equation is
20x² + 57xy + 40y² + ² ²º x + ³¹ºy + 200 = 0,
i.e. (4x +5y +2 ) (5x + 8y + 10) = 0.

EXAMPLES. XIII.

Prove that the following equations represent two straight lines ;

find also their point of intersection and the angle between them.
1. by² - xy - x² + 30y + 36 = 0. 2. x² - 5xy + 4y² + x + 2y − 2−0.
3. 3y2-8xy - 3x² - 29x + 3y - 18 = 0.
4. y² + xy - 2x² - 5x - y - 2 = 0 .
5. Prove that the equation
x² + 6xy + 9y² + 4x + 12y - 5 = 0
represents two parallel lines.
Find the value of k so that the following equations may represent
pairs of straight lines :
6. 6x2 + 11xy - 10y² + x + 31y + k = 0.
7. 12x² - 10xy + 2y² + 11x − 5y + k= 0.
8. 12x² + kxy + 2y² + 11x -− 5y + 2 = 0.
9. 6x² + xy + ky² -– 11x + 43y – 35 = 0.
 66
[Exs. XIII.] EXAMPLES.

10. kxy - 8x + 9y - 12 = 0.
11. x² + 10xy + y² − 5x − 7y + k = 0.
12. 12x² +xy - 6y² - 29x + 8y + k = 0.
13. 2x² + xy - y² + kx + 6y - 9 = 0.
14. x² +kxy + y2-5x - 7y + 6 = 0.
15. Prove that the equations to the straight lines passing through
the origin which make an angle a with the straight line y + x = 0 are
given by the equation
x² +2xy sec 2a + y² = 0.
16. What relations must hold between the coordinates of the
equations
(i) ax² + by² + cx + cy = 0,
and (ii) ay² + bxy + dy + ex = 0 ,
so that each of them may represent a pair of straight lines ?
17. The equations to a pair of opposite sides of a parallelogram
are
x²- 7x + 6 = 0 and y² - 14y + 40 = 0 ;
find the equations to its diagonals.

120. To prove that a homogeneous equation ofthe nth

degree represents n straight lines, real or imaginary, which
all pass through the origin.
Let the equation be
-2 -3
y + Axy -1 + Аqx²y"
A„x²y¹ ¬²
− ² + Аzx³yn -³ + ... + A „ x” = 0.
Anx²
On division by x², it may be written
n n-1
ly` 'y n-2
+ A₁ + A2 + ... + Ann 0 .... (1) .
х
This is an equation of the nth degree in y and hence
must have n roots.
Let these roots be m₁ , m2, M3, ... mn. Then (C. Smith's
Algebra, Art. 89 ) the equation ( 1 ) must be equivalent to
the equation
y y -mn = 0 ...(2).
X m
. ) (½ - m.) (2 - m.)... (2 -
The equation (2) is satisfied by all the points which
satisfy the separate equations
y y y
m₁ = 0, XC m₂ = 0, ... Xx mn == 0,
х
7-2
100 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

i.e. by all the points which lie on the n straight lines

y - m₁x = 0, y - - mnx = 0,
— m₂x = 0, ... y―
all of which pass through the origin. Conversely, the
coordinates of all the points which satisfy these n equa-
tions satisfy equation (1) . Hence the proposition.
121. Ex. 1. The equation
y³ – 6xy² + 11x²y – 6x³ = 0, ·
which is equivalent to
− x) (y − 2x) (y -
(y 1 – 3x) =0,
represents the three straight lines
y - x = 0, y - 2x = 0, and y - 3x =0,
all of which pass through the origin.
Ex. 2. The equation y³ - 5y² + 6y = 0,
i.e. y (y - 2) (y - 3) = 0 ,
similarly represents the three straight lines
y =0, y = 2, and y = 3,
all of which are parallel to the axis of x.
122. To find the equation to the two straight lines
joining the origin to the points in which the straight line
lx + my = n .. …. ( 1 )
meets the locus whose equation is
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 .. ... (2).
The equation (1 ) may be written
lx + my
n . (3).

The coordinates of the points in which the straight line

meets the locus satisfy both equation ( 2) and equation (3),
and hence satisfy the equation
lx + my lx + my 2
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2 (gx +fy) + c =0
n n
.. (4).
[For at the points where ( 3) and (4) are true it is clear
that (2) is true. ]
Hence (4) represents some locus which passes through
the intersections of (2) and (3).
 STRAIGHT LINES THROUGH THE ORIGIN . 101

But, since the equation (4) is homogeneous and of the

second degree, it represents two straight lines passing
through the origin (Art. 108) .
It therefore must represent the two straight lines join-
ing the origin to the intersections of (2) and (3).

123. The preceding article may be illustrated geo-

metrically if we assume that the equation (2) represents
some such curve as PQRS in the figure.

S
R

Let the given straight line cut the curve in the points
P and Q.
The equation (2) holds for all points on the curve PQRS.
The equation (3) holds for all points on the line PQ.
Both equations are therefore true at the points of
intersection P and Q.
The equation (4), which is derived from ( 2) and (3),
holds therefore at P and Q.
But the equation (4) represents two straight lines, each
of which passes through the point 0.
It must therefore represent the two straight lines OP
and OQ.

124. Ex. Prove that the straight lines joining the origin to the
points of intersection of the straight line x - y = 2 and the curve
5x² + 12xy - 8y² + 8x - 4y + 12 = 0
make equal angles with the axes.
As in Art. 122 the equation to the required straight lines is
x--y x- 2
5x² + 12xy – 8y² + (8x —− 4y) * 72 " + 12 ( 7 ) ² =
= 0...... (1).
102 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

For this equation is homogeneous and therefore represents two

straight lines through the origin ; also it is satisfied at the points
where the two given equations are satisfied.
Now (1) is, on reduction,
y²=4x²,
so that the equations to the two lines are
y = 2x and y = − 2x.
These lines are equally inclined to the axes.

125. It was stated in Art. 115 that, in general, an

equation of the second degree represents a curve-line,
including (Art. 116) as a particular case two straight lines.
In some cases however it will be found that such
equations only represent isolated points. Some examples
are appended .

Ex. 1. What is represented by the locus

(x -− y + c)² + (x + y − c) ² = 0 ? . ....………………. ( 1).

We know that the sum of the squares of two real
quantities cannot be zero unless each of the squares is
separately zero.
The only real points that satisfy the equation (1 )
therefore satisfy both of the equations
xy + c = 0 and x + y - c = 0.
But the only solution of these two equations is
x = 0, and y = c.
The only real point represented by equation ( 1 ) is therefore
(0, c).
The same result may be obtained in a different manner.
The equation (1 ) gives
(x − y + c)² = (x + y −c)²,
i.e. x− y + c = √1 (x + y −c).
It therefore represents the two imaginary straight lines
x (1 -− √− 1 ) -− y ( 1 + N
√− 1 ) + c ( 1 + √− 1 ) = 0,
and x ( 1 + √− 1 ) − y ( 1 -− √− 1 ) + c ( 1 -− √− 1 ) = 0 .
 EQUATIONS , REPRESENTING ISOLATED POINTS. 103

Each of these two straight lines passes through the

real point (0, c). We may therefore say that (1 ) represents
two imaginary straight lines passing through the point
(0, c).
Ex. 2 . What is represented by the equation
(x² — a²)² + (y² — b²)² = 0 ?
As in the last example, the only real points on the locus
are those that satisfy both of the equations
x² - a² = 0 and y² - — b² = 0,
i.e. x= a, and y = ± b .
The points represented are therefore
(a, b), (a, −b), ( —a, b), and ( −a, —b).
Ex. 3. What is represented by the equation
x² + y² + a² = 0 ?
The only real points on the locus are those that satisfy
all three of the equations
X == 0, y = 0, and a == 0.
Hence, unless a vanishes, there are no such points, and
the given equation represents nothing real.
The equation may be written
x² + y² = — a²,
so that it represents points whose distance from the origin
is a1. It therefore represents the imaginary circle
whose radius is a -1 and whose centre is the origin.
126. Ex. 1. Obtain the condition that one of the straight lines
given by the equation
ax² +2hxy + by2 = 0 . (1)
may coincide with one of those given by the equation
a'x² +2h'xy + b'y² = 0 ........ . (2).
Let the equation to the common straight line be
y - m₁x = 0 (3).
The quantity y - m₁x must therefore be a factor of the left-hand of
both (1) and (2), and therefore the value y = mx must satisfy both (1)
and (2).
104 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

We therefore have
bm₁² +2hm₁ + a = 0 ...... . (4),
and b'm₂² + 2h'm₂ + a' = 0 ....... .(5).
Solving (4) and (5) , we have
m,2 1
= m1 -
2 (ha' - h'a) — ab' – a'b ´2 (bh' — b'h) *
ha' - h'a 2
.. = ab' -a'bl
bh' -b'h = m² = {2 (bh bh)
so that we must have
(ab' - a'b)² = 4 (ha' — h′a) (bh' — b′h).
Ex. 2. Prove that the equation
m (x³ - 3x²) + y³ -— 3x²y = 0
represents three straight lines equally inclined to one another.
Transforming to polar coordinates (Art. 35) the equation gives
m (cos³0 - 3 cos e sin20) + sin³0-3 cos20 sin 0 = 0,
i.e. m (1 -
− 3 tan²0) + tan³ 0 - 3 tan 0 = 0,
3 tan - tan³
i.e. m= tan 30.
1-3 tan20
If m =tan a, this equation gives
tan 30 =tan a,
the solutions of which are
30=a, or 180° + a, or 360° +a,
α
i.e. 0= 3' or 60° + , or 120° + .
The locus is therefore three straight lines through the origin
inclined at angles
α α α
60° + and 120° +
3 3 3
to the axis of x.
They are therefore equally inclined to one another.
Ex. 3. Prove that two of the straight lines represented by the
equation
ax³ + bx²y + cxy² + dy³ = 0 ...... (1)
will be at right angles if
a² + ac + bd + d² = 0.
Let the separate equations to the three lines be
y - m₁x = 0, y - max = 0, and y - mзx = 0,
 EXAMPLES. 105

so that the equation (1) must be equivalent to

d (y − m¸x) (y — M¸x) (y — M¸x) = 0,
and therefore с
=- . (2),
ď
b
mamg + mym +mm , d (3),
a
and mymomz = ...(4).
If the first two of these straight lines be at right angles we have,
in addition,
mym₂ = -1 (5).
From (4) and (5), we have
a
mz =
and therefore, from (2),
с a c+ a
m₁ + m₂= - d - a -
The equation (3) then becomes
a a
d ) -1 =
(-c+4
i.e. a² +ac + bd + d² = 0.

EXAMPLES. XIV.
1. Prove that the equation
y³ - x³ + 3xу (y -− x) = 0
represents three straight lines equally inclined to one another.
2. Prove that the equation
y² (cos a + √3 sin a) cos a -
− xy (sin 2a - √3 cos 2a)
+ x² (sin a - 3 cos a) sin a = 0
represents two straight lines inclined at 60° to each other.
Prove also that the area of the triangle formed with them by the
straight line
(cos a -√3 sin a) y --− (sin a + √3 cos a) x + a == 0
is a2
4/3'
and that this triangle is equilateral.
3. Shew that the straight lines
(A² – 3B²) x² + 8ABxy + (B² – 3A²) y² = 0
form with the line Ax + By + C = 0 an equilateral triangle whose area
C¹2
√√3 (4²+B²) *
106 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

4. Find the equation to the pair of straight lines joining the

origin to the intersections of the straight line y = mx +c and the curve
x²+y² = a².
Prove that they are at right angles if
2c²= a² (1 + m²).
5. Prove that the straight lines joining the origin to the points
of intersection of the straight line
kx +hy =2hk
with the curve (x − h)² + (y − k)² = c²
are at right angles if h² + k² = c².
6. Prove that the angle between the straight lines joining the
origin to the intersection of the straight line y = 3x +2 with the curve
x² + 2xy + 3y² + 4x + 8y - 11 = 0 is tan-12√2
3
7. Shew that the straight lines joining the origin to the other two
points of intersection of the curves whose equations are
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx = 0
and a'x² +2h'xy + b'y² +2g'x = 0
will be at right angles if
g(a +b ) -g' (a + b) = 0.
What loci are represented by the equations
8. x² - y² = 0. 9. x² - xy =0. 10. xy - ay =0.
11. x³ - x2 - x + 1 = 0 . 12. x³ - xy² =0. 13. x³ + y³ = 0.
14. x² + y² = 0. 15. x²y = 0. 16. (x -1) (y2-4) = 0.
17. (x² - 1)² + (y² - 4)² = 0. 18. (y - mx - c)² + (y - m'x - c')² = 0.
19. (x² - a²) (x² - b²)² + c¹ (y² -
— a³) = 0. 20. (x - a)² - y² = 0.
21. (x + y)2 - c² = 0. 22. r a sec (0 - − a).
23. Shew that the equation
bx² - 2hxy + ay² =0
represents a pair of straight lines which are at right angles to the pair
given by the equation
ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0.
24. If pairs of straight lines
x² - 2pxy - y² =0 and x² - 2qxy — y²= 0
be such that each pair bisects the angles between the other pair, prove
that pq = -1 .
25. Prove that the pair of lines
a²x² + 2h (a + b) xy + b²y² = 0
is equally inclined to the pair
ax² +2hxy + by² = 0.
XIV.1 EXAMPLES. 107

26. Shew also that the pair

ax² + 2hxy + by² + λ (x² +y²) = 0
is equally inclined to the same pair.
27. If one of the straight lines given by the equation
ax² +2hxy + by² = 0
coincide with one of those given by
a'x² +2h'xy + b'y² = 0,
and the other lines represented by them be perpendicular, prove that
ha'b' h'ab
= =
b'a' b- a √-aa'bb'.
28. Prove that the equation to the bisectors of the angle between
the straight lines ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0 is
h (x² - y²) + (b− a) xy = (ax² - by²) cos w,
the axes being inclined at an angle w.
29. Prove that the straight lines
ax² +2hxy + by² = 0
make equal angles with the axis of x if ha cos w, the axes being
inclined at an angle w.
30. If the axes be inclined at an angle w, shew that the equation
x² +2xy cos w + y² cos 2w = 0
represents a pair of perpendicular straight lines.
31. Shew that the equation
cos 3a (x³ - 3xу2) + sin 3a (y³ -
– 3x²y) + 3a (x² + y²) — 4a³ = 0
represents three straight lines forming an equilateral triangle.
Prove also that its area is 3√3a².
32. Prove that the general equation
ax² +2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2ƒy + c = 0
represents two parallel straight lines if
h² = ab and bg² =af².
Prove also that the distance between them is

2 g2 - ac
√ a(a +b)
33. If the equation
ax² +2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
represent a pair of straight lines, prove that the equation to the third
pair of straight lines passing through the points where these meet the
axis is

ax² − 2hxy + by² +2gx + 2fy + c ++fg xy = 0.

108 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XIV.]

34. If the equation

ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
represent two straight lines, prove that the square of the distance of
their point of intersection from the origin is
c (a +b) -f2-g2
ab - h2
35. Shew that the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the
straight lines
ax² + 2hxy + by2 = 0 and lx + my = 1
is a point (x', y') such that
x_y
-'= a+ b
7 m am2-2hlm +bl²*
36. Hence find the locus of the orthocentre of a triangle of which
two sides are given in position and whose third side goes through &
fixed point.
37. Shew that the distance between the points of intersection of
the straight line
x cos a + y sin a - p = 0
with the straight lines ax² +2hxy + by² = 0 .
is 2p /h2 -ab
b cos2a -2h cos a sin a + a sin² a
Deduce the area of the triangle formed by them.
38. Prove that the product of the perpendiculars let fall from the
point (x', y') upon the pair of straight lines
ax² +2hxy + by2 =0
ax'2 + 2hx'y' + by'2
is
√(a - b)² + 4h²
39. Shew that two of the straight lines represented by the
equation
ay¹ + bxy³ + cx²y² + dx³y + ex¹ = 0
will be at right angles if
(b + d) (ad +be) + (e -- a) ² (a + c + e) = 0.
40. Prove that two of the lines represented by the equation
ax + bx³y + cx²y² + dxy³ + ay* = 0
will bisect the angles between the other two if
c +6a =0 and b + d = 0.
41. Prove that one of the lines represented by the equation
ax³ + bx²y + cxy² + dy³ = 0
will bisect the angle between the other two if
(3a + c)² (bc + 2cd3ad) = (b + 3d)² (bc + 2ab -
− 3ad).
 CHAPTER VII.

TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES.

127. IT is sometimes found desirable in the discussion

of problems to alter the origin and axes of coordinates,
either by altering the origin without alteration of the
direction of the axes, or by altering the directions of the
axes and keeping the origin unchanged, or by altering the
origin and also the directions of the axes. The latter case
is merely a combination of the first two. Either of these
processes is called a transformation of coordinates.
We proceed to establish the fundamental formulæ for
such transformation of coordinates.

128. To alter the origin ofcoordinates without altering

the directions of the axes.
Let OX and OY be the original axes and let the new
axes, parallel to the original, be
O'X' and O'Y'.
Let the coordinates of the new
origin O, referred to the original
axes be h and k, so that, if O'L be IN'
perpendicular to OX, we have Ο X'
OL h and LO' = k. TH X L N
Let P be any point in the plane
of the paper, and let its coordinates, referred to the original
axes, be x and y, and referred to the new axes let them be
and y'.
Draw PN perpendicular to OX to meet O'X' in N'.
110 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Then
ON = x, NP = y, O'N' = x, and N'P = y'.
We therefore have
x = ON = OL + O'N' = h + x',
and y= NP = LO' + N'P = k + y .
The origin is therefore transferred to the point ( h, k) when
we substitute for the coordinates x and y the quantities
x +h and y' + k.
The above article is true whether the axes be oblique
or rectangular.

129 . To change the direction of the axes ofcoordinates,

without changing the origin, both systems of coordinates being
rectangular.
Let OX and OY be the original system of axes and OX'
and OY' the new system, and let
the angle, XOX ', through which
the axes are turned be called 0.
Take any point P in the plane M
of the paper.
Draw PN and PN' perpen- NL X
dicular to OX and OX', and also
N'L and N'M perpendicular to OX and PN.
If the coordinates of P, referred to the original axes,
be x and y, and, referred to the new axes, be x and y', we
have
ON = x, NP = y, ON' = x', and N'P = y'.
The angle
MPN'= 90° - LMN'PL MN'O:= 4 XOX' = 0.
We then have
x = ON = OL - MN' = ON' cos - N'P sin
x cos 0y' sin (1),
and y = NP = LN' + MP = ON' sin 0 + N'P cos 0
= x'sin + y' cos 0 . (2).
 CHANGE OF AXES. 111

If therefore in any equation we wish to turn the axes,

being rectangular, through an angle we must substitute
x' cos - y' sin and x' sin + y' cos 0
an
for хx d y.

When we have both to change the origin, and also the

direction of the axes, the transformation is clearly obtained
by combining the results of the previous articles.
If the origin is to be transformed to the point (h, k)
and the axes to be turned through an angle 0, we have to
substitute

h + x'cos - y' sin and k + x' sin ✪ + y' cos 0

for х
x and y respectively.
The student, who is acquainted with the theory of projection of
straight lines, will see that equations (1) and (2) express the fact that
the projections of OP on OX and OY are respectively equal to the
sum of the projections of ON' and N'P on the same two lines.

180. Ex. 1. Transform to parallel axes through the point ( −2, 3)

the equation
2x² +4xy + 5y² - 4x - 22y + 7 = 0.
We substitute x = x' - 2 and y = y′ + 3, and the equation becomes
2 (x' − 2)² + 4 ( x′ - 2) (y ' +3 ) +5 (y′ + 3) ² – 4 (x′ − 2) — 22 (y' +3) + 7 = 0,
i.e. 2x² +4x'y' + 5y'² – 22 = 0.

Ex. 2. Transform to axes inclined at 30° to the original axes the

equation
x² +2√3xy - y² = 2a².
For x and y we have to substitute
x'cos 30° -y' sin 30° and x' sin 30° +y' cos 30°,
i.e. x'√3 - y' and x² + y'√3 •
2 2
The equation then becomes
(x /3 - y')² +2√3 (x'√3 -— y' ) (x ' + y'√3 ) -- (x ' + y'√
/ 3 )² = 8a²,
i.e. x¹² - y'² = a².
112 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. XV.

1. Transform to parallel axes through the point (1, −2) the

equations
(1) y² - 4x + 4y + 8 = 0,
and (2) 2x² + y² - 4x + 4y = 0.
2. What does the equation
(x − a)² + (y -
− b)² = c²
become when it is transferred to parallel axes through
(1) the point (a -
− c, b),
(2) the point (a, b − c) ?
3. What does the equation
(a - b) (x² +y²) –-2abx = 0
ab
become if the origin be moved to the
point (a-0,0);
4. Transform to axes inclined at 45° to the original axes the
equations
(1) x² - y² = a²,
(2) 17x² - 16xy + 17y2 = 225,
and (3) y¹ + x² + 6x²y² = 2.
5. Transform to axes inclined at an angle a to the original axes
the equations
(1) x² + y² = r²,
and (2) x² + 2xy tan 2a - y² = a².
6. If the axes be turned through an angle tan-12, what does the
equation 4xy - 3x² =a2 become?
7. By transforming to parallel axes through a properly chosen
point (h, k), prove that the equation
12x² - 10xy + 2y² + 11x - 5y + 2 = 0
can be reduced to one containing only terms of the second degree.
8. Find the angle through which the axes may be turned so that
the equation Ax + By + C = 0
may be reduced to the form x = constant, and determine the value of
this constant.

131. The general proposition, which is given in the

next article, on the transformation from one set of oblique
axes to any other set of oblique axes is of very little
importance and is hardly ever required.
 CHANGE OF AXES. 113

*132 . To change from one set of axes, inclined at an

angle w, to another set, inclined at an angle w', the origin
remaining unaltered.

N'

M N L X
Let OX and OY be the original axes, OX' and OY' the
new axes, and let the angle XOX' be 0.
Take any point P in the plane of the paper.
Draw PN and PN' parallel to OY and OY' to meet OX
and OX' respectively in N and N ' , PL perpendicular to OX,
and N'M and N'M' perpendicular to OL and LP.
Now
LPNL = L YOX == W, and PN'M' = Y'OX = w' + 0.
Hence if
ON=x, NP = y, ON' = x', and N'P = y' ,
we have y sin w = NPsin w = LP = MN ' + M'P
= ON' sin 0 + N'P sin (w' + 0),
so that y sin w =x'sin 0) ……………..
+ y' sin (w' + 0) . (1 ).
Also
x + y cos ∞ = ON+ NLOL = OM + N'M'
= x' cos 0 + y' cos ( w' + 0) ……………
.... . (2).
Multiplying (2) by sin w, (1 ) by cos w, and subtracting,
we have
x sin w = x' sin (w - 0) + y' sin (w - w' -0) ...... (3).
[This equation (3) may also be obtained by drawing a perpen-
dicular from P upon OY and proceeding as for equation (1). ]
The equations ( 1 ) and ( 3) give the proper substitutions
for the change of axes in the general case.
As in Art. 130 the equations ( 1 ) and (2) may be obtained by
equating the projections of OP and of ON' and N'P on OX and a
straight line perpendicular to OX.
L, 8
114 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

*133. Particular cases ofthe preceding article.

(1) Suppose we wish to transfer our axes from a
rectangular pair to one inclined at an angle w'. In this
case is 90° , and the formulæ of the preceding article
become
x = x' cos 0 + y' cos (w' + 0),
and y = x' sin 0 + y' sin (w' + 0).
(2) Suppose the transference is to be from oblique
axes, inclined at w, to rectangular axes. In this case wis
90°, and our formulæ become
x sin w = x' sin (w - 0) -— y' cos (w – 0),
and y sin w = x' sin 0 + y' cos 0.
These particular formulæ may easily be proved in-
dependently, by drawing the corresponding figures.
x2 y2
Ex. Transform the equation a² b2 = 1 from rectangular axes to
axes inclined at an angle 2a, the new axis of x being inclined at an angle
b
- a to the old axes and sin a being equal to
a² + b²
Here 0 = -a and w' = 2a, so that the formulæ of transformation
(1) become
x= (x +y) cos a and y = (y' - x') sin a.
b a
Since sin a = -, we have cos a = 9 and hence the
√a²+b² √a²+b² '
given equation becomes
(x +y') (y' - x')2-= 1 ,
a² +b² a² +b²
i.e. x'y' = (a² +b²).

*134. The degree of an equation is unchanged by any

transformation of coordinates.
For the most general form of transformation is found
by combining together Arts. 128 and 132. Hence the
most general formulæ of transformation are
x= h + x'
sin (w-0) sin (w - w' -
— 0)
sin w +y' sin w
sin 0 sin (w' + 0)
and y = k + x'
sin w + y' sin w
 CHANGE OF AXES. 115

For x and y we have therefore to substitute expressions

in x and y of the first degree, so that by this substitution
the degree of the equation cannot be raised.
Neither can, by this substitution, the degree be lowered.
For, if it could, then, by transforming back again, the
degree would be raised and this we have just shewn to be
impossible.

*135. If by any change of axes, without change of origin, the

quantity ax² +2hxy +by² become
a'x'2 +2h'x'y' + b'y' ,
the axes in each case being rectangular, to prove that
a+ b = a' + b' , and ab - h² = a'b' – h²².
By Art. 129, the new axis of x being inclined at an angle ◊ to the
old axis, we have to substitute
x'cos - y' sin 0 and x'sin 0 + y' cos 0
for x and y respectively.
Hence ax² + 2hxy + by²
— y' sin 0)² + 2h (x' cos 0 -
=a(x' cos 0 - – y' sin 0) (x′ sin ✪ + y' cos 0)
+b (x' sin + y' cos 0)²
=x²[a cos² 0 + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin² ]
+2x'y' [ -a cos e sin + h (cos20 - sin20) + b cos e sin 0]
+ y'² [a sin² 0 – 2h cos ◊ sin 0 + b cos² 0].
We then have
a'a cos²0 +2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin² 0
=1 [(a + b) + (a - − b) cos 20 + 2h sin 20 ]……………………………………. ( 1) ,
b'a sin20 - 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b cos20
= [(a + b) - (a - b) cos 20 - 2h sin 20]........... . (2) ,
and h' = -a cos 0 sin + h (cos20 - sin20) +b cos 0 sin
= [2h cos 20 - (a - b) sin 20] .(3).
By adding (1) and (2) , we have a' + b' = a + b.
Also, by multiplying them, we have
4a'b' = (a + b)² - { (a - b) cos 20 + 2h sin 20}².
Hence 4a'b' -4h2
=(a + b)² - [ {2h sin 20+ (a - b) cos 20 } 2+ { 2h cos 20 - (a - b) sin 20}²]
=(a + b)² - [(a - b)² + 4h²] = 4ab – 4h²,
so that a'b' - h'² = ab - h².
136. To find the angle through which the axes must be turned so
that the expression ax² + 2hxy + by² may become an expression in which
there is no term involving x'y'.
8-2
116 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Assuming the work of the previous article the coefficient of x'y'

vanishes if h' be zero, or, from equation (3) , if
2h cos 20=(a - b) sin 20,
2h
i.e. if tan 20=
a- b'
The required angle is therefore
tan-1
(2h).
* 137. The proposition of Art. 135 is a particular
case, when the axes are rectangular, of the following more
general proposition.
If by any change of axes, without change of origin, the
quantity ax² + 2hxy + by² becomes a'x² + 2h'xy + b'y², then
a + b - 2h cos w a' + b' - 2h' cos w'
sin² w sin' w •
ab - h² a'b' - h'²
and
sin² w sin² w
w and w' being the angles between the original and final pairs
of axes.
Let the coordinates of any point P, referred to the
original axes, be x and y and, referred to the final axes, let
them be x and y'.
By Art. 20 the square of the distance between P and
the origin is x² + 2xy cos w + y², referred to the original axes,
and x2 + 2x'y' cos w' + y'2, referred to the final axes.
We therefore always have
x² + 2xy cos w + y² = x²² + 2x'y' cos w' + y²². . (1).
Also, by supposition, we have
ax² + 2hxy + by² = a'x'² + 2h'x'y' + b'y'² ...... (2).
Multiplying (1 ) by λ and adding it to (2), we therefore have
x² (a + λ) + 2xy (h + λ cos w) + y² (b + λ)
= x²² (a' + λ) + 2x'y' (h' + λ cos w') + y'² (b′ + d) ...( 3).
If then any value of A makes the left-hand side of (3) a
perfect square, the same value must make the right-hand
side also a perfect square.
But the values of A which make the left-hand a perfect
square are given by the condition
(h + λ cos w)² = (a + λ) (b + λ),
 EXAMPLES. 117

i.e. by
λ² (1 − cos² w) + λ (a + b − 2h cos w ) + ab — h² = 0,
a + b - 2h cos w ab - h²
i.e. by λ²+λ + = 0 ......... (4).
sin' w sin² w
In a similar manner the values of A which make the
right-hand side of (3) a perfect square are given by the
equation
a + b' - 2h' cos w' a'b' - h'2 -
λ +λ 0 ...... (5).
sin² w' sin² w'
Since the values of λ given by equation (4) are the same
as the values of λ given by (5) , the two equations (4) and
(5) must be the same.
Hence we have
a +b - 2h cos w a' + b' - 2h' cos w'
sin2 w sin2 w ' "

ab - h2 a'b' - h'2
and
sin2 w sin2 w'

EXAMPLES. XVI.

1. The equation to a straight line referred to axes inclined at 30°

to one another is y =2x + 1. Find its equation referred to axes
inclined at 45°, the origin and axis of x being unchanged.
2. Transform the equation 2x² + 3 √3xy + 3y² = 2 from axes
inclined at 30° to rectangular axes, the axis of x remaining
unchanged.
3. Transform the equation x² + xy + y2 = 8 from axes inclined at
60° to axes bisecting the angles between the original axes.
4. Transform the equation y² + 4y cot a -4x = 0 from rectangular
axessame
to oblique axes meeting at an angle a, the axis of x being kept
the .
5. If x and y be the coordinates of a point referred to a system of
oblique axes, and r' and y' be its coordinates referred to another
system of oblique axes with the same origin, and if the formulæ of
transformation be
x= mx +ny' and y = m'x' + n'y',
m² +m²² - 1 mm'
prove that =
n²+n'² - 1 nn'
 CHAPTER VIII.

THE CIRCLE.

138. Def. A circle is the locus of a point which

moves so that its distance from a fixed point, called the
centre, is equal to a given distance. The given distance is
called the radius of the circle.

139. Tofind the equation to a circle, the axes

nates being two straight lines through its centre at right
angles.
Let O be the centre of the circle and let a be its radius.
Let OX and OY be the axes of
coordinates.
Let P be any point on the circum-
ference of the circle, and let its coordi-
nates be x and y.
M X
Draw PM perpendicular to OX and
join OP.
Then (Euc. I. 47)
OM² + MP² = a²,
i.e. x² + y² = a².
This being the relation which holds between the coordi
nates of any point on the circumference is, by Art. 42, the
required equation.

140. To find the equation to a circle referred to any

rectangular axes.
 THE CIRCLE. 119

Let OX and OY be the two rectangular axes.

Let C be the centre of the
circle and a its radius.
Take any point P on the
circumference and draw per-
pendiculars CM and PN upon
OX; let P be the point (x, y).
Draw CL perpendicular to
NP.
Let the coordinates of C be MN X
h and k ; these are supposed to be known .
We have CL = MN = ON — - OM = x -
— h,
and =
LP NP- NL - NP- MC - y - k.
Hence, since CL +LPCP ,
we have (x - h)² + (y - k) ² = a² . .(1).
This is the required equation .

Ex. The equation to the circle, whose centre is the point ( 3, 4)

and whose radius is 7, is
(x + 3)² + (y - 4)2 = 72,
i.e. x² +y² + 6x - 8y = 24.
141. Some particular cases of the preceding article may be
noticed :
(a) Let the origin O be on the circle so that, in this case,
OM²+ MC²= a²,
i.e. h2 + k²= a2 .
The equation (1) then becomes
(x − h)² + (y − k)² = h² + k² ,
i.e.
x² +y2-2hx - 2ky = 0.
(8) Let the origin be not on the curve, but let the centre lie on
the axis of x. In this case k = 0, and the equation becomes
(x -
− h)² + y² = a³.
(7) Let the origin be on the curve and let the axis of x be a
diameter. We now have k=0 and a= h, so that the equation becomes
x² +y2-2hx = 0.
(8) case
have the By taking
of Art . O
139at. C, and thus making both h and zero, we
120 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

(e) The circle will touch the axis of x if MC be equal to the

radius, i.e. if k = a,
The equation to a circle touching the axis of x is therefore
x² + y2-2hx - 2ky + h² = 0.
Similarly, one touching the axis of y is
x² +y2-2hx - 2ky + k² = 0.

142. To prove that the equation

x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0........ . (1),
always represents a circle for all values ofg, f, and c, and to
find its centre and radius. [The axes are assumed to be
rectangular. ]
This equation may be written
(x² + 2gx + g²) + (y² + 2ƒy + ƒ³) = g² +ƒ³ — c,
i.e. -
(x + g)² + (y + ƒ)² = {√g² + ƒ² — c }².
Comparing this with the equation ( 1 ) of Art. 140, we
see that the equations are the same if
h = -g, k = -ƒ, and a = .√g² +f2 - c.
Hence ( 1 ) represents a circle whose centre is the point
2
(−9, −ƒ), and whose radius is √g² +ƒª — c.
If g² +f > c, the radius of this circle is real .
If g² +ƒ² = c, the radius vanishes, i.e. the circle becomes
point coinciding with the point (-g, -f). Such a circle
is called a point-circle.
If g² +fc, the radius of the circle is imaginary. In
this case the equation does not represent any real geo-
metrical locus. It is better not to say that the circle does
not exist, but to say that it is a circle with a real centre
and an imaginary radius.

Ex. 1. The equation x² + y² + 4x - 6y = 0 can be written in the

form
(x + 2)² + (y -− 3)² = 13 = (√13)² ,
and therefore represents a circle whose centre is the point ( − 2, 3) and
whose radius is 13.
 GENERAL EQUATION TO A CIRCLE. 121

Ex. 2. The equation 45x² + 45y² – 60x + 36y + 19= 0 is equivalent

to
x² + y² - 3x + y = -18 ,
i.e.
(x- 3)² + (y + 3)² = 1 + 18 =
and therefore represents a circle whose centre is the point (3 , - 3) and
whose radius is√41
15

143 . Condition that the general equation ofthe second

degree may represent a circle.
The equation ( 1 ) of the preceding article, multiplied by
any arbitrary constant, is a particular case of the general
equation of the second degree (Art. 114) in which there is
no term containing xy and in which the coefficients of x²
and y³ are equal .
The general equation of the second degree in rectangular
coordinates therefore represents a circle if the coefficients
of x² and y² be the same and if the coefficient of xy
be zero .

144. The equation ( 1 ) of Art. 142 is called the

general equation of a circle, since it can, by a proper
choice of g, f, and c, be made to represent any circle.
The three constants g, f, and c in the general equation
correspond to the geometrical fact that a circle can be found
to satisfy three independent geometrical conditions and no
more. Thus a circle is determined when three points on it
are given, or when it is required to touch three straight
lines.

145. To find the equation to the circle which is described on the

line joining the points (x1 , y₁ ) and (x2, y2) as diameter.
Let A be the point (x₁ , y₁) and B be the point (x2, y2) , and let the
coordinates of any point P on the circle be hand k.
The equation to AP is (Art. 62)
k - y₁ ......... (1),
y - Y₁ = h− x1(x- x1)
and the equation to BP is
k- Y2
Y -Y2= h - x2(x -
− x2) ..... (2).

But, since APB is a semicircle, the angle APB is a right angle,

and hence the straight lines (1) and (2) are at right angles .
122 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Hence, by Art. 69, we have

k- y₁ k - Y2--1 ,
h- x₁h - xq
i.e. (h - x₁) (h - x ) + (k − y₁) (k -
− y₂) = 0 .
But this is the condition that the point (h, k) may lie on the curve
whose equation is
− y₁) (Y —- Y2) = 0.
(x − x¸) (x − x2) + (y -
This therefore is the required equation.

146. Intercepts made on the axes by the circle whose equation is

ax² + ay² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ..(1).
The abscissæ of the points where the circle (1) meets the axis of x,
i.e. y = 0, are given by the equation
.......... (2).
ax² +2gx + c = 0 .....
The roots of this equation being x₁ and X21
we have B2
2g
x1 +x2 = a "
с B₁
and X1Xq= (Art. 2.) Q A2 X
Hence
A₁A2 = X2 − X1 = √ (x1 + x«)² — 4X₁X½
== 4g 4c √g2 ac
=2
a2 a a
Again, the roots of the equation (2) are both imaginary if g² < ac.
In this case the circle does not meet the axis of x in real points, i.e.
geometrically it does not meet the axis of x at all.
The circle will touch the axis of x if the intercept 4,42 be just
zero, i. e. if g² = ac.
It will meet the axis of x in two points lying on opposite sides of
the origin if the two roots of the equation (2) are of opposite signs,
i. e. if c be negative.
147. Ex. 1. Find the equation to the circle which passes through
the points (1, 0) , (0, -
− 6) , and (3, 4).
Let the equation to the circle be
x² +y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1).
Since the three points, whose coordinates are given, satisfy this
equation, we have
1 +2g +c = 0 ..... (2),
36-12f+c = 0 ...... (3),
and 25 +6g + 8f+ c = 0 ........ (4).
 EXAMPLES. 123

Subtracting (2) from (3) and (3) from (4) , we have

2g +12f= 35,
and 6g +20f= 11.
Hence f=47 and g = − ¥ .
Equation (2) then gives c= 9.
Substituting these values in (1 ) the required equation is
4x² +4y² - 142x + 47x + 138 = 0.
Ex. 2. Find the equation to the circle which touches the axis ofy
at a distance +4 from the origin and cuts off an intercept 6 from the
axis ofx.
Any circle is x² + y² +2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
This meets the axis of y in points given by
y²+2fy + c = 0.
The roots of this equation must be equal and each equal to 4, so
that it must be equivalent to (y - 4)² = 0 .
Hence 2f8, and c = 16.
The equation to the circle is then
x² +y² + 2gx - 8y + 16 = 0.
This meets the axis of x in points given by
x² +2gx +16 = 0,
i.e. at points distant
-g + √√92-16 and -g - √√g² - 16.
Hence 6= 2 /g2-16.
Therefore g ± 5, and the required equation is
x² +y² + 10x - 8y + 16 = 0 .
There are therefore two circles satisfying the given conditions.
This is geometrically obvious.

EXAMPLES. XVII.
Find the equation to the circle
1. Whose radius is 3 and whose centre is ( −1, 2).
2. Whose radius is 10 and whose centre is ( -5, −6) .
3. Whose radius is a + b and whose centre is (a, b).
4. Whose radius is a² - b² and whose centre is ( -a, —b) .
Find the coordinates of the centres and the radii of the circles
whose equations are
5. x² + y² - 4x - 8y = 41 . 6. 3x² + 3y2-5x - 6y + 4 = 0.
124 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

7. x² + y = k (x+k). - 2fy.
8. x² + y² = 2gx –
9. √√1 + m² (x² + y²) -
– 2cx – 2mcy = 0.
Draw the circles whose equations are
10. x² + y2 = 2ay. 11. 3x² + 3y² = 4x.
12. 5x² + 5y² = 2x + 3y.
13. Find the equation to the circle which passes through the
points (1 , - 2) and (4, −3) and which has its centre on the straight
line 3x +4y = 7.
14. Find the equation to the circle passing through the points
(0, a) and (b, h) , and having its centre on the axis of x.
Find the equations to the circles which pass through the points
15. (0, 0), (a, 0), and (0, b). 16. (1 , 2 ), (3, −4) , and (5, -– 6).
-
17. (1, 1), (2, − 1), and (3, 2). 18. (5,7) , (8 , 1) , and (1 , 3) .
19. (a, b) , (a, −b) , and (a +b, a − b).
20. ABCD is a square whose side is a ; taking AB and AD as
axes, prove that the equation to the circle circumscribing the square is
x² +y² = a (x + y).
21. Find the equation to the circle which passes through the
origin and cuts off intercepts equal to 3 and 4 from the axes.
22. Find the equation to the circle passing through the origin
and the points (a, b) and (b, a) . Find the lengths of the chords that
it cuts off from the axes.
23. Find the equation to the circle which goes through the origin
and cuts off intercepts equal to h and k from the positive parts of the
axes.
24. Find the equation to the circle, of radius a, which passes
through the two points on the axis of x which are at a distance b from
the origin.
Find the equation to the circle which
25. touches each axis at a distance 5 from the origin.
26. touches each axis and is of radius a.
27. touches both axes and passes through the point ( − 2, − 3) .
28. touches the axis of x and passes through the two points
(1, 2) and (3, −4).
29. touches the axis of y at the origin and passes through the
point (b, c).
XVII .] TANGENT TO A CIRCLE. 125

30. touches the axis of x at a distance 3 from the origin and

intercepts a distance 6 on the axis of y.
31. Points (1, 0) and (2, 0) are taken on the axis of x, the axes
being rectangular. On the line joining these points an equilateral
triangle is described, its vertex being in the positive quadrant. Find
the equations to the circles described on its sides as diameters.
32. If y = mx be the equation of a chord of a circle whose radius is
a, the origin of coordinates being one extremity of the chord and the
axis of x being a diameter of the circle, prove that the equation of a
circle of which this chord is the diameter is
(1 + m²) (x² + y²) − 2a (x + my) = 0 .
33. Find the equation to the circle passing through the points
(12, 43), (18, 39) , and (42, 3) and prove that it also passes through
the points ( -54, −69) and ( -81, −38).
34. Find the equation to the circle circumscribing the quadrilateral
formed by the straight lines
2x + 3y = 2, 3x - 2y = 4, x + 2y = 3, and 2x - y = 3.
35. Prove that the equation to the circle of which the points
(x1, y1) and (x2 , y2) are the ends of a chord of a segment containing an
angle is
− x₂) + (y − Y₁) (Y -
(x − x1) (x - − Y2)
± cot ◊ [ (x -
− x₁) (Y — Y2) — (x − x2) (y — y₁)] = 0.
36. Find the equations to the circles in which the line joining the
points (a, b) and (b, -
− a) is a chord subtending an angle of 45° at any
point on its circumference.

148. Tangent. Euclid in his Book III. defines the

tangent at any point of a circle, and proves that it is always
perpendicular to the radius drawn from the centre to the
point of contact.
From this property may be deduced the equation to the
tangent at any point (x', y') of the circle x² + y² = a².
For let the point P (Fig. Art. 139) be the point
(x', y').
The equation to any straight line passing through P is,
by Art. 62,
y- y' = m (x − x') (1) .
Also the equation to OP is
y
'х
y= (2).
126 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The straight lines ( 1 ) and (2 ) are at right angles, i. e. the

line (1 ) is a tangent, if
m xy 1, (Art. 69)
x'
i.e. if m=- y

Substituting this value of m in (1), the equation of the

tangent at (x', y') is
x'
y - y = - (x− x'),
y
i.e. xx' + yy' = x²² + y² (3).
12
But, since (x , y ) lies on the circle, we have a + y²² = a²,
and the required equation is then
xx' + yy' = a².

149. In the case of most curves it is impossible to

give a simple construction for the tangent as in the case of
the circle. It is therefore necessary, in general, to give a
different definition.
Tangent. Def. Let P and Q be any two points, near
to one another, on any curve.
Join PQ ; then PQ is called a
secant.
The position of the line PQ when
the point is taken indefinitely close
to, and ultimately coincident with, the
point P is called the tangent at P.
The student may better appreciate
this definition, if he conceive the curve
to be made up of a succession of very small points (much
smaller than could be made by the finest conceivable drawing
pen) packed close to one another along the curve. The
tangent at P is then the straight line joining P and the
next of these small points.

150. To find the equation of the tangent at the point

(x , y ) ofthe circle x² + y² = a³.
 EQUATION TO THE TANGENT. 127

Let P be the given point and Q a point (a", y" ) lying on

the curve and close to P.
The equation to PQ is then
y" -y '
y - y' = x" - x' (x - x') (1).

Since both (x', y') and (x", y") lie on the circle, we have
x²² + y'² = a³,
and 112 "'2 = a³.
+ y²=
By subtraction, we have
112 x12 + y"112 -y12 = 0,
x2-
i.e. (x" — x ′) (x' + x') + (y″ − y') (y″ + y') = 0,
- y'
y" — x" + x′
i.e.
x" - x" y' + y'
Substituting this value in ( 1 ), the equation to PQ is
x" + x'
y - y':=='y' + y
' (x − x') ……………... (2) .

Now let be taken very close to P, so that it ulti-

mately coincides with P, i. e. put x" = x' and y″ = y'.
Then (2) becomes
2x
y - y' -- (x - x'),
2y '
i.e. 12
yy' + xx' = x²² + y'² = a³ .
The required equation is therefore
xx' + yy' = a². (3).
It will be noted that the equation to the tangent
found in this article coincides with the equation found
from Euclid's definition in Art. 148.
Our definition of a tangent and Euclid's definition there-
fore give the same straight line in the case of a circle.

151. To obtain the equation of the tangent at any point

(x , y) lying on the circle
x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
128 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let P be the given point and Q a point (x", y') lying on

the curve close to P.
The equation to PQ is therefore
y" — y' -
y - y' = x (x − x') …………………. (1).

Since both (x', y') and (x", y" ) lie on the circle, we have
x² + y²² + 2gx′ + 2ƒy' + c = 0 .......…………. (2),
and x112 + y" ² + 2gx" + 2ƒy' + c = 0 .......... (3) .
By subtraction, we have
12
— x'³ + y″ ² — y'² + 2g (x" -
x'² - — x') + 2ƒ(y' -
— y') = 0,
i.e. (x" − x') (x"″ + x′ + 2g) + (y″ − y') (y' + y' + 2ƒ) = 0,
y" - y' -- x" + x + 2g
i.e. "
- x y' + y' + 2ƒ'
Substituting this value in ( 1 ), the equation to PQ be-
comes
x" + x + 2g
y - y' y' + y' + 2ƒ (x − x') .... (4).

Now let Q be taken very close to P, so that it ultimately

coincides with P, i. e. put x" = x' and y" = y'.
The equation (4) then becomes
x² + g
y - y' -- ·(x − x'),
y' +·ƒ
i.e. y (y' +ƒ) + x (x' + g) = y′ (y' + ƒ) + x′ (x′ + g)
= x² + y² + gx' +ƒy '
=- — gx' -
— fy' — c,
by (2).
This may be written

xx' + yy' + g (x + x') + f (y + y ') + c = 0

which is the required equation.

152. The equation to the tangent at (x, y) is there-

fore obtained from that of the circle itself by substituting
xx for x², yy' for y³, x + x' for 2x, and y + y' for 2y.
INTERSECTIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE AND A CIRCLE. 129

This is a particular case of a general rule which will be

found to enable us to write down at sight the equation to
the tangent at (x , y ) to any of the curves with which we
shall deal in this book.

153. Points of intersection, in general, of the straight

line
y = mx + c .. ..(1) ,
with the circle x² + y² = a². . ( 2).

Ir

IV

The coordinates of the points in which the straight line

(1) meets ( 2) satisfy both equations ( 1) and (2).
If therefore we solve them as simultaneous equations
we shall obtain the coordinates of the common point or
points.
Substituting for y from ( 1 ) in (2 ) , the abscisse of the
required points are given by the equation
x² + (mx + c)² = a³,
i.e.
x² (1 + m²) + 2mcx + c² ---
— a² = 0 (3).
The roots of this equation are, by Art. 1 , real, coinci-
dent,
or imaginary, according as
(2mc)³ — 4 (1 + m³) (c² -- a²) is positive, zero, or negative,
i.e, according as

a² (1 + m³) — c² is positive, zero, or negative,

i.e. according as
c² is < = or > a² ( 1 + m²) .
In the figure the lines marked I, II, and III are all
parallel, i.e. their equations all have the same " m."
L.
130 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

The straight line I corresponds to a value of c² which

is < a² (1 + m²) and it meets the circle in two real points.
The straight line III which corresponds to a value of c²,
> a² (1 + m²), does not meet the circle at all, or rather, as in
Art. 108, this is better expressed by saying that it meets
the circle in imaginary points.
The straight line II corresponds to a value of c², which
is equal to a² ( 1 + m²), and meets the curve in two coincident
points, i. e. is a tangent.

154. We can now obtain the length of the chord inter-

cepted by the circle on the straight line (1 ). For, if x, and
xbe the roots of the equation (3), we have
2mc c² - a²
x1 + x2 and xx2 =
1 + m²' 1+ m² *
Hence
2
X₁ ---
− X₂ = √ (x₁ + X2)² — 4XX½ 1+ m² √m²c² — (c² — a³) ( 1 + m²)
2
1 + m² √a
√a²² (1 + m²) —
— c².
If yı and Y2 be the ordinates of Q and R we have, since
these points are on (1 ),
Y₁ - Y₂ = (mx + c) − (mx² + c) = m (x, -
− x₂).
Hence

QR = √(y₁ — Y2)² + (x1 − x₂)² = √1 + m² (x, -

− x)
=2 α ² ( 1 + m³) - c²
√a² 1 + m²
In a similar manner we can consider the points of inter-
section of the straight line y = mx + k with the circle
x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.

155. The straight line

y = mx + a√1 + m²
is always a tangent to the circle
x² + y² = a².
 EQUATION TO ANY TANGENT. 131

As in Art. 153 the straight line

= mx + C
y=
meets the circle in two points which are coincident if

c = a√1 + m².
But if a straight line meets the circle in two points
which are indefinitely close to one another then, by Art.
149, it is a tangent to the circle.
The straight line y = mx + c is therefore a tangent to the
circle if

c = a√1 + m²,
i.e. the equation to any tangent to the circle is
y = mx + a√1 + m² ........... (1 ).
Since the radical on the right hand may have the + or
sign prefixed we see that corresponding to any value of m
there are two tangents. They are marked II and IV in
the figure of Art. 153.

156. The above result may also be deduced from the equation
(3) of Art. 150, which may be written
x' a2
y= x+ . (1) .
y'
Put =m, so that x' = - my' , and the relation x^2 + y ^2 = a² gives
a
y'² (m² + 1) = a² , i.e. 1 + m².
The equation (1) then becomes
y= mx + a /1 +m².
This is therefore the tangent at the point whose coordinates are
-ma a
and
√1+m² 1 + m²°
157. If we assume that a tangent to a circle is always perpen-
dicular to the radius vector to the point of contact, the result of
Art. 155 may be obtained in another manner.
For a tangent is a line whose perpendicular distance from the
centre is equal to the radius.
-2
132 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The straight line y = mx + c will therefore touch the circle if the

perpendicular on it from the origin be equal to a , i.e. if
C
= a,
√1+m²
i, e, if N + m².
c= a√√√1
This method is not however applicable to any other curve besides the
circle.
158. Ex. Find the equations to the tangents to the circle
x² + y² - 6x + 4y = 12
which are parallel to the straight line
4x + 3y + 5 = 0.
Any straight line parallel to the given one is
4x + 3y + C = 0......... .(1).
The equation to the circle is
(x - 3)² + (y + 2)²= 5².
The straight line (1) , if it be a tangent, must be therefore such
that its distance from the point ( 3, -2) is equal to ± 5.
12-6 +C
Hence == ± 5 , (Art. 75),
√42+32
so tha t C = 6 + 25 = 19 or - 31,
The required tangents are therefore
4x + 3y + 19 = 0 and 4x + 3y - 31 = 0.

159. Normal. Def. The normal at any point P of

a curve is the straight line which passes through P and is
perpendicular to the tangent at P.
To find the equation to the normal at the point (x', y') of
(1) the circle
x² + y² = a²,
and (2) the circle
x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
(1) The tangent at (x', y') is
xx' + yy' = a²,
x' a²
i.e. y
''
y
 THE NORMAL TO THE CIRCLE. 133

The equation to the straight line passing through (x', y')

perpendicular to this tangent is
y-
— y' = m (x — x'),

where mx =- 1, (Art. 69),

一部
( )

i.e. m= .
Ꮳ

The required equation is therefore

y — y' = 2 — x')
, (x −

i.e. x'y - xy' = 0.

This straight line passes through the centre of the circle
which is the point (0, 0).
If we assume Euclid's propositions the equation is at once
written down, since the normal is the straight line joining
(0, 0) to (x' , y').
(2) The equation to the tangent at (a', y') to the circle
x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c - 0
x² + g gx' +fy + c
is y (Art. 151. )
y' +f ý tổ
The equation to the straight line, passing through the
point (x , y ) and perpendicular to this tangent, is
y—- y' = m (x − x′) ,

where g =
m x 1, (Art. 69),
(y' +4
+f)

i.e. m=
x² + g
The equation to the normal is therefore
y' +f
y - y' = x² + g (x − x'),
i.e. - gy' = 0.
y (x' + g) — x (y' + ƒ) + ƒx' —
134 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. XVIII.

Write down the equation of the tangent to the circle

1. x² + y² - 3x + 10y = 15 at the point (4, -11).
2. 4x² + 4y2-16x + 24y = 117 at the point ( -4, -1).
Find the equations to the tangents to the circle
3. x² + y² = 4 which are parallel to the line x + 2y + 3 = 0.
4. x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 which are parallel to the line
x+2y - 6= 0.
5. Prove that the straight line y = x + c /2 touches the circle
x² +y² = c², and find its point of contact.
6. Find the condition that the straight line cx - by + b² =0 may
touch the circle x² +y² = ax + by and find the point of contact.
7. Find whether the straight line x + y = 2 + √√2 touches the circle
x² + y² - 2x - 2y + 1 = 0.
8. Find the condition that the straight line 3x + 4y = k may
touch the circle x² + y² = 10x.
9. Find the value of p so that the straight line
x cos a +y sin a - p = 0
may touch the circle
x² +y2-2ax cos a - 2by sin a- a² sin² a = 0.
10. Find the condition that the straight line Ax + By + C = 0 may
touch the circle
(x - a)² + (y - b)² = c².
11. Find the equation to the tangent to the circle x² + y² = a²
which
(i) is parallel to the straight line y = mx + c,
(ii) is perpendicular to the straight line y = mx + c,
(iii) passes through the point (b, 0),
and (iv) makes with the axes a triangle whose area is a².
12. Find the length of the chord joining the points in which the
straight line
XC y
=1
a b
meets the circle x² + y² = r².
13. Find the equation to the circles which pass through the origin
and cut off equal chords a from the straight lines y = x and y =
= -x.
[Exs. XVIII .] EXAMPLES. 135

14. Find the equation to the straight lines joining the origin to
the points in which the straight line y = mx + c cuts the circle
x² +y2 = 2ax +2by.
Hence find the condition that these points may subtend a right
angle at the origin.
Find also the condition that the straight line may touch the
circle.
Find the equation to the circle which
15. has its centre at the point (3, 4) and touches the straight line
5x +12y = 1 .
16. touches the axes of coordinates and also the line
x y
a + 2/2 = 1,
the centre being in the positive quadrant.
17. has its centre at the point (1, 3) and touches the straight
line 2x- y - 4 =0.
18. Find the general equation of a circle referred to two perpen-
dicular tangents as axes.
19. Find the equation to a circle of radius r which touches the
axis of y at a point distant h from the origin, the centre of the circle
being in the positive quadrant.
Prove also that the equation to the other tangent which passes
through the origin is
(r2 - h²) x + 2rhy = 0.
20. Find the equation to the circle whose centre is at the point
(a, ß) and which passes through the origin, and prove that the
equation of the tangent at the origin is
ax + By = 0.
21. Two circles are drawn through the points (a, 5a ) and (4a, a)
to touch the axis of y. Prove that they intersect at an angle tan-140 .
22. A circle passes through the points ( -1, 1), (0, 6) , and (5, 5).
Find the points on this circle the tangents at which are parallel to the
straight line joining the origin to its centre.

160. To shew that from any point there can be drawn

two tangents, real or imaginary, to a circle.
Let the equation to the circle be a² + y² = a², and let the
given point be (x , y ) . [ Fig. Art. 161 .
The equation to any tangent is, by Art. 155,
y == mx + a√1 + m².
136 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

If this pass through the given point (x , y ) we have

Y₁ = mx₁ + a√√1 + m².. . (1) .
This is the equation which gives the values of m corre-
sponding to the tangents which pass through (x₁ , y₁).
Now (1) gives
Yı MX1 = a√√1 + m²,
i.e. 2
y₁² — 2mx₁y₁ + m²x₁² = a² + a²m³,
i.e. m² (x¸² — a²) -— 2mx₁ÿ₁ + y₁² — a² = 0 (2).
The equation (2) is a quadratic equation and gives
therefore two values of m (real, coincident, or imaginary)
corresponding to any given values of x, and y . For each
of these values of m we have a corresponding tangent.
The roots of (2) are, by Art. 1 , real, coincident or
imaginary according as
(2x₁₁)² — 4 (x¸² — a²) (y₁² -— a²) is positive, zero, or negative,
i.e. according as
2
a² (— a² + x² + y ) is positive, zero, or negative,
2
i.e. according as x² + y²² a².
2
If x² + y² > a², the distance of the point (x , y₁) from
the centre is greater than the radius and hence it lies outside
the circle.
2
If x² + y₁² = a², the point (x , y ) lies on the circle and
the two coincident tangents become the tangent at (x , y₁).
If x² + y² < a², the point (x , y₁) lies within the circle,
and no tangents can then be geometrically drawn to the
circle. It is however better to say that the tangents are
imaginary.

161. Chord of Contact. Def. If from any point

T without a circle two tangents TP and TQ be drawn to
the circle, the straight line PQ joining the points of
contact is called the chord of contact of tangents from T.
To find the equation of the chord of contact of tangents
drawn to the circle x² + y² = a² from the external point
(x , y₁).
 POLE AND POLAR. 137

Let T be the point (x , y ), and P and Q the points

(x, y ) and (x", y') respectively.
The tangent at P is
Pi(x,y)
x'y
xx' + yy' = a² ......... (1 ),
T(x, y )
and that at Q is
Q(x,y")
xx'' + yy″ = a² ....... (2) . X
Since these tangents pass through
T, its coordinates (x , y ) must satisfy
both (1) and (2).
Hence . (3) ,
XX' + yy = @
and = . (4).
The equation to PQ is then
XX₁ + yy₁ = a² . (5).
For, since (3) is true, it follows that the point (x, y ),
i.e. P, lies on (5).
Also, since (4) is true, it follows that the point (x", y″ ),
i.e. Q, lies on (5).
Hence both P and Q lie on the straight line (5 ), i.e.
(5) is the equation to the required chord of contact.
If the point (x , y ) lie within the circle the argument
of the preceding article will shew that the line joining the
(imaginary) points of contact of the two (imaginary)
tangents drawn from (x , y ) is xx₁ + yy₁ = a².
We thus see, since this line is always real, that we may
have a real straight line joining the imaginary points of
contact of two imaginary tangents.

162. Pole and Polar. Def. If through a point

P(within or without a circle) there be drawn any straight
line to meet the circle in Q and R, the locus of the point of
intersection of the tangents at Q and R is called the polar
of P; also P is called the pole of the polar.
In the next article the locus will be proved to be a
straight line.
138 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

163 . To find the equation to the polar of the point

(x1 , y₁) with respect to the circle x² + y² = a².

T
P(-x +31)

(xx) R R
T
R' X
X
'R'

Let QR be any chord drawn through P and let the

tangents at Q and R meet in the point 7 whose coordinates
are (h, k).
Hence QR is the chord of contact of tangents drawn
from the point (h, k) and therefore, by Art. 161 , its
equation is xh + yka².
Since this line passes through the point (x , y ) we
have
x₁h + y₁k = a² . (1).
Since the relation ( 1 ) is true it follows that the
variable point (h, k) always lies on the straight line whose
equation is
XX₁ + ÿÿ₁ = a² . . (2) .
Hence (2) is the polar of the point (x₁ , y₁).
In a similar manner it may be proved that the polar of
(x , y ) with respect to the circle
x² + y² + 2gx + 2ƒy + c = 0
is xx₁ + YY₁ + 9 (x + x₁ ) + ƒ(y + y₁) + c = 0.
164. The equation (2) of the preceding article is the
same as equation (5) of Art. 161. If, therefore, the point
(x , y ) be without the circle, as in the right-hand figure,
the polar is the same as the chord of contact of the real
tangents drawn through (x₁ , y₁).
If the point (x , y ) be on the circle, the polar coincides
with the tangent at it. (Art. 150. )
 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION FOR THE POLAR. 139

If the point (x , y ) be within the circle, then, as in

Art. 161, the equation (2) is the line joining the (imaginary)
points of contact of the two (imaginary) tangents that can
be drawn from (x1 , Y1).
We see therefore that the polar might have been
defined as follows :

The polar of a given point is the straight line which

passes through the (real or imaginary) points of contact of
tangents drawn from the given point ; also the pole of any
straight line is the point of intersection of tangents at the
points (real or imaginary) in which this straight line meets
the circle.

165. Geometrical construction for the polar ofa point.

The equation to OP, which is the line joining (0, 0) to
(x1 , y1), is
Ут
y = x,
X1
i.e. xy₁ - x₁y = 0 . (1).

Ľ X
X

Also the polar of P is

xx₁ + YY₁ = a² (2).
By Art. 69, the lines (1 ) and (2) are perpendicular to
one another. Hence OP is perpendicular to the polar
of P.

Also the length OP = √x² + y²,

140 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

and the perpendicular, ON, from 0 upon (2)

a²
=
3
2
√x² +
+ y₁²
Hence the product ON . OP = a².
The polar of any point P is therefore constructed thus :
Join OP and on it (produced if necessary) take a point N
such that the rectangle ON . OP is equal to the square of
the radius of the circle.

Through N draw the straight line LL

' perpendicular to
OP; this is the polar required.
[It will be noted that the middle point N of any chord LL' lies on
the line joining the centre to the pole of the chord.]

166. To find the pole of a given line with respect to

any circle.
Let the equation to the given line be
Ax + By + C = 0 ..... (1).
(1) Let the equation to the circle be
x² + y² = a³,
and let the required pole be (x1 , Y1).
Then ( 1) must be the equation to the polar of (x , y ),
i.e. it is the same as the equation
xx₁ + YY₁— a² = 0 (2).
Comparing equations ( 1 ) and (2), we have
X1 Y1 - a²
=
A B C ,
A B
so that X1 = --- a² and yi a².
C C
The required pole is therefore the point
A B
--
(- — ^a³, -2 C
, a³) .
(2) Let the equation to the circle be
x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
 POLE AND POLAR. 141

If (x , y ) be the required pole, then ( 1 ) must be

equivalent to the equation
xx₁₂ + yY₂ + g (x + x₁) + ƒ (y + y₁ ) + c = 0, (Art. 163),
i.e. x(x, + g) + y (y₁ +ƒ) + gx₁ + ƒ¥₁ + c = 0 ...... (3).
Comparing ( 1 ) with (3), we therefore have

+f__ gx₁ +ƒ¥₁ + c

_ Y₁ +ƒ_
x₁ + g -
A B C
By solving these equations we have the values of x₁
and Y1.

Ex. Find the pole of the straight line

9x +y - 28 = 0 ..... (1)
with respect to the circle
2x² +2y2-3x + 5y - 70 ........ …………….. (2).
If (x , y ) be the required point the line (1) must coincide with the
polar of (x , y ), whose equation is
2xx +2yy₁- (x + x₁) + (y + y₁) -7 = 0,
i.e. x (4x - 3) + y (4y₁ + 5) -
− 3x₁ + 5у₁ – 14 = 0 ……………………. . (3) .
Since (1) and (3) are the same, we have
4x - 3_4y
- + 5 = -3x + 5y₁ - 14
9 - 28
Hence x₁ = 9y₁ + 12,
and 3x - 117y₁ = 126.
Solving these equations we have x₁ = 3 and y₁ = −1 , so that the
required point is (3, − 1).

167. If the polar of a point P pass through a point T,

then the polar of T passes through P.
Let P and T be the points (x , y ) and (x , y ) re-
spectively. (Fig. Art. 163.)
The polar of (x , y ) with respect to the circle
x² + y² = a² is
xx₁ + YY₁ = a².
This straight line passes through the point T if
X₂X₁ + Y₂Y₁ = a² ..(1).
142 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Since the relation ( 1 ) is true it follows that the point

(x , y ), i.e. P, lies on the straight line xx₂ + yy₂ = a², which
is the polar of (x2 , y2), i.e. T, with respect to the circle.
Hence the proposition .
Cor. The intersection, T, of the polars of two points,
P and Q, is the pole of the line PQ.
168. To find the length of the tangent that can be
drawn from the point (x , y ) to the circles
(1) x² + y² = a²,
and (2) = 0.
x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c =
If I be an external point ( Fig. Art. 163), TQ a tangent
and the centre of the circle, then TQO is a right angle
and hence
TQOTOQ².
(1 ) If the equation to the circle be x² + y² = a², O is the
origin, 07² = x² + y², and OQ² = a².
Hence TQ = x + 3 -- —0.
(2) Let the equation to the circle be
x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
i.e. -
(x + g)² + (y +f)² = g² +ƒ³ — c.
In this case is the point ( g, - −ƒ) and
OQ² = (radius)² = g² +ƒ² — c.
Hence OT² = [x, 1
− (−g)] ² + [y₁ -
− (−ƒ)]² (Art. 20).
= (x₁ + g)² + (y₁ +ƒ)².
Therefore - (g² +ƒ² — c)
TQ2 = (x₁ + g)² + (Y₁ + ƒ)² —
= x² + y² + 2gx₁ + 2fy₁ + c.
In each case we see that (the equation to the circle
being written so that the coefficients of ² and y² are each
unity) the square of the length of the tangent drawn to the
circle from the point (x , y ) is obtained by substituting
and y, for the current coordinates in the left-hand member
of the equation to the circle.

* 169 . To find the equation to the pair of tangents that

can be drawn from the point (x , y₁ ) to the circle x² + y² = a³.
 PAIR OF TANGENTS FROM ANY POINT. 143

Let (h, k) be any point on either of the tangents from

(X , Y₁) .
Since any straight line touches a circle if the perpen-
dicular on it from the centre is equal to the radius, the
perpendicular from the origin upon the line joining (x , y )
to (h, k) must be equal to a.
The equation to the straight line joining these two
points is
k -yi
y- y1 = h - X₁ (x − x₁),
i.e.
y (h — x₁) — x (k — y₁) + kx¸ — hy₁ = 0 .
Hence kx₁ - hy
- - 2 = α,
√(h − x₁)² + (k − y₁)³
so that
(kx,̧ — hy¸)² = a² [ (h — x₁)² + (k − y₁ )³].
Therefore the point (h, k) always lies on the locus
(x¸y — xy₁)² = a² [ (x -
− x¸) ² + (y -— y₁ )²] ………………….
........ ( 1 ).
This therefore is the required equation.

The equation (1) may be written in the form

x² (y² —a²) + y² (x‚¸² — a²) — a² (x² + y²)
== 2xуx₁y₁ — 2α²xx₁ -— 2а²yy₁,
-
i.e. (x² + y² — a²) (x₂² + y²² — a²) = x²x² + y²y,² + aª + 2xyx¸Y₁
-2α²xx - 2α²yy₁ = (xx₁₂ + yy₁ - α²)² ........ (2).
*170. In a later chapter we shall obtain the equation to the pair
of equa
of tangents
tothat totiany curve
on (2) of thof the
e pr second
evio degree in a form analogous
us article.
Similarly the equati to the pair of tang
drawn from (x , y ) to th on ents that can be
e circle

(x −ƒ)² + (y - g)² = a²
is {(x-ƒ)²+ (y -
− g)² - a²} { (≈₁ − ƒ)² + (Y₂ − 9)² — a²}
- + (y -− g) (y₁ -− g) -
= { (x−ƒ) (x, −ƒ) − a²²...... (1).
If the equation to the circle be given in the form
theequation to the tangx² +y²i+ 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
ents s , similarly ,
(x²+y² +2gx + 2ƒy + c) (x¸² + y₁² + 2gx¸ + 2ƒ¥₁1 + c)
= [xx₂ + yy₂ + g (x + x₁) +ƒ (y + y₁ ) + c]² ………….. (2).
144 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. XIX.

Find the polar of the point

1. (1 , 2) with respect to the circle x² + y² = 7.
2. (4, -1) with respect to the circle 2x² + 2y² = 11.
3. (-2, 3) with respect to the circle
x² +y² - 4x - 6y + 5 = 0.
4. (5, - 1) with respect to the circle
3x² +3y² - 7x + 8y - 9 = 0.
5. (a , b) with respect to the circle
x² +y² +2ax - 2by + a² — b² = 0.
Find the pole of the straight line
6. x + 2y = 1 with respect to the circle x² +y² = 5.
7. 2x - y = 6 with respect to the circle 5x² + 5y² = 9 .
8. 2x +y + 12 = 0 with respect to the circle
x² +y2-4x + 3y - 1 = 0.
9. 48x - 54y + 53 = 0 with respect to the circle
3x² + 3y² + 5x - 7y + 2 = 0.
10. ax + by + 3a² + 3b² = 0 with respect to the circle
x² +y² + 2ax + 2by = a² + b².
11. Tangents are drawn to the circle x² +y2 = 12 at the points
where it is met by the circle x² + y² − 5x + 3y - 2 = 0 ; find the point of
intersection of these tangents.
12. Find the equation to that chord of the circle x² + y² = 81 which
is bisected at the point ( −2, 3) , and its pole with respect to the circle.
13. Prove that the polars of the point (1, 2) with respect to the
circles whose equations are
x² + y² + by + 5 = 0 and x² + y² + 2x + 8y + 5 = 0
coincide ; prove also that there is another point the polars of which
with respect to these circles are the same and find its coordinates.
14. Find the condition that the chord of contact of tangents from
the point (x', y') to the circle x² +y² = a² should subtend a right angle
at the centre.
15. Prove that the distances of two points, P and Q, each from
the polar of the other with respect to a circle, are to one another
inversely as the distances of the points from the centre of the circle.
16. Prove that the polar of a given point with respect to any one
of the circles x² + y² - 2kx + c² = 0, where k is variable, always passes
through a fixed point, whatever be the value of k.
[Exs. XIX.]
POLAR EQUAT C 145
ION TO THE IRCLE .
17. Tangents are dra
2 +ya ; p wn from the point (h, k) to the circle
and the strairghotvelintehajtoitnhe atrheeair opfoithe torfiacnognle forismed by them
ing nts tact

a(h² +k² – a²) ³

k²
Find the lengths of the tan h² + dra
gents wn
18. tothe circle 2x² + 2y² = 3 from the point ( − 2, 3).

19. to the circle 3x² + 3y²- 7x - 6y = 12 from the point (6, – 7).
20. to the circle x² + y² + 2bx -
– 36² = 0 from the point
(a +b, a − b).
21. Given the three circles
x² +y² - 16x + 60 = 0,
3x² + 3y² -
– 36x + 81 = 0,
and
x² + y² - 16x - 12y + 84 = 0 ,
find (1)
length, and (2) this lengthwhich
the point from the tangents to them are equal in
.
22. T2λhe distances from the origin of the centres of three circles
x² + y²- x= c² (whe c is a constant and a variable ) are in
geom etricalprogre re ; p that the lengths of the tangents drawn
ss io n r o v e
to themfrom any point on the circle x² +y2 =c2 are also in geometr
progressio ical
n.

23. Find the equation to the pair of tangents drawn

(1) from the point (11, 3 ) to the circle x² + y² = 65,
(2) from the point ( 4, 5) to the circle
2x² +2y2-8x + 12y + 21 = 0.

171. To find the general equation of a circle referred

to polar coordinates.
Let and
centre origin,
O be athethe or pole,
radius of theOX the initial line, C the
circle.

be Let the a,polar

R and coordinates
so that OC = R of C
and
LXOC = a.

Let a radius vector through O

at an
angle with the initial line
cut the circle in P and Q. Let X
OP, or OQ, be r.
L. 10
146 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Then (Trig. Art. 164 ) we have

CP2 = OC² + OP² - 20C . OP cos COP,
i.e. a² = R² + r² − 2 Rr cos (0 -— a),
i.e. r² – 2Rr cos (0 -— a) + R² — a² = 0 ……………………………. ( 1 ).
This is the required polar equation.

172. Particular cases of the general equation in polar coordinates.

(1) Let the initial line be taken to go through the centre C. Then
a=0, and the equation becomes
r² - 2Rr cos 0 + R² -
— a² = 0.
(2) Let the pole O be taken on the circle, so that
R = 0C =a.
The general equation then becomes
72-2ar cos (0 − a) = 0,
i.e. r=2a cos (0 - a).
(3) Let the pole be on the circle and also let the initial line pass
through the centre of the circle. In this case
a=0, and R = a.
The general equation reduces then to the
simple form r= 2a cos 0.
This is at once evident from the figure. C
2a
For, if OCA be a diameter, we have
OP =OA cos 0,
i.e. r=2a cos 0.

173. The equation (1 ) of Art. 171 is a quadratic

equation which, for any given value of 0, gives two
values of r. These two values in the figure are OP and
OQ.
If these two values be called r₁ and r₂ , we have, from
equation (1),
r₁₂ = product of the roots = R² — a²,
i.e. OP . OQ = R² - a².
The value of the rectangle OP . OQ is therefore the
same for all values of 0. It follows that if we drew any
other line through O to cut the circle in P₁ and Q₁ we
should have OP . OQ = OP,. OQ1.
This is Euc. III. 36, Cor.
 POLAR EQUATION TO THE TANGENT. 147

174. Find the equation to the chord joining the points on the circle
r=2a cos 0 whose vectorial angles are 01 and 02 , and deduce the equation
to the tangent at the point 01 .
The equation to any straight line in polar coordinates is (Art. 88)
p=r cos (0 - a) ......... (1).
If this pass through the points (2a cos 01 , 01) and ( 2a sin 0 , 0 ), we
have
2a cos 0₁ cos (01 - a) =p = 2a cos 02 cos (02 - a) ......... (2).
Hence cos (20₁- a) + cos a = cos (20, −- a) + cos a,
i.e. 201 - a = - (20₂- a),
since 0 and 2 are not, in general, equal.
Hence a = 01 + 0₂,
and then, from (2) , p = 2a cos 0₁ cos 02.
On substitution in (1) , the equation to the required chord is
r cos (0-01-02) = 2a cos 0₁ cos 0, ........ ....... (3) .
The equation to the tangent at the point 0, is found, as in
Art. 150, by putting 0 = 0, in equation (3).
We thus obtain as the equation to the tangent
rcos (0-20 ) = 2a cos² 0₁ .
As in the foregoing article it could be shewn that the equation to
the chord joining the points 0, and 2 on the circle r = 2a cos (0 - y) is
rcos [0-01-02 + y] = 2a cos (01 − y) cos (0, − y)
and hence that the equation to the tangent at the point 0, is
rcos (0 - 20₁ + y) = 2a cos² (0₂ −7).

EXAMPLES. XX.

1. Find the coordinates of the centre of the circle

rA cos 0+B sin 0.
2. Find the polar equation of a circle, the initial line being a
tangent. What does it become if the origin be on the circumference ?
3. Draw the loci
(1) r= a ; (2) r = a sin 0 ; (3) r = a cos 0 ; (4) r = a sec 0 ;
(5) r = a cos (0 -
− a) ; (6) r = a sec (0 − a).
4. Prove that the equations r= a cos (0 - a) and r = b sin (0 − a)
represent two circles which cut at right angles.
5. Prove that the equation r² cos 0 -ar cos 20-2a2 cos 0 = 0
represents a straight line and a circle.
10-2
148 COORDINATE GEOMETRY . [Exs. XX.]

6. Find the polar equation to the circle described on the straight

line joining the points (a, a) and (b, ẞ) as diameter.
7. Prove that the equation to the circle described on the straight
line joining the points (1, 60°) and (2 , 30°) as diameter is
r² − r [cos (0 – 60°) + 2 cos ( 0 − 30°)] + √3 = 0.
8. Find the condition that the straight line
1
= a cos 0 + b sin
r
may touch the circle r=2c cos 0.

175. Tofind the general equation to a circle referred to

oblique axes which meet at an angle w.
Let C be the centre and a the radius of the circle. Let
the coordinates of C be (h, k) so
that if CM, drawn parallel to the
axis of y, meets OX in M, then
OM = h and MC = k.
Let P be any point on the
circle whose coordinates are x and
y. Draw PN, the ordinate of P,
and CL parallel to OX to meet MN X
PN in L.
Then CL = MN = ON - OM = x - h,
and LP = NP - NL = NP - MC = y --
− k.
Also CLP : L ONP = 180° -- LPNX = 180° - w.
Hence, since CL2 + LP2-2CL . LP cos CLP = a²,

we have (x − h)² + (y − k) ² + 2 (x − h) (y -
– k) cosw = a²,
i.e. x² + y² + 2xy cos w 2x (h + k cos w) - 2y (k + h cos w)
+ h² + k² + 2hk cos w = a².
The required equation is therefore found.

176. As in Art. 142 it may be shewn that the

equation
x² + 2xy cos w + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
represents a circle and its radius and centre found.
 OBLIQUE COORDINATES. 149

Ex . Ifthe axes be inclined at 60° , prove that the equation

x² +xy + y² - 4x - 5y - 2 = 0 (1)
represents a circle and find its centre and radius.
If w be equal to 60°, so that cos w = , the equation of Art. 175
becomes
x² +xy + y² − x (2h +k) −- y (2k + h) + h² + k² + hk = a² .
This equation agrees with (1) if
2h + k = 4 ... . (2) ,
2k + h = 5.. .(3),
and h2 + k² + hka22.. ..(4).
Solving (2) and (3) , we have h = 1 and k = 2. Equation (4) then
gives
a² = h² + k² + hk + 2 = 9 ,
so that a =3.
The equation (1) therefore represents a circle whose centre is the
point (1, 2) and whose radius is 3, the axes being inclined at 60°.

EXAMPLES. XXI.
Find the inclinations of the axes so that the following equations
may represent circles, and in each case find the radius and centre ;
1. x² - xy + y² - 2gx – 2ƒy = 0.
2. x²+ √3xy + y² - 4x - 6y + 5 = 0.
3. The axes being inclined at an angle w, find the centre and
radius ofthe circle
x² +2xy cos w + y² - 2gx - 2fy = 0.
4. The axes being inclined at 45°, find the equation to the circle
whose centre is the point (2, 3) and whose radius is 4.
5. The axes being inclined at 60°, find the equation to the circle
whose centre is the point ( -3, 5) and whose radius is 6.
6. Prove that the equation to a circle whose radius is a and
which touches the axes of coordinates, which are inclined at an angle
w, is
W W
x² +2xy cos w + y² -− 2a (x + y) cot 2☎ + a² cot². -0.

7. Prove that the straight line y = mx will touch the circle

x² +2xy cos w + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
if
(g +fm)² = c (1 + 2m cos w + m²) .
8. The axes being inclined at an angle w, find the equation to the
circle whose diameter is the straight line joining the points
(x', y') and (x", y' ) .
150 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

Coordinates of a point on a circle expressed in

terms of one single variable.

177. If, in the figure of Art. 139, we put the angle

MOP equal to a, the coordinates of the point P are easily
seen to be a cos a and a sin a.
These equations clearly satisfy equation ( 1 ) of that
article.
The position of the point P is therefore known when
the value of a is given, and it may be, for brevity, called
"the point a."
With the ordinary Cartesian coordinates we have to
give the values of two separate quantities x' and y' (which
-
are however connected by the relation x' = √a² — y'²) to
express the position of a point P on the circle. The
above substitution therefore often simplifies solutions of
problems.
178. To find the equation to the straight line joining
two points, a and B, on the circle x² + y² = a².
Let the points be P and Q, and let ON be the perpen-
dicular from the origin on the straight line PQ ; then ON
bisects the angle POQ, and hence
L XON = ( ≤ XOP + ≤ XOQ) = } (a + B).
Also ON -OP cos NOP = a cos a- B.
2
The equation to PQ is therefore (Art. 53),
a + B = a cos a -- β
x cos α + β + y sin
2 2 2
=
If we put ẞa we have, as the equation to the tangent
at the point a,
x cos a + y sin a = a.
This may also be deduced from the equation of Art. 150
by putting x' = a cosa and y' = a sin a.

179. If the equation to the circle be in the more

general form
(xh)² + (y - k)² = a³, (Art. 140),
 THE CIRCLE. ONE VARIABLE. 151

we may express the coordinates of P in the form

(h + a cosa, k + a sin a).

For these values satisfy the above equation.
Here a is the angle LCP [ Fig. Art. 140] .
The equation to the straight line joining the points a and
ẞ can be easily shewn to be
a+ß a+ß α β
-
(x− h) cos 2 + (y — k) sin 2 = a cos

and so the tangent at the point a is

―
(x − h) cos a + (y — k) sin a = a.

* 180. Ex. Find the four common tangents to the two circles
5x² + 5y² - 22x + 4y + 20= 0,
and 5x² +5y² + 22x - 4y - 20 = 0.
The equations may be written
(x- 1)²+ (y + 3)² = 12,
and (x+ 1)² + (y - 3)² =32.
Any point on the first circle is ( 1 +cos 0, - + sin 0).
Any point on the second is ( +3 cos 4, +3 sin 4).
The equations to the tangents at these points are by the last
article
(x - 1)cos 0+ (y + z) sin 0 = 1 ......... (1),
and (x + ¹¹) cos + (y - − 3) sin p = 3 .................. (2 ).
These tangents coincide, in which case we have the common
tangents, if
cos e sin --11 cos 0 + 2 sin 0-5
= = (3).
cos o sin 11 cos 4-2 sin - 15
From the first pair of these equations we have 0 or 40 + 180°.
Ifp=0, the second pair gives
- 11 cos 0 + 2 sin 0-5
1=3
11 cos 0-2 sin 0-15 '
i.e. 11 cos 0-2 sin 0 = 5 ....... .(4),
i.e.
11-2 tan 0 = 5√√1 + tan² 0.
On solving, we have tan 0 = or - 24.
152 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Corresponding to tane we have the values sin 0 = , cos 0 = {

which satisfy (4) ; we have also the values sin 0 = - and cos 0 = - },
which do not satisfy it.
Corresponding to tan 0 = -2 , the values which satisfy (4) are
sin 0:- - and cos 0 = 6.
If = 180° + 0, the second pair of equations (3) give
-5
- 1= - 11 cos 0 + 2 sin 0
-- 11 cos 0 + 2 sin 0 - 15 '
i.e. 11 cos 0-2 sin 0 - -.10...... (5).
This gives (11-2 tan 0)² = 100 (1 + tan20) ,
so that tan 0 = - or 4.
The corresponding values which satisfy (5) are found to be
sin 0 , cos 0:= - and sin 0 = - , cos 0 = -11.
The solutions of (3) are therefore
sin 0 , -2 , %, and -2 ;
cos 0= , 2 , - , and -14.
On substituting these values in equation (1), the common tangents
are found to be
3x + 4y = 10, 7x - 24y = 50,
4x - 3y = 5, and 24x + 7y = 25.

181. We shall conclude this chapter with some mis-

cellaneous examples on loci.

Ex. 1. Find the locus of a point P which moves so that its distance
from a given point O is always in a given ratio (n : 1) to its distance
from another given point A.
Take O as origin and the direction of OA as the axis of x. Let
the distance OA be a, so that A is the point (a, 0).
If (x, y) be the coordinates of any position of P we have
OP²= n² . AP²,
i.e. x² +y2 = n² [(x - a)² + y²],
i.e. (x² + y²) (n² - 1 ) - 2an²x + n²a² = 0 ........ .(1).
Hence, by Art. 143, the locus of P is a circle.
Let this circle meet the axis of x in the points C and D. Then OC
and OD are the roots of the equation obtained by putting y equal to
zero in (1).
na na
Hence OC= and OD=
n+ 1 N--1°
 THE CIRCLE. EXAMPLES. 153

We therefore have
a a
CA= and AD =
n+1 n--1'
ос OD
Hence = = n.
CA AD
The points C and D therefore divide the line OA in the given ratio,
and the required circle is on CD as diameter.
Ex. 2. From any point on one given circle tangents are drawn to
another given circle ; prove that the locus of the middle point of the
chord of contact is a third circle.
Take the centre of the first circle as origin and let the axis of x
pass through the centre of the second circle. Their equations are
then
x²+y2 = a2 (1),
and (x − c)² + y² = b² (2),
where a and b are the radii, and c the distance between the centres, of
the circles.
Any point on (1) is (a cos 0, a sin e) where 0 is variable. Its chord
of contact with respect to (2) is
(x- c) (a cos 0- c) + ya sin 0 = b² ... (3).
The middle point of this chord of contact is the point where it is
met by the perpendicular from the centre, viz. the point (c, 0).
The equation to this perpendicular is (Art. 70)
− (x − c) a sin 0+ (a cos 0 -
- − c) y = 0 ....... (4).
Any equation deduced from ( 3) and (4) is satisfied by the coordi-
nates of the point under consideration. If we eliminate @ from them,
we shall have an equation always satisfied bythe coordinates of the
point, whatever be the value of 0. The result will thus be the equation
to the required locus.
Solving (3) and (4), we have
a sin 0 = b2y
y² +(x - c)2'
and a cos e c = b2 (x - c)
y² +(x - c)2'
so that b2 (x- c)
a cos 0 = c +
y² + (x − c)² °
Hence
X-C 74
a² =a2 cos20 + a2 sin² 0 = c² + 2cb2 +
y² + (x −- c)² + y² + (x − c)² °
The required locus is therefore
(a2 - c²) [y² + (x - c)2] = 2cb2 (x - c) + bª.
This is a circle and its centre and radius are easily found.
154 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Ex. 3. Find the locus of a point P which is such that its polar with
respect to one circle touches a second circle.
Taking the notation of the last article, the equations to the two
circles are
x² +y²= a² (1),
and (x − c)2 + y2 = b2 (2).
Let (h, k) be the coordinates of any position of P. Its polar with
respect to (1 ) is
xh +yk = a2 (3).
Also any tangent to (2) has its equation of the form (Art. 179)
(x - c) cos 0+ y sin 0 =b (4).
If then (3) be a tangent to (2) it must be of the form (4).
cos @ sin 0 ccos 0 +b
Therefore
h k a2
These equations give
- ch) = bk.
cos (a2 - ch) = bh, and sin 0 (a² –
Squaring and adding, we have
(a² — ch)² = b² (h² + k²) (5).
The locus of the point (h, k) is therefore the curve
b² (x² + y²) = (a² − cx)².

Aliter. The condition that (3) may touch (2) may be otherwise
found.
For, as in Art. 153, the straight line (3) meets the circle (2) in the
points whose abscissæ are given by the equation
k² (x − c)² + (a² -– hx)² = b²k²,
i.e. x² (h² + k²) - 2x (ck² + a²h) + (k²c² + aª — b²k²) = 0 .
The line (3) will therefore touch (2) if
(ck² + a³h)² = (h² + k²) (k²c² + a¹ -
— b²k²),
i.e. if b2 (h2 + k²)= (ch - a2)2,
which is equation (5) .

Ex. 4. O is a fixed point and P any point on a given circle ; OP

is joined and on it a point Q is taken so that OP . OQ = a constant
quantity k² ; prove that the locus of Q is a circle which becomes a
straight line when O lies on the original circle.
 THE CIRCLE. EXAMPLES. 155

Let O be taken as pole and the line through the centre C as the
initial line. Let OC = d, and let the
radius of the circle be a.
a
The equation to the circle is then
a² =r² +d² - 2rd cos 0, (Art. 171) , d C
where OP- r and ▲ POC = 0.
Let OQ be p, so that, by the given
k2
condition, we have rp= k² and hence r= -

Substituting this value in the equation to the circle, we have

14 k2 d
a² + d² - 2 cos 0 . (1),
ρά P
sothat the equation to the locus of Qis
k2d k4
7.2-2 rcos 0 = (2).
d2 - a2 d2 - a2
But the equation to a circle, whose radius is a' and whose centre is
on the initial line at a distance d' , is
r2-2rd' cos 0 = a'² -
— d'²... (3).
Comparing (1) and (2) , we see that the required locus is a circle,
such that
k2d k4
d' - and a2 - d'2:
d² - a² d2 - a2*
Hence 1:4 r d² k4a2
a'2 =
d2 - a2 _d² - a² 1] . (d² - a²)
--
k2a
The required locus is therefore a circle, of radius d2 - a2' whose
k2d
centre is on the same line as the original centre at a distance d² - a²
from the fixed point.
When O lies on the original circle the distance d is equal to a, and
the equation (1 ) becomes k2 = 2dr cos e, i.e., in Cartesian coordinates,
k2
x= •
2d
In this case the required locus is a straight line perpendicular
to OC.
When a second curve is obtained from a given curve by the above
geometrical process, the second curve is said to be the inverse of the
first curve and the fixed point O is called the centre of inversion.
The inverse of a circle is therefore a circle or a straight line
according as the centre of inversion is not, or is, on the circumference
of the original circle.
156 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Ex. 5. PQ is a straight line drawn through O, one of the common

points of two circles, and meets them again in P and Q; find the locus of
the point S which bisects the line PQ.
Take O as the origin, let the radii of the two circles be R and R',
and let the lines joining their centres to O make angles a and a' with
the initial line.
The equations to the two circles are therefore, { Art. 172 (2) } ,
r= 2R cos ( 0 - a) , and r = 2R′ cos (0 -
— a').
Hence, if S be the middle point of PQ, we have
20S =OP + OQ = 2R cos (0 - − a) + 2R′ cos (0 -
− a').
The locus of the point S is therefore
r= R cos (0 - a) + R' cos (0 – a')
= (R cos a + R' cos a′) cos 0+ (R sin a + R' sin a') sin
=2R" cos (0 - a") (1),
where 2R" cos a" = R cos a + R' cos a',
and 2R" sin a" = R sin a + R' sin a'.
Hence R" = √R² + R2 + 2RR' cos (a - a') ,
R sin a + R' sin a'
and tan a":=
R cos a + R' cos a''
From (1) the locus of S is a circle, whose radius is R", which
passes through the origin O and is such that the line joining O to its
centre is inclined at an angle a" to the initial line.

EXAMPLES. XXII.

1. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances

from the four sides of a square is constant ; prove that it always lies
on a circle.
2. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of the perpendi-
culars let fall from it on the sides of an equilateral triangle is constant;
prove that its locus is a circle.
3. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances
from the angular points of a triangle is constant ; prove that its locus
is a circle.
4. Find the locus of a point which moves so that the square of
the tangent drawn from it to the circle x² +y2 = a² is equal to c times
its distance from the straight line lx + my + n = 0.
5. Find the locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point is
in a constant ratio to the tangent drawn from it to a given circle.
[Exs. XXII.] EXAMPLES. 157

6. Find the locus of the vertex of a triangle, given ( 1) its base and
the sum of the squares of its sides, (2) its base and the sum of m times
the square of one side and n times the square of the other.
7. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances
from n fixed points is given. Prove that its locus is a circle.
8. Whatever be the value of a, prove that the locus of the inter-
section of the straight lines
x cos a +y sin a = a and x sin a - y cos a = b
is a circle .

9. From a point P on a circle perpendiculars PM and PN are

drawn to two radii of the circle which are not at right angles ; find
the locus of the middle point of MN.
10. Tangents are drawn to a circle from a point which always
lies on a given line ; prove that the locus of the middle point of the
chord of contact is another circle.
11. Find the locus of the middle points of chords of the circle
x² +y² =a² which pass through the fixed point (h, k).
12. Find the locus of the middle points of chords of the circle
x² +y2 =a2 which subtend a right angle at the point (c, 0).
13. O is a fixed point and P any point on a fixed circle ; on OP
is taken a point Q such that OQ is in a constant ratio to OP ; prove
that the locus of Q is a circle.
14. O is a fixed point and P any point on a given straight line ;
OP is joined and on it is taken a point Q such that OP . OQ = k² ;
prove that the locus of Q, i.e. the inverse of the given straight line
with respect to O, is a circle which passes through 0.
15. One vertex of a triangle of given species is fixed, and another
moves along the circumference of a fixed circle ; prove that the locus
ofthe remaining vertex is a circle and find its radius.
16. O is any point in the plane of a circle, and OP₁P₂ any chord
of the circle which passes through O and meets the circle in P, and
P. On this chord is taken a point Q such that OQ is equal to (1) the
arithmetic, (2) the geometric, and (3) the harmonic mean between OP₁
and OP₂ ; in each case find the equation to the locus of Q.
17. Find the locus of the point of intersection of the tangent to
any circle and the perpendicular let fall on this tangent from a fixed
point on the circle.
18. A circle touches the axis of x and cuts off a constant length
21 from the axis of y ; prove that the equation of the locus of its centre
is y² — x² = 1² cosec² w, the axes being inclined at an angle w .
158 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

19. A straight line moves so that the product of the perpendi-

culars on it from two fixed points is constant. Prove that the locus
of the feet of the perpendiculars from each of these points upon the
straight line is a circle, the same for each.
20. O is a fixed point and AP and BQ are two fixed parallel
straight lines ; BOA is perpendicular to both and POQ is a right
angle. Prove that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular drawn
from O upon PQ is the circle on AB as diameter.
21. Two rods , of lengths a and b, slide along the axes, which are
rectangular, in such a manner that their ends are always concyclic ;
prove that the locus of the centre of the circle passing through these
ends is the curve 4 (x² — y²) = a² – b².
22. Shew that the locus of a point, which is such that the
tangents from it to two given concentric circles are inversely as the
radii, is a concentric circle, the square of whose radius is equal to the
sum of the squares of the radii of the given circles.
23. Shew that if the length of the tangent from a point P to the
circle x² +y2 = a2 be four times the length of the tangent from it to the
circle (x - a)2 + y2 =a2, then P lies on the circle
15x2 + 15y2-32ax + a² = 0.
Prove also that these three circles pass through two points and that
the distance between the centres of the first and third circles is
sixteen times the distance between the centres of the second and
third circles.
24. Find the locus of the foot of the perpendicular let fall from
the origin upon any chord of the circle x² + y² + 2gx + 2ƒy + c = 0 which
subtends a right angle at the origin.
Find also the locus of the middle points of these chords.
25. Through a fixed point O are drawn two straight lines OPQ
and ORS to meet the circle in P and Q, and R and S, respectively.
Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of PS and QR, as also
that of the point of intersection of PR and QS, is the polar of ◊ with
respect to the circle.
26. A, B, C, and D are four points in a straight line ; prove that
the locus of a point P, such that the angles APB and CPD are equal,
is a circle .
27. The polar of P with respect to the circle x² + y² = a2 touches
the circle (x - a)² + (y -
− p)² = b² ; prove that its locus is the curve given
by the equation (ax + ẞy — a²)² = b² (x² + y²).
28. A tangent is drawn to the circle (x - − a)² + y² = b² and a perpen-
dicular tangent to the circle (x + a)² + y² = c² ; find the locus of their
point of intersection, and prove that the bisector of the angle between
them always touches one or other of two fixed circles.
XXII.] EXAMPLES. 159

29. In any circle prove that the perpendicular from any point of
it on the line joining the points of contact of two tangents is a mean
proportional between the perpendiculars from the point upon the two
tangents.
30. From any point on the circle
x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
tangents are drawn to the circle
x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c sin² a + (g² +ƒ³) cos² a = 0 ;
prove that the angle between them is 2a.
31. The angular points of a triangle are the points
(a cosa, a sin a) , (a cos ß, a sin ẞ), and (a cosy, a sin y) ;
prove that the coordinates of the orthocentre of the triangle are
a(cos a + cos ẞ + cos y) and a (sin a + sin ẞ +sin y).
Hence prove that if A, B, C, and D be four points on a circle the
orthocentres of the four triangles ABC, BCD, CDA, and DAB lie on
a circle.
32. A variable circle passes through the point of intersection O
ofany two straight lines and cuts off from them portions OP and OQ
such that m . OP +n . OQ is equal to unity ; prove that this circle
always passes through a fixed point.
33. Find the length of the common chord of the circles, whose
equations are (x− a)² + y² = a² and x² + (y - b)² = b², and prove that the
equation to the circle whose diameter is this common chord is
(a² + b²) (x² + y²) = 2ab (bx + ay).
34. Prove that the length of the common chord of the two circles
whose equations are
(x − a)² + (y − b)² = c² and (x - b)² + (y − a)² = c²
is √4c2-2 (a - b)".
Hence find the condition that the two circles may touch.
35. Find the length of the common chord of the circles
x²+y2-2ax - 4ay - 4a² = 0 and x² + y² - 3ax + 4ay = 0.
Find also the equations of the common tangents and shew that
the length of each is 4a.
36. Find the equations to the common tangents of the circles
(1) x² + y² - 2x - 6y + 9 = 0 and x² + y² + 6x - 2y + 1 = 0 ,
(2) x² + y² = c² and (x − a)² + y² = b².
 CHAPTER IX .

SYSTEMS OF CIRCLES.

[ This chapter may be omitted by the student on a first

reading of the subject. ]

182. Orthogonal Circles. Def. Two circles are

said to intersect orthogonally when
the tangents at their points of
intersection are at right angles.
If the two circles intersect at
02
P, the radii 0,P and OP, which
are perpendicular to the tangents
at P, must also be at right angles.
Hence "
0₁₂² = 0₁P² + 0¿P²,
i.e. the square of the distance between the centres must be
equal to the sum of the squares of the radii.
Also the tangent from O, to the other circle is equal to
the radius a,, i.e. if two circles be orthogonal the length of
the tangent drawn from the centre of one circle to the
second circle is equal to the radius of the first.
Either of these two conditions will determine whether
the circles are orthogonal .
The centres of the circles
x² + y² +2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and x² + y² + 2g'x + 2f'y + c' = 0 ,
are the points ( -g, -f) and12 ( -g' , -ƒ' ) ; also the squares of their
radii are g² +f2 - c and g'² +f¹² - c′.
 RADICAL AXIS OF TWO CIRCLES. 161

They therefore cut orthogonally if

(−9 + g') ² + ( −ƒ+ƒ') ² = g² +ƒ² - c + y'² +ƒ"2 – c ',
i.e. if 2gg' +2ff' = c + c'.

183. Radical Axis. Def. The radical axis of

two circles is the locus of a point which moves so that the
lengths of the tangents drawn from it to the two circles are
equal.

Let the equations to the circles be

x² + y² + 2gx + 2fy + c 0 . ( 1),
and x² + y² + 29₁x + ²ƒ₁y + c₁ = 0 ...... . (2),
and let (x , y ) be any point such that the tangents from it
to these circles are equal.

By Art. 168, we have

x² + y₁² + 2gx₁ + 2ƒ¥₁ + c = x²² + y₁² + 29₁₁ + 2ƒ1¥1 + €1,
i.e. -
2x₁ (g — g₁) + 2y₁ (ƒ−ƒ₁) + c − c₁ = 0.
But this is the condition that the point (x , y ) should
lie on the locus

2x (g - g₁) + 2y (ƒ−ƒ₁ ) + c − c₁ = 0 ......... (3).

This is therefore the equation to the radical axis, and it
is clearly a straight line.

It is easily seen that the radical axis is perpendicular

to the line joining the centres of the circles . For these
centres are the points (-g, -f) and (-91 , -f). The

"m " of the line joining them is therefore −ƒ₁− ( −ƒ)

-91 -(-g)'
i.e. f-fi
9-91
The " m " of the line (3) is - 9-91
f-fi
The product of these two " m's " is – 1 .
Hence, by Art. 69, the radical axis and the line joining
the centres are perpendicular.
L. 11
162 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

184. A geometrical construction can be given

for the radical axis of two circles.

02

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

If the circles intersect in real points, P and Q, as in

Fig. 1 , the radical axis is clearly the straight line PQ.
For if T be any point on PQ and TR and TS be the
tangents from it to the circles we have, by Euc. III. 36,
TR2 TP . TQ = TS².
If they do not intersect in real points, as in the second
figure, let their radii be a, and a,, and let 7
' be a point such
that the tangents TR and TS are equal in length .
Draw TO perpendicular to 0,02.
Since TR2 TS2,
we have TO - O₁R² - TO² - O₂S²,
i.e. TO² + 0,0² - α₁ = TO² + 0022-02²,
i.e. 0,02-00 ,² = a₁ - a ,
i.e. (0,0-00₂) (00 + 00₂) = α₁² — α2²,
2
a₁² – a²²
i.e. 0,0-002 = = a constant quantity.
0102
Hence O is a fixed point, since it divides the fixed
straight line 0,0₂ into parts whose difference is constant.
Therefore, since 0,0T is a right angle, the locus of T,
i.e. the radical axis, is a fixed straight line perpendicular to
the line joining the centres.
 RADICAL AXIS. 163

185. If the equations to the circles in Art. 183 be

written in the form S = 0 and S' = 0, the equation (3) to
the radical axis may be written S - S' = 0, and therefore
the radical axis passes through the common points, real or
imaginary, of the circles S = 0 and S′ = 0.
In the last article we saw that this was true geometri-
cally for the case in which the circles meet in real points.
When the circles do not geometrically intersect, as in
Fig. 2, we must then look upon the straight line TO as
passing through the imaginary points of intersection of the
two circles.

186. The radical axes of three circles, taken in pairs,

meet in a point.

Let the equations to the three circles be

S = 0 ... .. (1 ),
S' = 0 .... . (2),
and S" = 0 ... .. (3).
The radical axis of the circles ( 1 ) and ( 2) is the straight
line
S- S' = 0 .. (4).
The radical axis of (2) and ( 3) is the straight line
S' - S" = 0 ..... . (5).
If we add equation (5) to equation (4) we shall have the
equation of a straight line through their points of inter-
section .
Hence S - S" = 0 .... .(6)
is a straight line through the intersection of (4) and (5).
But (6) is the radical axis of the circles ( 3) and ( 1 ).
Hence the three radical axes of the three circles, taken
in pairs, meet in a point.
This point is called the Radical Centre of the three
circles.
This may also be easily proved geometrically. For let
the three circles be called A, B, and C, and let the radical
axis of A and B and that of B and C meet in a point 0.
11-2
164 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

By the definition of the radical axis, the tangent from 0

to the circle A = the tangent from
O to the circle B, and the tangent
from 0 to the circle B =tangent
from it to the circle C.

Ш
Hence the tangent from 0 to
the circle 4 the tangent from it
to the circle C, i.e. O is also a B
point on the radical axis of the
circles A and C.

187. If S- 0 and S' = 0 be the equations of two circles,

the equation of any circle through their points of inter-
section is SXS". Also the equation to any circle, such that
the radical axis of it and S = 0 is u = 0, is S + λu = 0.
For wherever S = 0 and S' = 0 are both satisfied the
equation SAS' is clearly satisfied, so that S = AS' is some
locus through the intersections of S = 0 and S ' = 0.
Also in both S and S' the coefficients of x and y are
equal and the coefficient of xy is zero. The same statement
is therefore true for the equation S - AS'. Hence the
proposition.
Again, since u is only of the first degree, therefore in
S +Au the coefficients of x and y are equal and the
coefficient of xy is zero, so that S + Au = 0 is clearly a circle.
Also it passes through the intersections of S = 0 and u = 0.

EXAMPLES. XXIII.

Prove that the following pairs of circles intersect orthogonally :

1. x2 + y2-2ax +c =0 and x2 + y² + 2by - c =0.
2. x² + y2-2ax + 2by + c =0 and x2 +y2 +2bx + 2ay - c = 0.
3. Find the equation to the circle which passes through the origin
and cuts orthogonally each of the circles
x² +y² - 6x + 8 = 0 and x² + y2-2x - 2y = 7.
Find the radical axis of the pairs of circles
4. x² +y2 =144 and x2 +y2-15x + 11y = 0.
5. x² + y2-3x - 4y +5 = 0 and 3x² + 3y² - 7x + 8y + 11 = 0.
 RADICAL AXIS. EXAMPLES. 165

6. x² +y² - xy + 6x - 7y + 8 = 0 and x² + y2 - xy - 4 = 0 ,
the axes being inclined at 120°.
Find the radical centre of the sets of circles
7. x² +y² + x + 2y + 3 = 0, x² +y² + 2x + 4y + 5 = 0,
and x² +y2-7x - 8y - 9 = 0.
8. (x- 2) +(y - 3)2 = 36, (x+ 3)² + (y + 2)² = 49,
and (x - 4)² + (y + 5)²= 64.
9. Prove that the square of the tangent that can be drawn from
any point on one circle to another circle is equal to twice the product
of the perpendicular distance of the point from the radical axis of the
two circles, and the distance between their centres.
10. Prove that a common tangent to two circles is bisected by the
radical axis.

11. Find the general equation of all circles any pair of which have
the same radical axis as the circles
x² +y2 = 4 and x² + y² + 2x + 4y = 6.
12. Find the equations to the straight lines joining the origin to
the points of intersection of
x² + y² -
— 4x - 2y = 4 and x² + y² - 2x - 4y -4 = 0 .
13. The polars of a point P with respect to two fixed circles meet
in the point Q. Prove that the circle on PQ as diameter passes
through two fixed points, and cuts both the given circles at right
angles.
14. Prove that the two circles, which pass through the two points
(0, a) and (0, -a) and touch the straight line y = mx +c, will cut ortho-
gonally if c² = a2 (2 +m²).
15. Find the locus of the centre of the circle which cuts two given
circles orthogonally.

16. If two circles cut orthogonally, prove that the polar of any
point P on the first circle with respect to the second passes through
the other end of the diameter of the first circle which goes through P.
Hence, (by considering the orthogonal circle of three circles as
the locus of a point such that its polars with respect to the circles
meet in a point) prove that the orthogonal circle of three circles,
given by the general equation is
x + 91 , y + f1 , 9₁x + f₁y + c₁
x + 92 , y + f2 , 92x + f₂y + C₂ = 0.
|x + 93 , y + £3 , 93X + f3Y + C3!
166 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

188. Coaxal Circles. Def. A system of circles

is said to be coaxal when they have a common radical axis,
i.e. when the radical axis of each pair of circles of the
system is the same.
To find the equation of a system of coaxal circles.
Since, by Art. 183, the radical axis of any pair of the
circles is perpendicular to the line joining their centres, it
follows that the centres of all the circles of a coaxal system
must lie on a straight line which is perpendicular to the
radical axis.
Take the line of centres as the axis of x and the radical
axis as the axis of y (Figs. I. and II. , Art. 190), so that 0
is the origin.
The equation to any circle with its centre on the axis
of x is
x² + y². ·2gx + c = 0 ... ………………. . (1 ) .
Any point on the radical axis is (0, y₁) .
The square on the tangent from it to the circle ( 1 ) is,
by Art. 168, y₁² + c.
Since this quantity is to be the same for all circles of
the system it follows that c is the same for all such circles ;
the different circles are therefore obtained by giving dif-
ferent values to g in the equation ( 1).
The intersections of (1 ) with the radical axis are then
obtained by putting x = 0 in equation ( 1 ), and we have
- c.
y = ±√√√ =
If c be negative, we have two real points of intersection
as in Fig. I. of Art. 190. In such cases the circles are said
to be of the Intersecting Species.
If c be positive, we have two imaginary points of in-
tersection as in Fig. II.

189. Limiting points of a coaxal system.

The equation (1) of the previous article which gives any
circle of the system may be written in the form
(x − g)² + y² = g² — c = [√g² — c]².
 COAXAL CIRCLES. 167

It therefore represents a circle whose centre is the point

(g, 0) and whose radius is √g² — c.
This radius vanishes, i.e. the circle becomes a point-
circle, when g² = c, i.e. when g = ± √c.
Hence at the particular points (± √c, 0) we have point-
circles which belong to the system. These point-circles are
called the Limiting Points of the system.
If c be negative, these points are imaginary.
But it was shown in the last article that when c is
negative the circles intersect in real points as in Fig. I. ,
Art. 190.

If c be positive, the limiting points L, and L. (Fig. II. ) are

real, and in this case the circles intersect in imaginary points.
The limiting points are therefore real or imaginary
according as the circles of the system intersect in imaginary
or real points .

190. Orthogonal circles of a coaxal system.

Let T be any point on the common radical axis
of a system of coaxal circles, and let TR be the tangent
from it to any circle of the system.

03 X

Fig. I.

Then a circle, whose centre is T and whose radius is TR,

will cut each circle of the coaxal system orthogonally.
168 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

[ For the radius TR of this circle is at right angles to

the radius 0, R, and so for its intersection with any other
circle of the system . ]

Fig. II.
Hence the limiting points (being point- circles of the
system) are on this orthogonal circle.
The limiting points are therefore the intersections with
the line of centres of any circle whose centre is on the
common radical axis and whose radius is the tangent from
it to any of the circles of the system.
Since, in Fig. I. , the limiting points are imaginary these
orthogonal circles do not meet the line of centres in real
points.
In Fig. II. they pass through the limiting points L₁
and L.
These orthogonal circles (since they all pass through two
points, real or imaginary) are therefore a coaxal system .
Also if the original circles, as in Fig. I., intersect in
real points, the orthogonal circles intersect in imaginary
points ; in Fig. II. the original circles intersect in imaginary
points, and the orthogonal circles in real points.
We therefore have the following theorem :
A set of coaxal circles can be cut orthogonally by another
set of coaxal circles, the centres of each set lying on the
radical axis of the other set ; also one set is of the limiting-
point species and the other set of the other species.
 ORTHOGONAL CIRCLES. 169

191. Without reference to the limiting points of the original

system, it may be easily found whether or not the orthogonal circles
meet the original line of centres.
For the circle, whose centre is T and whose radius is TR, meets
or does not meet the line 0,0₂ according as TR² is >> or < TO²,
i.e. according as TO₁2-0₁R² is TO²,
i.e. according as TО² + 00₁² - 0₁R² is ≥ TO²,
i.e. according as 00₁ is 0₁R,
i.e. according as the radical axis is without, or within, each of the
circles of the original system .

192. In the next article the above results will be

proved analytically.
To find the equation to any circle which cuts two given
circles orthogonally.
Take the radical axis of the two circles as the axis of y,
so that their equations may be written in the form
x² + y² - 2gx + c = . ( 1 ),
and
x² + y² − 2g₁x + c = 0 ……………………………….. ... (2) ,
the quantity c being the same for each.
Let the equation to any circle which cuts them or-
thogonally be
(x − A )² + (y –- B)² = R² .. (3) .
The equation (1 ) can be written in the form
(xg)² + y² = [√gª — - c]² . (4) .
The circles (3) and (4) cut orthogonally if the square of
the distance between their centres is equal to the sum of
the squares of their radii ,
i.e. if
(Ag)² + B² R² + [√g² - c]",
i.e. if
A² + B² - 2Ag = R² --C (5).
Similarly, (3) will cut (2) orthogonally if
A² + B² - 2Ag₁ = R² - c . (6).
Subtracting (6) from (5) , we have A (g- g₁) = 0.
Hence A = 0, and_R² = B² + c.
170 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Substituting these values in (3), the equation to the

required orthogonal circle is
x² + y² - 2By - c = 0 . (7),
where B is any quantity whatever.
Whatever be the value of B the equation (7) represents
a circle whose centre is on the axis of y and which passes
through the points (± √c, 0).
But the latter points are the limiting points of the
coaxal system to which the two circles belong. [Art. 189. ]
Hence any pair of circles belonging to a coaxal system
is cut at right angles by any circle of another coaxal
system ; also the centres of the circles of the latter system
lie on the common radical axis of the original system, and
all the circles of the latter system pass through the limiting
points (real or imaginary) of the first system.
Also the centre of the circle (7) is the point (0, B) and
its radius is B + c.
The square of the tangent drawn from (0, B) to the
circle (1 ) = B² + c (by Art. 168).
Hence the radius of any circle of the second system is
equal to the length of the tangent drawn from its centre to
any circle of the first system.

193. The equation to the system of circles which cut

a given coaxal system orthogonally may also be obtained
by using the result of Art. 182.
For any circle of the coaxal system is, by Art. 188,
given by
x² + y² - 2gx + c = 0 . (1 ),
where c is the same for all circles.
Any point on the radical axis is (0, y') .
The square on the tangent drawn from it to (1) is
therefore y² + c.
The equation to any circle cutting ( 1 ) orthogonally is
therefore
x² + (y - y')² = y² + c,
i.e. x² + y² - 2yy' — c = 0.
 ORTHOGONAL CIRCLES. 171

Whatever be the value of y' this circle passes through

the points (± √c, 0), i.e. through the limiting points of the
system of circles given by ( 1).
194. We can now deduce an easy construction for the
circle that cuts any three circles orthogonally.
Consider the three circles in the figure of Art. 186 .
By Art. 192 any circle cutting A and B orthogonally
has its centre on their common radical axis, i.e. on the
straight line OD.
Similarly any circle cutting B and C orthogonally has
its centre on the radical axis OE.
Any circle cutting all three circles orthogonally must
therefore have its centre at the intersection of OD and OE,
i.e. at the radical centre 0. Also its radius must be the
length of the tangent drawn from the radical centre to
any one of the three circles.

Ex. Find the equation to the circle which cuts orthogonally each
of the three circles
x²+y² +2x + 17y + 4 = 0 (1),
x² + y² + 7x + 6y + 11 = 0 . (2),
x² + y² - x + 22y + 3 = 0 . (3) .
The radical axis of (1) and (2) is
5x - 11y + 7 = 0.
The radical axis of (2) and (3) is
8x - 16y + 8 = 0.
theThese
radicaltwo straight
centre lines meet in the point (3, 2) which is therefore
.
The square of the length of the tangent from the point (3, 2) to
each of the given circles = 57.
The required equation is therefore (x - 3)² + (y - 2)² = 57,
i.e. x² +y² - 6x - 4y - 44 = 0.
195. Ex. Find the locus of a point which moves so that the length
of the tangent drawn from it to one given circle is X times the length of
the tangentfrom it to another given circle.
As in Art. 188 take as axes of x and y the line joining the centres
of the two circles and the radical axis. The equations to the two
circles are therefore
x² + y² - 2g₁x + c = 0 (1),
and x² +y² - 2gx + c = 0 (2).
172 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let (h, k) be a point such that the length of the tangent from it to
(1) is always λ times the length of the tangent from it to (2).
Then h² +k² - 2g₁h + c = λ² [ h² + k² - 2ggh +c].
Hence (h, k) always lies on the circle
-
x² + y² − 2x 92¹²
X2-1— §¹ + c = 0.…………………….… .. (3).

This circle is clearly a circle of the coaxal system to which (1) and
(2) belong.
Again, the centre of (1) is the point (91 , 0) , the centre of (2) is
(92 , 0), whilst the centre of ( 3) is (9222-11,0).
(913
Hence, if these three centres be called O₁ , O2 , and 03 , we have
- እ?
0103 = X2-1 -91 = X2-1-(92-91) ,
1
and 0203 = X2-1 9212-1-(92-91) ,

so that 0103 0203 :: X² : 1.

The required locus is therefore a circle coaxal with the two given
circles and whose centre divides externally, in the ratio X2 : 1, the line
joining the centres of the two given circles.

EXAMPLES. XXIV.

1. Prove that a common tangent to two circles of a coaxal

system subtends a right angle at either limiting point of the system.
2. Prove that the polar of a limiting point of a coaxal system
with respect to any circle of the system is the same for all circles of
the system .
3. Prove that the polars of any point with respect to a system of
coaxal circles all pass through a fixed point, and that the two points
are equidistant from the radical axis and subtend a right angle at a
limiting point of the system. If the first point be one limiting point
of the system prove that the second point is the other limiting point.
4. A fixed circle is cut by a series of circles all of which pass
through two given points ; prove that the straight line joining the
intersections of the fixed circle with any circle of the system always
passes through a fixed point.
5. Prove that tangents drawn from any point of a fixed circle of
a coaxal system to two other fixed circles of the system are in a
constant ratio.
[Exs. XXIV .] COAXAL CIRCLES. EXAMPLES. 173

6. Prove that a system of coaxal circles inverts with respect to

either limiting point into a system of concentric circles and find the
position of the common centre.
7. A straight line is drawn touching one of a system of coaxal
circles in P and cutting another in Q and R. Shew that PQ and PR
subtend equal or supplementary angles at one of the limiting points
ofthe system .
8. Find the locus of the point of contact of parallel tangents
which are drawn to each of a series of coaxal circles.
9. Prove that the circle of similitude of the two circles
x²+ y² - 2kx + 8 = 0 and x² + y² -– 2k'x + 8 = 0
(i.e. the locus of the points at which the two circles subtend the same
angle) is the coaxal circle
kk' +8
x² +y² - 2 k+ k' x + 8 = 0.

10. From the preceding question shew that the centres of simili-
tude (i.e. the points in which the common tangents to two circles
meet the line of centres ) divide the line joining the centres internally
and externally in the ratio of the radii.
11. If x +y1 = tan (u + v√- 1 ) , where x, y, u, and v are all
real, prove that the curves u - constant give a family of coaxal circles
passing through the points (0, 1), and that the curves v = constant
give a system of circles cutting the first system orthogonally.
12. Find the equation to the circle which cuts orthogonally each
of the circles
x² + y² +2gx + c = 0, x²+y2 +2g'x + c = 0,
and x² + y² + 2hx + 2ky + a = 0.
13. Find the equation to the circle cutting orthogonally the
three circles
x² +y² = a², (x − c)² + y² = a², and x² + (y - b)” = a².
14. Find the equation to the circle cutting orthogonally the
three circles
x² +y² - 2x + 3y - 7 = 0, x + y + 5 −5y + 9 = 0,
and x² + y² + 7x - 9y + 29 = 0.
15.
circles Shew that the equation to the circle cutting orthogonally the
(x- a)² + (y - b)²=b², (x − b)² + (y -
− a)² =a²,
and (x- a- b - c)2 + y2ab + c²,
is x² +y² - 2x (a + b) − y ( a + b) + a² + 3ab + b² = 0.
 CONIC SECTIONS .

CHAPTER X.

THE PARABOLA.

196. Conic Section. Def. The locus of a point

P, which moves so that its distance from a fixed point is
always in a constant ratio to its perpendicular distance
from a fixed straight line, is called a Conic Section.

The fixed point is called the Focus and is usually

denoted by S.

The constant ratio is called the Eccentricity and is

denoted by e.

The fixed straight line is called the Directrix.

The straight line passing through the Focus and per-

pendicular to the Directrix is called the Axis .

When the eccentricity e is equal to unity, the Conic

Section is called a Parabola.

When e is less than unity, it is called an Ellipse.

When e is greater than unity, it is called a Hyper-

bola.

[The name Conic Section is derived from the fact that

ne in
these curves were first obtained by cutting a co
various ways. ]
 THE PARABOLA. 175

197. To find the equation to a Parabola.

Let S be the fixed point and ZM the directrix. We
require therefore the locus
of a point P which moves F
so that its distance from S
is always equal to PM, its M
perpendicular distance from
ZM.
Draw SZ perpendicular N
to the directrix and bisect ZA 'S X
SZ in the point A ; produce
ZA to X.
The point A is clearly a
point on the curve and is
called the Vertex of the
Parabola.

Take A as origin, AX as the axis of x, and AY,

perpendicular to it, as the axis of y.
Let the distance ZA, or AS, be called a, and let P be
any point on the curve whose coordinates are x and y.
Join SP, and draw PN and PM perpendicular respec-
tively to the axis and directrix.
We have then SP² = PM²,
i.e.
(x − a)² + y² = ZN² = (a + x)²,
:: y² = 4ax (1).
This being the relation which exists between the co-
ordinates of any point P on the parabola is, by Art. 42, the
equation to the parabola.

Cor. The equation (1 ) is equivalent to the geometrical.

proposition
PN2-4AS . AN.

198. The equation of the preceding article is the

simplest possible equation to the parabola. Throughout
this chapter this standard form of the equation is assumed
unless the contrary is stated .
176 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

If instead of AX and AY we take the axis and the

directrix ZM as the axes of coordinates, the equation
would be
(x − 2a)² + y² = x²,
i.e. y² = 4a (x -
− a) . ( 1 ).
Similarly, if the axis SX and a perpendicular line SL
be taken as the axes of coordinates, the equation is.
x² + y² = (x + 2a)³,
i.e. y² = 4a (x + a) . (2).
These two equations may be deduced from the equation
of the previous article by transforming the origin, firstly to
the point (-a, 0) and secondly to the point (a, 0).
199. The equation to the parabola referred to any focus and
directrix may be easily obtained. Thus the equation to the parabola,
whose focus is the point (2, 3) and whose directrix is the straight
line x - 4y + 3 = 0, is
Jx - 4y + 3) 2 "
(x −- 2)² + (y - 3)² =
12+42
i.e. 17 [x² + y² - 4x -- 6y + 13 ] = { x² + 16y² + 9 -− 8xy + 6x − 24y'} ,
i.e. 16x² + y² + 8xy − 74x − 78y + 212 = 0.
200. To trace the curve
y² = 4ax ... .(1 ).
If a be negative, the corresponding values of y are
imaginary (since the square root of a negative quantity is
unreal ) ; hence there is no part of the curve to the left of
the point A.
If y be zero, so also is x, so that the axis of x meets
the curve at the point A only.
If x be zero, so also is y, so that the axis of У meets
the curve at the point A only.
For every positive value of x we see from ( 1 ) , by taking
the square root, that y has two equal and opposite values.
Hence corresponding to any point P on the curve there
is another point P' on the other side of the axis which is
obtained by producing PN to P' so that PN and NP' are
 THE PARABOLA. 177

equal in magnitude. The line PP' is called a double

ordinate.
As x increases in magnitude, so do the corresponding
values of y ; finally, when x becomes infinitely great, y
becomes infinitely great also.
By taking a large number of values of x and the
corresponding values of y it will be found that the curve is
as in the figure of Art. 197.
The two branches never meet but are of infinite length.
201. The quantity y -4ax' is negative, zero, or positive
according as the point (x , y ) is within, upon, or without the
parabola.
Let be the point (x , y ) and let it be within the
curve, i.e. be between the curve and the axis AX. Draw
the ordinate QN and let it meet the curve in P.
Then (by Art. 197), PN² = 4ɑ . x'.
Hence y' , i.e. QN², is < PN², and hence is < 4ax'.
.. y'² - 4ax' is negative.
Similarly, if be without the curve, then y' , i.e. QN²,
is > PN2, and hence is > 4ax'.
Hence the proposition.
202. Latus Rectum. Def. The latus rectum of
any conic is the double ordinate LSL
' drawn through the
focus S.
In the case of the parabola we have SL = distance of L
from the directrix = SZ = 2a.
Hence the latus rectum := 4a.
When the latus rectum is given it follows that the
equation to the parabola is completely known in its
standard form, and the size and shape of the curve
determined.

The quantity 4a is also often called the principal

parameter of the curve.
Focal Distance of any point. The focal distance
of any point P is the distance SP.
This focal distance = PM = ZN = ZA + AN = a + x.
L. 12
178 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Ex. Find the vertex, axis, focus, and latus rectum of the parabola
4y² +12x - 20y + 67 = 0.
The equation can be written
y² — 5y = -3x - £7,
i.e. (y - 5)² = -3x - 97 + 25 = -3 (x + }).
Transform this equation to the point ( -3, §) and it becomes
y² = -3x, which represents a parabola, whose axis is the axis of r
and whose concavity is turned towards the negative end of this axis.
Also its latus rectum is 3.
Referred to the original axes the vertex is the point ( - − 1 , §) , the
axis is y = , and the focus is the point ( -3-1, § ) , i.e. ( − 47 , 1);

EXAMPLES. XXV.

Find the equation to the parabola with

1. focus (3, - 4) and directrix 6x - 7y + 5 = 0.
x y
2. focus (a, b) and directrix a + = 1.

Find the vertex, axis, latus rectum, and focus of the parabolas
3. y² = 4x + 4y. 4. x² + 2y = 8x - 7.
5. x2-2ax + 2ay = 0. 6. y² = 4y - 4x.
7. Draw the curves
(1) y² = -4ax, (2) x² = 4ay, and (3) x² - 4ay.
8. Find the value of p when the parabola y2 = 4px goes through
the point (i) (3, -− 2), and (ii) (9 , – 12).
9. For what point of the parabola y² - 18x is the ordinate equal
to three times the abscissa ?
10. Prove that the equation to the parabola, whose vertex and focus
are on the axis of x at distances a and a' from the origin respectively,
is y² = 4 (a' -
− a) (x -− a).
11. In the parabola y2 = 6x, find (1) the equation to the chord
through the vertex and the negative end of the latus rectum, and
(2) the equation to any chord through the point on the curve whose
abscissa is 24.
12. Prove that the equation y² +2Ax + 2By + C = 0 represents a
parabola, whose axis is parallel to the axis of x, and find its vertex and
the equation to its latus rectum.
13. Prove that the locus of the middle points of all chords of
the parabola y² = 4ax which are drawn through the vertex is the
parabola y² = 2ax.
 [Exs. XXV.] THE PARABOLA. EXAMPLES. 179

14. Prove that the locus of the centre of a circle, which intercepts
a chord of given length 2a on the axis of x and passes through a given
point on the axis of y distant b from the origin, is the curve
x² - 2yb + b² = a².
Trace this parabola.
15. PQ is a double ordinate of a parabola. Find the locus of its
point of trisection.
16. Prove that the locus of a point, which moves so that its
distance from a fixed line is equal to the length of the tangent drawn
from it to a given circle, is a parabola. Find the position of the
focus and directrix.
17. If a circle be drawn so as always to touch a given straight
line and also a given circle, prove that the locus of its centre is
a parabola.
18. The vertex A of a parabola is joined to any point P on the
curve and PQ is drawn at right angles to AP to meet the axis in Q.
Prove that the projection of PQ on the axis is always equal to the
latus rectum .
19. If on a given base triangles be described such that the sum of
the tangents of the base angles is constant, prove that the locus of
the vertices is a parabola.
20. A double ordinate of the curve y2 = 4px is of length 8p ; prove
that the lines from the vertex to its two ends are at right angles.
21. Two parabolas have a common axis and concavities in oppo-
site directions ; if any line parallel to the common axis meet the
parabolas in P and P', prove that the locus of the middle point of PP'
is another parabola, provided that the latera recta of the given para-
bolas are unequal .
22. A parabola is drawn to pass through A and B, the ends of
a diameter of a given circle of radius a, and to have as directrix a
tangent to a concentric circle of radius b ; the axes being AB and
a perpendicular diameter, prove that the locus of the focus of the
x2
parabola is + y2
b2b2-2=1.

203. To find the points of intersection of any straight

line with the parabola
y² = 4ax . (1).
The equation to any straight line is
y = mx + c....... .. (2) .
The coordinates of the points common to the straight
line and the parabola satisfy both equations (1 ) and (2),
and are therefore found by solving them.
12-2
180 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Substituting the value of y from (2) in (1 ), we have

(mx + c)² = 4ax,
i.e. m²x² + 2x (mc - 2a) + c² 0 . (3).
This is a quadratic equation for x and therefore has two
roots, real, coincident, or imaginary.
The straight line therefore meets the parabola in two
points, real, coincident, or imaginary.
The roots of (3) are real or imaginary according as
{2 (mc - 2a)}2-4m²c²
is positive or negative, i.e. according as - amc + a² is
positive or negative, i.e. according as me is 4a.

204. To find the length of the chord intercepted by the parabola on

the straight line
y = mx + c (1).
If (x , y ) and (x2, y2) be the common points of intersection, then,
as in Art. 154, we have, from equation (3) of the last article,
(X1 − xg)² = (x1 + xq) ³ — 4X₁Xq
= 4(mc - 2a)2 4c2 16a (a - mc)
m4 m²2 m4
and Y1 - Y2 = m (x1 - X2).
Hence the required length = √(y1 − Y₂)² + (X1 − x2)²
4
=
= √1 + m² (x₁ − x₂) = m² √1 + m² √a (a − mc).

205. To find the equation to the tangent at any point

(x , y) ofthe parabola y² = 4ax.
The definition of the tangent is given in Art. 149.
Let P be the point (x', y') and Q a point (x", y") on the
parabola .
The equation to the line PQ is
y" -y'
y - y' == x" — (x− x') ...(1).

Since P and Q both lie on the curve, we have

y'² = 4ax' . (2) ,
and y"² = 4ax" .(3).
 TANGENT AT ANY POINT OF A PARABOLA. 181

Hence, by subtraction, we have

- y'² = 4a (x" – x'),
y'² —
i.e. - y) (y" + y ) = 4a (x" - x'),
(y" —
y" -y' 4a
and hence
x" —- x' y" + + y''
Substituting this value in equation ( 1 ) , we have, as
the equation to any secant PQ,
4a
y -y' = (x - x')
y" + y'
i.e. y (y' + y' ) = 4ax + y'y' + y²² — 4ax'
= 4ax + y'y" .. (4).
To obtain the equation of the tangent at (x', y') we take
Qindefinitely close to P, and hence, in the limit, put y" = y'.
The equation (4) then becomes
2yy' = y² + 4ax : 4ax + 4αx',
i.e. yy' = 2a (x + x').
Cor. It will be noted that the equation to the tangent
is obtained from the equation to the curve by the rule of
Art . 152 .

Exs. The equation to the tangent at the point (2, 4) of the

parabola y² = 8x is
y(-4) =4 (x + 2),
i.e. x+y + 2= 0.
a 2a
The equation to the tangent at the point (m m of the parabola
y² =4ax is
2a a
y. 2 2a
m = 20 (x+ m²)
i.e. a
y = mx + m

Tofind the condition that the straight line

206.
y = mx + c . (1)
may touch the parabola y² = 4ax . (2).
The abscissæ of the points in which the straight line (1)
meets the curve (2) are as in Art. 203, given by the equation
m²x² + 2x (mc -— 2a) + c² = 0 .(3) .
182 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The line ( 1 ) will touch (2 ) if it meet it in two points

which are indefinitely close to one another, i.e. in two
points which ultimately coincide.
The roots of equation (3) must therefore be equal.
The condition for this is
4 (mc - 2a)² = 4m²c²,
i.e. a²- amc =
a
so that с
m
Substituting this value of c in ( 1 ), we have as the
equation to a tangent,

y = mx + 2
/

In this equation m is the tangent of the angle which

the tangent makes with the axis of x.
The foregoing proposition may also be obtained from the equation
of Art. 205.
For equation (4) of that article may be written
2a 2ax'
y= x+ (1).
'
y y'
2a 2a
In this equation put = m, i.e. y': m
y'
a 2ax' a
and hence x' = y/2 - and
4a m² y' m
a
The equation (1) then becomes y = mx + m
a
Also it is the tangent at the point (x' , y') , i.e. ( 2 , 2
m ).

207. Equation to the normal at (x', y'). The required

normal is the straight line which passes through the point
(x', y') and is perpendicular to the tangent, i.e. to the
straight line
2a
y= (x + x ').
Y
Its equation is therefore
y — y' = m' (x -− x′),
2a
where m' x =- 1, i.e. m':== y' (Art. 69.)
y 2a ,
 NORMAL TO A PARABOLA. 183

and the equation to the normal is

y- y
y-y ==
' ==1 (x - x')
2a . ( 1) .

208. To express the equation ofthe normal in the form

У = mx- 2am - am³.
In equation ( 1 ) of the last article put
-y'
2a m, i.e. y' = -2am.

Hence y's =
x':= = am².
4a
The normal is therefore
y + 2am = m (x — am²),
ie y = mx - 2am - am³,
and it is a normal at the point (am², – 2am) of the curve.
In this equation m is the tangent of the angle which
the normal makes with the axis. It must be carefully
distinguished from the m of Art. 206 which is the tangent
of the angle which the tangent makes with the axis. The
"m" of this article is - 1 divided by the " m " of Art. 206.
209. Subtangent and Subnormal. Def. If
the tangent and normal at any point P of a conic section
meet the axis in T and G respectively and PN be the
ordinate at P, then NT is called the Subtangent and NG the
Subnormal of P.

To find the length of the subtangent and subnormal.

If P be the point (x , y ) the equation to TP is, by
Art. 205,

yy' = 2a (x + x') ...... (1 ).

To obtain the length of AT, we
have to find the point where this
straight line meets the axis of x, NGX
A
e. we put y0 in ( 1 ) and we
have
= -x' ....... (2).
Hence ATAN.
184 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

[ The negative sign in equation ( 2) shews that T and

N always lie on opposite sides of the vertex A. ]
Hence the subtangent NT = 2AN = twice the abscissa
of the point P.
Since TPG is a right-angled triangle, we have (Euc. VI. 8)
PN2 = TN. NG.
Hence the subnormal NG
PN2 PN2
= = 2a.
TN 2AN
The subnormal is therefore constant for all points on
the parabola and is equal to the semi-latus rectum.
210. Ex. 1. If a chord which is normal to the parabola at one
end subtend a right angle at the vertex, prove that it is inclined at an
angle tan-1 N/2 to the axis.
The equation to any chord which is normal is
y=mx - 2am — am³,
i.e. mx - y = 2am + am³.
The parabola is y2 = 4ax.
The straight lines joining the origin to the intersections of these
two are therefore given by the equation
y2 (2am+am³) - – 4ax (mx -
− y) = 0.
If these be at right angles, then
2am+am³ - 4am=0,
i.e. m= ±√√√2.
Ex. 2. From the point where any normal to the parabola y² =4ax
meets the axis is drawn a line perpendicular to this normal ; prove that
this line always touches an equal parabola.
The equation of any normal to the parabola is
y = mx - 2am -— am³.
This meets the axis in the point (2a + am², 0).
The equation to the straight line through this point perpendicular
to the normal is
y= m₁ (x − 2a - am²),
where m₁m = -1.
The equation is therefore
a
y= m₁ ( x- 2a
( m₁2
a
i.e. y = m₁ (x - 2a) –
my
 TANGENT AND NORMAL. EXAMPLES. 185

This straight line, as in Art. 206 , always touches the equal parabola
y² = -4a (x - 2a),
whose vertex is the point (2a, 0) and whose concavity is towards the
negative end of the axis of x.

EXAMPLES. XXVI.

Write down the equations to the tangent and normal

1. at the point (4, 6) of the parabola y² =9x,
2. at the point of the parabola y² = 6x whose ordinate is 12,
3. at the ends of the latus rectum of the parabola y² = 12x,
4. at the ends of the latus rectum of the parabola y² = 4a (x - a).
5. Find the equation to that tangent to the parabola y² = 7x
which is parallel to the straight line 4y - x + 3 = 0. Find also its
point of contact.
6. A tangent to the parabola y² = 4ax makes an angle of 60° with
the axis ; find its point of contact.
7. A tangent to the parabola y² = 8x makes an angle of 45° with
the straight line y = 3x + 5. Find its equation and its point of
contact.
8. Find the points of the parabola y² = 4ax at which (i) the
tangent, and (ii) the normal is inclined at 30° to the axis.
9. Find the equation to the tangents to the parabola y² = 9x which
goes through the point (4, 10).
10. Prove that the straight line x+y = 1 touches the parabola
y=x - x².
11. Prove that the straight line y = mx +c touches the parabola
a
y² =4a (x + a) if c = ma + m
-

12. Prove that the straight line lx +my + n = 0 touches the parabola
y² =4ax if ln = am².
13. For what point of the parabola y² =4ax is (1) the normal equal
to twice the subtangent, (2) the normal equal to the difference between
the subtangent and the subnormal ?
Find the equations to the common tangents of
14. the parabolas y² = 4ax and x² = 4by,
15. the circle x² + y2 = 4ax and the parabola y² = 4ax.
16. Two equal parabolas have the same vertex and their axes are
at right angles ; prove that the common tangent touches each at the
end of a latus rectum .
186 COORDINATE GEOMETRY . [Exs.

17. Prove that two tangents to the parabolas y² = 4a (x + a) and

y² = 4a′ (x + a' ), which are at right angles to one another, meet on the
straight line x + a + a' = 0.
Shew also that this straight line is the common chord of the two
parabolas.
18. PN is an ordinate of the parabola ; a straight line is drawn
parallel to the axis to bisect NP and meets the curve in Q ; prove
that NQ meets the tangent at the vertex in a point T such that
AT=3NP.
19. Prove that the chord of the parabola y2 =4ax, whose equation
is y - x /2 +4a /2 = 0, is a normal to the curve and that its length is
6 /3a.
20. If perpendiculars be drawn on any tangent to a parabola from
two fixed points on the axis, which are equidistant from the focus,
prove that the difference of their squares is constant.
21. If P, Q, and R be three points on a parabola whose ordinates
are in geometrical progression, prove that the tangents at P and R
meet on the ordinate of Q.
22. Tangents are drawn to a parabola at points whose abscissæ
are in the ratio μ : 1 ; prove that they intersect on the curve
y²= (μ +μ- )²ax.
23. If the tangents at the points ( x', y') and (x", y″) meet at the
point (x , y ) and the normals at the same points in (x2 , y2), prove
that
(1) x1 = y'y" and Y1 =y'+y" 9
4a 2
y'² + y'y" + y"2 + y"
(2) x2 = 2a + 4a and y, = −y'y" Y'8a2
and hence that
2
(3 ) x = 2a + ¹¹² and Y2= 191
a - x₁ a
24. From the preceding question prove that, if tangents be drawn
to the parabola y2 = 4ax from any point on the parabola y² = a (x + b),
then the normals at the points of contact meet on a fixed straight
line.
25. Find the lengths of the normals drawn from the point on the
axis of the parabola y2 = 8ax whose distance from the focus is 8a.
26. Prove that the locus of the middle point of the portion of a
normal intersected between the curve and the axis is a parabola whose
vertex is the focus and whose latus rectum is one quarter of that of
the original parabola.
27. Prove that the distance between a tangent to the parabola and
the parallel normal is a cosec @ sec² 0, where 0 is the angle that either
makes with the axis.
XXVI. ] TANGENT AND NORMAL. EXAMPLES . 187

28. PNP' is a double ordinate of the parabola ; prove that the

locus of the point of intersection of the normal at P and the diameter
through P' is the equal parabola y² = 4a (x - 4a).
29. The normal at any point P meets the axis in G and the
tangent at the vertex in G' ; if A be the vertex and the rectangle
AGQG' be completed, prove that the equation to the locus of Q is
x³ =2ax² +ay².
30. Two equal parabolas have the same focus and their axes are
at right angles ; a normal to one is perpendicular to a normal to the
other ; prove that the locus of the point of intersection of these
normals is another parabola.
31. If a normal to a parabola make an angle with the axis,
shew that it will cut the curve again at an angle tan-¹ ( tan ø) .
32. Prove that the two parabolas y² = 4ax and y² = 4c (x - b) cannot
b
have a common normal, other than the axis, unless a - c >2.

33. If a² >862, prove that a point can be found such that the two
tangents from it to the parabola y² =4ax are normals to the parabola
x²=4by.
34. Prove that three tangents to a parabola, which are such that
the tangents of their inclinations to the axis are in a given harmonical
progression, form a triangle whose area is constant.
35. Prove that the parabolas y² = 4ax and x² = 4by cut one another
3ab
at an angle tan-1
2 (a³ + b³) *
36. Prove that two parabolas, having the same focus and their axes
in opposite directions, cut at right angles.
37. Shew that the two parabolas
x² +4a (y - 2b - a) = 0 and y² = 4b (x -− 2a + b)
intersect at right angles at a common end of the latus rectum
of each.
38. A parabola is drawn touching the axis of x at the origin and
having its vertex at a given distance k from this axis. Prove that the
axis of the parabola is a tangent to the parabola x² = − 8k (y – 2k).

211 . Some properties of the Parabola.

(a) If the tangent and normal at any point P ofthe

parabola meet the axis in T and G respectively, then
ST = SG = SP,
188 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

and the tangent at P is equally inclined to the axis and the

focal distance ofP.

A/S N G X
N

M P

Let P be the point (x , y ) .

Draw PM perpendicular to the directrix.
By Art. 209, we have AT - AN.
.. TS TA + AS = AN+ ZA = ZN = MP = SP,
and hence 4 STP== SPT
By the same article, NG2AS = ZS.
.. SG = SN + NG = ZS + SN = MP = SP.
(B) If the tangent at P meet the directrix in K, then
KSP is a right angle.
For 4 SPT:= L PTS:= L KPM.
Hence the two triangles KPS and KPM have the two
sides KP, PS and the angle KPS equal respectively to the
two sides KP, PM and the angle KPM.
Hence LKSP = LKMP := a right angle.
Also L SKP == L MKP.

(y) Tangents at the extremities ofany focal chord inter-

sect at right angles in the directrix.
For, if PS be produced to meet the curve in P', then,
since P'SK is a right angle, the tangent at P' meets the
directrix in K.
 PROPERTIES OF THE PARABOLA. 189

Also, by (B), L MKP = 4 SKP,

and, similarly, ' = L SKP'.
L M'KP
Hence

' = ½ ▲ SKM + } 4▲ SKM' = a right angle.

▲ PKP
(8) IfSY be perpendicular to the tangent at P, then Y
lies on the tangent at the vertex and SY² = AS . SP.
For the equation to any tangent is
α
y = mx + m ........ (1 ).

The equation to the perpendicular to this line passing

through the focus is
1
Y (x -
− a) ..... (2) .
m
The lines ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) meet where
α 1 1 a
mx + x+ ,
m m (x − a) m m
i.e. where x = 0.
Hence Y lies on the tangent at the vertex.
Also, by Euc. vi. 8, Cor.,
SY2SA . ST = AS . SP.

212. To prove that through any given point (x₁ , Y₁)

there pass, in general, two tangents to the parabola.
The equation to any tangent is (by Art. 206)
α
y== mx + (1).
m
If this pass through the fixed point (x , y ), we have
a
Y₁ = mx1 +
m,
i.e. m²x₁ - my₁ + a = 0 . (2).
For any given values of x and y, this equation is in
general a quadratic equation and gives two values of m
(real or imaginary).
Corresponding to each value of m we have, by substi-
tuting in (1), a different tangent.
190 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The roots of (2) are real and different if y₁2 - – 4ax be

positive, i.e., by Art. 201 , if the point (x , y₁ ) lie without
the curve .
They are equal, i. e. the two tangents coalesce into one
tangent, if y4ax, be zero, i. e. if the point (x , y ) lie on
the curve.
2
The two roots are imaginary if y₁² - 4ax, be negative,
i.e. if the point (x₁ , y₁) lie within the curve.

213. Equation to the chord of contact of tangents

drawn from a point (x₁ , Y₁).
The equation to the tangent at any point Q, whose
coordinates are x' and y', is
yy' = 2α (x + x') .
Also the tangent at the point R, whose coordinates are
x" and y' , is
yy" = 2a (x + x" ).
If these tangents meet at the point T, whose coordi-
nates are x and y₁, we have
Y₁y' = 2α (x₂ + x ) .(1)
and Y₁y" = 2a (x, + x") (2).
The equation to QR is then
yy₁ = 2a (x + x1) ... . (3).
For, since ( 1 ) is true, the point (x', y') lies on (3).
Also, since ( 2) is true, the point (x", y' ) lies on (3).
Hence (3) must be the equation to the straight line
joining (x , y ) to the point (x" , y" ), i.e. it must be the
equation to QR the chord of contact of tangents from the
point (x,, y₁).

214. The polar of any point with respect to a para-

bola is defined as in Art. 162.
To find the equation of the polar of the point (x₁ , Y₁)
with respect to the parabola y² ==
= 4ax.
Let Q and R be the points in which any chord drawn
through the point P, whose coordinates are (x₁ , y₁ ), meets
the parabola.
 THE PARABOLA. POLE AND POLAR. 191

Let the tangents at Q and R meet in the point whose

coordinates are (h, k).

T(hk)R
Q'

T
(p.34) P(x, y,)

(h,k)
I
R
R

We require the locus of (h, k).

Since QR is the chord of contact of tangents from (h, k)
its equation (Art. 213) is
ky = 2a (x + h).
Since this straight line passes through the point ( 1 , 1)
we have
ky₁ = 2a (x + h) …………. .. ( 1 ).
Since the relation (1) is true, it follows that the point
(h, k) always lies on the straight line
yy₁ = 2a (x + x₁) . (2) .
Hence (2) is the equation to the polar of (x , y ).
Cor. The equation to the polar of the focus, viz. the point (a, 0),
is 0=x+a, so that the polar of the focus is the directrix.

215. When the point (x , y ) lies without the parabola

the equation to its polar is the same as the equation to the
chord of contact of tangents drawn from (x1 , y₁).
When (x , y ) is on the parabola the polar is the same
as the tangent at the point.
As in Art. 164 the polar of (x , y ) might have been
defined as the chord of contact of the tangents (real or
imaginary) that can be drawn from it to the parabola.
216. Geometrical construction for the polar of a point
(x1 , y1).
192 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let 7
' be the point (x , y ), so that its polar is
yy₁ = 2α (x + x₁) ……………. . (1 ).
Through 7 draw a straight line parallel to the axis ; its
equation is therefore
R
y = yi . (2).
Let this straight line meet the polar
in and the curve in P.
The coordinates of V, which is the
intersection of (1 ) and (2 ) , are therefore
y₁2
and y₁ ......... (3).
2a x₁
Also P is the point on the curve
whose ordinate is y₁ , and whose coordi- Fig. 1.
nates are therefore
3.2 and Yı
4a
abscissa of T + abscissa of V
Since abscissa of P= there-
2
fore, by Art. 22, Cor. , P is the
middle point of TV.
Also the tangent at P is
y
YY₁ = 2a (x + 4a

which is parallel to (1 ).
Hence the polar of T is parallel
to the tangent at P. Fig. 2.
To draw the polar of 7' we therefore draw a line through
T, parallel to the axis, to meet the curve in P and produce
it to V so that TP = PV ; a line through V parallel to the
tangent at P is then the polar required.

217. If the polar of a point P passes through the point T, then

the polar of T goes through P. (Fig. Art. 214).
Let P be the point (x , y₁) and T the point (h, k).
The polar of P is yy₁ = 2a (x + x₁).
Since it passes through T, we have
y₁k = 2a (x₂ + h) (1).
 PAIR OF TANGENTS FROM ANY POINT. 193

The polar of T is yk = 2a (x + h).

Since (1) is true, this equation is satisfied by the coordinates ₁
and y1.
Hence the proposition.
Cor. The point of intersection , T, of the polars of two points ,
Pand Q, is the pole of the line PQ.
218. To find the pole of a given straight line with respect to the
parabola.
Let the given straight line be
Ax +By + C = 0.
If its pole be the point (x , y₁), it must be the same straight
line as
yy₁ = 2a (x + x₁),
i.e. 2ax - yy1 + 2ax₁ = 0.
Since these straight lines are the same, we have
2a -Y1 2ax1
= =
Α B C
C 2Ba
i.e. an d y₁ =
A
219. To find the equation to the pair of tangents that
can be drawn to the parabola from the point (x , y₁).
Let (h, k) be any point on either of the tangents drawn
from (x , y ) . The equation to the line joining (x₁ , y₁ ) to
(h, k) is
k
Y¹ (x − x₁),
h X1
k - yi hy - kx
i.e. y x +
h - x1 h —X1
If this be a tangent it must be of the form
α
y = mx + ,
m
k- yi a
so that = m and hy₁ - kx₁
h - x₁ h X1 m
Hence, by multiplication,
α = k - y₁ hy₁- kx¸ 2
h - x₁ h - x₁
i.e. - --
a (h -
− x¸)² = (k − y₁) (hy, — kx¸).
L. 13
194 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The locus of the point (h, k) (i.e. the pair of tangents

required) is therefore
a (xx ) = (y - y₁ ) (xy - уx ) ......... (1) .
It will be seen that this equation is the same as
(y² - 4ax) (y, - 4ax,) = {yy, - 2a (x + x₁ )}².

220. To prove that the middle points of a system of

parallel chords of a parabola all lie on a straight line which
is parallel to the axis.
Since the chords are all parallel, they all make the same
angle with the axis of x. Let
the tangent of this angle be m.
The equation to QR, any
one of these chords, is there- P
fore
y = mx + c ...... (1 ), X
where c is different for the
R
several chords, but m is the
same.
This straight line meets the parabola y² = 4ax in points
whose ordinates are given by
my² = 4a (y — c),
4a 4ac
i.e. y2 -- m ·Y + m 0 . (2).

Let the roots of this equation, i.e. the ordinates of Q

and R, be y' and y' , and let the coordinates of V, the
middle point of QR, be (h, k).
Then, by Art. 22,
y' + y" 2a
k
2 m
from equation (2).
The coordinates of V therefore satisfy the equation
2a
y m
so that the locus of V is a straight line parallel to the axis
of the curve,
 MIDDLE POINTS OF PARALLEL CHORDS. 195

2α
The straight line y== meets the curve in a point P,
m
2a a
whose ordinate is and whose abscissa is therefore
m m² .
The tangent at this point is, by Art. 205,
a
y = mx + - m
"

and is therefore parallel to each of the given chords.

Hence the locus of the middle points of a system of
parallel chords of a parabola is a straight line which is
parallel to the axis and meets the curve at a point the
tangent at which is parallel to the given system.
221. To find the equation to the chord of the parabola which is
bisected at any point (h, k).
By the last article the required chord is parallel to the tangent at
through (h, k) parallel to the axis meets the
the e. P where a line
curvpoint
Also, by Art. 216, the polar of (h, k) is parallel to the tangent at
this same point P.
The required chord is therefore parallel to the polar yk = 2a (x + h).
Hence, since it goes through (h, k), its equation is
k (y - k)= 2a (x -
− h) (Art. 67).

222. Diameter. Def. The locus of the middle points

of a system of parallel chords of a parabola is called a
diameter and the chords are called its ordinates.
Thus, in the figure of Art. 220, PV is a diameter and
QR and all the parallel chords are ordinates to this
diamet er.
The proposition of that article may therefore be stated
as follows .
Any diameter of a parabola is parallel to the axis and
the tangent at the point where it meets the curve is parallel
to its ordinates.

223. The tangents at the ends of any chord meet on

the diameter which bisects the chord.
Let the equation of QR ( Fig. , Art. 220) be
= mx + c.
y= ..(1),
13-2
196 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

and let the tangents at Q and R meet at the point T

(x1 , y1 ).
Then QR is the chord of contact of tangents drawn
from T, and hence its equation is
yy₁ = 2a (x + x₁) (Art. 213).
Comparing this with equation ( 1 ) , we have
2α 2a
= m , so that y₁ =
Yı m
and therefore 7' lies on the straight line
2a
У m

But this straight line was proved, in Art. 220, to be

the diameter PV which bisects the chord.

224. To find the equation to a parabola, the axes

being any diameter and the tangent to the parabola at the
point where this diameter meets the curve.
Let PVX be the diameter and PY the tangent at P
meeting the axis in T.
Take any point Q on the curve,
and draw QM perpendicular to the Oi
axis meeting the diameter PV in L. X
Let PV be x and VQ be y.
TASN M
Draw PN perpendicular to the
axis of the curve, and let
0 == L YPX = ↳ PTM.
Then
4AS . AN = PN2 = NT2 tan2 0 = 4AN² . tan² 0.
.. AN = AS . cot² 0 = a cot² 0,
and PN√4AS . AN == = 2a cot 0.
Now ........... (1 ).
QM² = 4AS . AM = 4a . AM .....
Also
QM= NP + LQ = 2a cot 0 + VQ sin = 2a cot 0 + y sin 0,
and AM = AN + PV + VL = a cot² 0 + x + y cos 0.
 THE PARABOLA. EXAMPLES. 197

Substituting these values in ( 1 ), we have

(2a cot 0 + y sin 0)² = 4a (a cot² 0 + x + y cos 0) ,
i.e. y² sin² 0 = 4ax.
The required equation is therefore
y² = 4px . (2) ,
where
α
P= sin² 0;= a ( 1 + cot² 0 ) = a + AN = SP (by Art. 202).

The equation to the parabola referred to the above axes

is therefore of the same form as its equation referred to the
rectangular axes of Art. 197.
The equation (2) states that
QV2 = 4SP . PV.

225. The quantity 4p is called the parameter of the

diameter PV. It is equal in length to the chord which is
parallel to PY and passes through the focus.
For if Q'V'R' be the chord, parallel to PY and passing
through the focus and meeting PV in V ' , we have
PV' = ST = SP = p,
so that Q'V'² = 4p . PV' = 4p²,
and hence
Q'R' = 2Q'V' 4p.

226. Just as in Art. 205 it could now be shown that

the tangent at any point (x', y') of the above curve is
yy' = 2p (x + x').
Similarly for the equation to the polar of any point.

EXAMPLES. XXVII.

1. Prove that the length of the chord joining the points of

contact of tangents drawn from the point (x1 , y₁) is
√y₁²2 + 4a² √y₁²2_
- 4ax1 .
a
2. Prove that the area of the triangle formed by the tangents
from the point (x , y₁) and the chord of contact is (y₁² – 4ax¸) ª ÷2a.
÷
198 COORDINATE GEOMETRY . [Exs . XXVII .]

3. If a perpendicular be let fall from any point P upon its polar

prove that the distance of the foot of this perpendicular from the
focus is equal to the distance of the point P from the directrix.
4. What is the equation to the chord of the parabola y² =8x
which is bisected at the point (2, -3) ?
5. The general equation to a system of parallel chords in the
parabola y2 = 25x is 4x - y + k = 0.
What is the equation to the corresponding diameter ?
6. P, Q, and R are three points on a parabola and the chord PQ
cuts the diameter through R in V. Ordinates PM and QN are drawn
to this diameter. Prove that RM . RN= RV².
7. Two equal parabolas with axes in opposite directions touch at
a point 0. From a point P on one of them are drawn tangents PQ
and PQ' to the other. Prove that QQ' will touch the first parabola in
P' where PP' is parallel to the common tangent at 0.

Coordinates of any point on the parabola ex-

pressed in terms of one variable .

227. It is often convenient to express the coordinates

of any point on the curve in terms of one variable.
It is clear that the values
a 2a
X= y
m², m
always satisfy the equation to the curve.
Hence, for all values of m , the point
а 2a
27 m

lies on the curve. By Art. 206, this m is equal to the

tangent of the angle which the tangent at the point makes
with the axis.
The equation to the tangent at this point is
a
y = mx + 9
m
and the normal is, by Art. 207, found to be
α
my + x = 2a +
 COORDINATES IN TERMS OF ONE VARIABLE. 199

228. The coordinates of the point could also be ex-

pressed in terms of the m of the normal at the point ; in
this case its coordinates are am² and -
– 2am.
The equation of the tangent at the point (am", -2am )
is, by Art. 205,
my + x + am² = 0,
and the equation to the normal is
y== mx- 2am - am³.

229. The simplest substitution (avoiding both nega-

tive signs and fractions ) is
x = at2 and y = 2at.
These values satisfy the equation y² -
= 4ax.
The equations to the tangent and normal at the point
(at, 2at) are, by Arts. 205 and 207 ,
ty = x + at²,
and
y + tx = 2at + at³.
The equation to the straight line joining
(at2, 2at,) and (at22 , 2at )
is easily found to be

y (t₁ + t₂) = 2x + 2αt₁t₂ .

The tangents at the points
(at₁2, 2at₁) and (at₂², 2at₂)
are
t₁y = x + at₁₂²,
and
toy == x + at₂².
The point of intersection of these two tangents is clearly

{att , a (t + t₂)}.
The point whose coordinates are (at², 2at) may, for
brevity, be called the point " t."

Inthe following articles we shall prove some important

properties
tution. of the parabola making use of the above substi-
200 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

230. Ifthe tangents at P and Q meet in T, prove that

(1) TP and TQ subtend equal angles at the focus S,
(2) ST2 SP.SQ,
and (3) the triangles SPT and STQ are similar.
Let P be the point (at,², 2at₁ ), and Q be the
point (at,2, 2at ), so that (Art. 229 ) T is the point
{at₁t₂, a (t₁ + t₂) } .
2at1
(1) The equation to SP is y= at 2 - a (x - − a) , S
i.e. (t2-1) y - 2tx + 2at₁ = 0.
The perpendicular, TU, from T on this
straight line
= a (t₁² − 1) (t₁ + t₂) — 2t₁ . at₁t₂ + 2at1 = α (t3 – tity ) + (t - t )
( -1) +4t2 +1
= a (t₁- t₂).
Similarly TU' has the same numerical value.
The angles PST and QST are therefore equal .
(2) By Art. 202 we have SP = a (1 + t₁²) and SQ = a (1 + 1,2).
Also ST² = (at t₂ - a)² + a² (t₂ + t₂)²
= a² [t₁2t + t² + t₂² + 1 ] = a² (1 + t₂ ) (1 + t³) .
Hence ST2 SP.SQ.
ST = SQ
(3) Since SP ST and the angles TSP and TSQ are equal, the
triangles SPT and STQ are similar, so that
4 SQT 4 STP and 4 STQ = 4 SPT.
231. The area of the triangle formed by three points on a
parabola is twice the area of the triangle formed by the tangents at
these points.
Let the three points on the parabola be
(at₁2 , 2at₁) , (at,², 2at,), and (at¸², 2at ).
The area of the triangle formed by these points, by Art. 25,
= [at2 (2at - 2atz) + at₂2 (2atz - 2at1 ) + at2 (2at, -2at )]
= − a² ( t₂ -− tô) (tз — t₁) (t₁— të).
==
The intersections of the tangents at these points are (Art. 229)
the points
{atts, a (t + ts)} , { atzt₁ , a ( ts + t₁)} , and { att , a (t₁ + t₂)} .
The area of the triangle formed by these three points
= { att (atat₂) + att₁ ( at₁ - — at¸) + at₁t (at₂ - at₁)}
a² (t - t ) (tз -— t₁) (t₁ — të).
The first of these areas is double the second.
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 201

232. The circle circumscribing the triangle formed by any three

tangents to a parabola passes through the focus.
Let P, Q, and R be the points at which the tangents are drawn
and let their coordinates be
(at₁², 2at₁), (at,², 2atë) , and (atz², 2atz).
As in Art. 229, the tangents at Q and R intersect in the point
{ atata, a (t + tz)}.
Similarly, the other pairs of tangents meet at the points
{at¸t₁, a (t₂ + t₁)} and { at₁t , a (t₁ + t₂)} .
Let the equation to the circle be
x² +y² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 .... . (1).
Since it passes through the above three points, we have
a²t₂²² + a² (t₂ + tz) ² + 2gatëtz + 2ƒa (t₂ + tz) + c = 0 ... (2),
a²²²2 + a² (t + t₁)² + 2gatt₁ + 2fa (t₂ + t₁) + c = 0 ... ( 3 ) ,
and a³½³t₂²2 + a² (t₁ + t₂)² + 2gat₁₂ + 2fa (t₂ + tg) + c = 0 ... (4) .
Subtracting (3) from (2) and dividing by a (t, – t₁), we have
a {t3² (t₁ + t₂) + t₁ + t₂ + 2t3 } + 2gt3 + 2f= 0.
Similarly, from (3) and (4), we have
a { t₁² (t₂ + tz) + t₂ + tç + 2t₁ } + 2gt₁ + 2ƒ= 0.
From these two equations we have
2g = -a (1 + t₂ts + tåt₁ + t₁t₂) and 2ƒ= -− a [ t₁ + t₂ + t3 − t₁tëtз].
Substituting these values in (2), we obtain
c= a² (tgtg + tat + tytą).
The equation to the circle is therefore
x² +y² -
— ax (1 + tëtз + tåt₁ + t₁të) – ay ( t₁ + të + tз − t₁tëtз)
+ a² (t₂ts + tzt₁ + t₁t₂) = 0,
which clearly goes through the focus (a, 0).

233. If O be any point on the axis and POP' be any chord

passing through O, and if PM and P'M' be the ordinates of P and P',
prove that AM . AM' = AO², and PM . P'M' = -4a . AO.
Let O be the point (h, 0) , and let P and P' be the points
(at₁2 , 2at₁) and (at,², 2at₂) .
The equation to PP' is, by Art. 229,
(t₂ + t₁) y -2x = 2at₁t .
If this pass through the point (h, 0), we have
-2h = 2at₁t2 ,
h
i.e. t₁t2= a
202 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

h2
Hence AM .AM' at₁2 . at₂² = a² . - = h² = A O²,

and PM . PM' = 2at . 2at . = 4a² ==-4a . 40.

4a² ( − 1) ==
Cor. If O be the focus, AO = a, and we have
1
t₁t2 = − 1, i.e. t2=
a
The points (at₁², 2at₁) and -2a are therefore at the ends
( t1 )
of a focal chord.

234. To prove that the orthocentre of any triangle formed by

three tangents to a parabola lies on the directrix.
Let the equations to the three tangents be
a
y = mx + (1),
m1
a
y = mx + (2),
m2
a
and y= mx + (3).
Mg
The point of intersection of (2) and (3) is found, by solving them,
to be
I a 1 1
a
momg ' mz +
The equation to the straight line through this point perpendicular
to ( 1) is (Art. 69)
1 1 1 a
-a + -= x
m1 m₂my]
x 1 1 a
i.e. y+ =a + + ..(4).
m1 _ma Mსვ mymomz
Similarly, the equation to the straight line through the intersection
of (3) and (1) perpendicular to (2) is
Xx 1 1 a
y + - =a + + (5),
Ma (im3 m1 mymom
and the equation to the straight line through the intersection of (1)
and (2) perpendicular to (3) is
x 1 1
y+ + +
m3 m1 m2 mamma)
The point which is common to the straight lines (4), (5), and (6),
 EXAMPLES. ONE VARIABLE. 203

i.e. the orthocentre of the triangle, is easily seen to be the point

whose coordinates are
1 1 1
x = -a , y = a + + +
ma M3 mmmz
and this point lies on the directrix.

EXAMPLES. XXVIII.

1. If w be the angle which a focal chord of a parabola makes with

the axis, prove that the length of the chord is 4a cosec² W
w and that the
perpendicular on it from the vertex is a sin w.
2. A point on a parabola, the foot of the perpendicular from it
upon the directrix , and the focus are the vertices of an equilateral
triangle. Prove that the focal distance of the point is equal to the
latus rectum .
3. Prove that the semi-latus-rectum is a harmonic mean between
the segments of any focal chord.
4. If Tbe any point on the tangent at any point P of a parabola,
and if TL be perpendicular to the focal radius SP and TN be perpen-
dicular to the directrix, prove that SL = TN.
Hence obtain a geometrical construction for the pair of tangents
drawn to the parabola from any point T.
5. Prove that on the axis of any parabola there is a certain point
K which has the property that, if a chord PQ of the parabola be drawn
through it, then
1 1
PK2 + QK2
is the same for all positions of the chord.
6. The normal at the point (at2 , 2at₁ ) meets the parabola again
in the point (at22 , 2at₂) ; prove that
2
t₂= - t1 ·
t1
7. A chord is a normal to a parabola and is inclined at an angle
to the axis ; prove that the area of the triangle formed by it and
the tangents at its extremities is 4a² sec³ 0 cosec³ 0.
8. If PQ be a normal chord of the parabola and if S be the focus,
prove that the locus of the centroid of the triangle SPQ is the curve
36ay2 (3x - 5a) - 81y4 = 128a¹ .
9. Prove that the length of the intercept on the normal at the
point (at², 2at) made by the circle which is described on the focal
distance ofthe given point as diameter is a √1 + t².
204 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

10. Prove that the area of the triangle formed by the normals to
the parabola at the points (at₁2, 2at₁) , (at,², 2at,) and (at¸³, 2at,) is
a2
-
2 (të − tз) (tз − t₁) (t1 − t₂) (t1 + të + tg)².
11. Prove that the normal chord at the point whose ordinate
is equal to its abscissa subtends a right angle at the focus.
12. A chord of a parabola passes through a point on the axis
(outside the parabola) whose distance from the vertex is half the
latus rectum ; prove that the normals at its extremities meet on the
curve.
13. The normal at a point P of a parabola meets the curve
again in Q, and T is the pole of PQ ; shew that T lies on the diameter
passing through the other end of the focal chord passing through P,
and that PT is bisected by the directrix.
14. If from the vertex of a parabola a pair of chords be drawn at
right angles to one another and with these chords as adjacent sides a
rectangle be made, prove that the locus of the further angle of the
rectangle is the parabola
y² = 4a (x - 8a).
15. A series of chords is drawn so that their projections on a
straight line which is inclined at an angle a to the axis are all of
constant length c ; prove that the locus of their middle point is the
curve
(y² - 4ax) (y cos a + 2a sin a)² + a²c² = 0.
16. Prove that the locus of the poles of chords which subtend a
right angle at a fixed point (h, k) is
ax² – hy² + (4a² + 2ah) x − 2aky + a (h² + k²) = 0.
17. Prove that the locus of the middle points of all tangents
drawn from points on the directrix to the parabola is
y² (2x + a) = a (3x + a)².
18. Prove that the orthocentres of the triangles formed by three
tangents and the corresponding three normals to a parabola are
equidistant from the axis.
19. T is the pole of the chord PQ ; prove that the perpendiculars
from P, T, and Q upon any tangent to the parabola are in geometrical
progression.
20. If r₁ and r₂ be the lengths of radii vectores of the parabola
which are drawn at right angles to one another from the vertex, prove
that
r₁*r¸¹ = 16a² ((r₁³
1 +r¸³).
21. A parabola touches the sides of a triangle ABC in the points
D, E, and F respectively ; if DE and DF cut the diameter through the
point A in b and c respectively, prove that Bb and Cc are parallel.
XXVIII .] EXAMPLES. ONE VARIABLE. 205

22. Prove that all circles described on focal radii as diameters

touch the directrix of the curve, and that all circles on focal radii as
diameters touch the tangent at the vertex.
23. A circle is described on a focal chord as diameter ; if m be the
tangent of the inclination of the chord to the axis, prove that the
equation to the circle is
2 - 4ay --3a² = 0.
x² +y2-2ax ( 1+
(1 + 1) - m
24. LOL' and MOM ' are two chords of a parabola passing through
a point 0 on its axis. Prove that the radical axis of the circles
described on LL' and MM' as diameters passes through the vertex of
the parabola.
25. A circle and a parabola intersect in four points ; shew that the
algebraic sum of the ordinates of the four points is zero.
Shew also that the line joining one pair of these four points and
the line joining the other pair are equally inclined to the axis.
26. Circles are drawn through the vertex of the parabola to cut
the parabola orthogonally at the other point of intersection. Prove
that the locus of the centres of the circles is the curve
2y2 (2y2 + x² - 12ax) = ax (3x - 4a)2.
27. Prove that the equation to the circle passing through the
points (at2, 2at1) and (2at2, 2at,) and the intersection of the tan-
gents to the parabola at these points is
− ay (t₂ + t₂) (1 -− t₁ t₂) + a² t₂ t₂ (2 - t₁₂ t₂) = 0 .
x²+y² - ax [(t₁ + t₂) ² + 2] -
28. TP and TQ are tangents to the parabola and the normals at P
and Q meet at a point R on the curve ; prove that the centre of the
circle circumscribing the triangle TPQ lies on the parabola
2y2 - a (x - a).
29. Through the vertex A of the parabola y² = 4ax two chords AP
and AQ are drawn, and the circles on AP and AQ as diameters
intersect in R. Prove that, if 01, 02 , and be the angles made with
the axis by the tangents at P and Q and by AR, then
cot 01 + cot 02 + 2 tan p = 0.
30. A parabola is drawn such that each vertex of a given triangle
is the pole of the opposite side ; shew that the focus of the parabola
lies on the nine-point circle of the triangle, and that the orthocentre of
the triangle formed by joining the middle points of the sides lies on
the directrix .
 CHAPTER XI.

THE PARABOLA (continued).

[ On a first reading of this Chapter, the student may, with

advantage, omit from Art. 239 to the end. ]
Some examples of Loci connected with the
Parabola .
235. Ex. 1. Find the locus of the intersection of tangents to the
parabola y² = 4ax, the angle between them being always a given angle a.
a
The straight line y = mx + is always a tangent to the parabola.
m
If it pass through the point T (h, k) we
have
m²h - mk + a = 0 ........ .. (1).
If m1 and m2 be the roots of this equation T
we have (by Art. 2) (h,k) A
k X
my + m² h .. (2),
a
and mym₂ = h .(3),

and the equations to TP and TQ are then

a a
y = mx + and y = mx + •
m1 M2
Hence, by Art. 66, we have
tan a = my - m2 = √(m₁ + m )² − 4m¸m
1 + m₂mq 1 + m₂mq
k2 4a
h2 h √k² - 4ah
a a + h > by (2) and (3).
812

1+
 THE PARABOLA. LOCI. 207

.. k² - 4ah = (a + h)² tan²a.

Hence the coordinates of the point T always satisfy the equation
y² - 4ax = (a + x)³ tan² a.
We shall find in a later chapter that this curve is a hyperbola.
As a particular case let the tangents intersect at right angles , so
that mym₂= -1.

From (3) we then have h = -a, so that in this case the point T
' lies
onthe straight line x = -a, which is the directrix .
Hence the locus of the point of intersection of tangents, which cut
at right angles, is the directrix.

Ex. 2. Prove that the locus of the poles of chords which are normal
to the parabola y² = 4ax is the curve
y² (x + 2a) + 4a³ = 0.
Let PQ be a chord which is normal at P. Its equation is then
y = mx - 2am - am³....... .......(1) .
Let the tangents at P and Q intersect in T, whose coordinates are
hand k, so that we require the locus of T.
Since PQ is the polar of the point (h, k) its equation is
yk = 2a (x + h)………………………………………… . (2) .
Now the equations (1) and (2) represent the same straight line, so
that they must be equivalent. Hence
2a 2ah
m= " and 2am - am³ = – k
k
Eliminating m, i.e. substituting the value of m from the first of
these equations in the second, we have
4a2 8a4 2ah
=
k k3 k 9
i.e. k² (h + 2a) + 4a³ = 0,
The locus of the point T is therefore
y² (x + 2a) + 4a³ = 0.

Ex. 3. Find the locus of the middle points of chords ofa parabola
which subtend a right angle at the vertex, and prove that these chords all
pass through a fixed point on the axis ofthe curve.
208 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

First Method. Let PQ be any such chord, and let its equation be
y= mx + c......………………….. (1).
The lines joining the vertex with the
points of intersection of this straight line
with the parabola
y2 =4ax (2) ,
are given by the equation
y²c = 4ax (y - mx). (Art. 122) X
These straight lines are at right angles if
c + 4am = 0. (Art. 111)
Substituting this value of c in (1), the
equation to PQ is
y= m (x −- 4a) . (3).
This straight line cuts the axis of x at a constant distance 4a from
the vertex, i.e. AA' = 4a.
If the middle point of PQ be ( h, k) we have, by Art. 220,
2a
k= (4).
m
Also the point (h, k) lies on (3) , so that we have
k= m (h - 4a). ..(5).
If between (4) and (5) we eliminate m, we have
2a
k (h - 4a),
i.e. k² = 2a (h - 4a),
so that (h, k) always lies on the parabola
y² = 2a (x -
− 4a).
This is a parabola one half the size of the original, and whose
vertex is at the point A' through which all the chords pass.
Second Method. Let P be the point (at¸², 2at₁) and Q be the point
(at₂2, 2at ).
The tangents of the inclinations of AP and AQ to the axis are
2
and
t₁ t2
Since AP and AQ are at right angles, therefore
2 2
· = - 1,
t₁ ta
i.e. t₁t2 = -4 .. . (6).
As in Art. 229 the equation to PQ is
(t₁ + t₂) y = 2x + 2at₁t₂· ...........· (7).
 THE PARABOLA. LOCI. 209

This meets the axis of x at a distance - atit , i.e., by (6), 4a, from
the origin.
Also, (h, k) being the middle point of PQ, we have
2h=a (t₁² + t₂2),
and 2k = 2a (t₁ + tą).
Hence k2-2aha² (t₁ + tą)² - a² (t₂² + t₂2)
= 2a³t₁t2= -8a²,
so that the locus of (h, k) is, as before, the parabola
y² =2a (x - 4a).
Third Method . The equation to the chord which is bisected at
the point (h, k) is , by Art. 221,
k (y - k) = 2α (x -− h),
i.e. ky - 2axk2-2ah .... . (8).
As in Art. 122 the equation to the straight lines joining its points
ofintersection with the parabola to the vertex is
(k² - 2ah) y² = 4ax (ky – 2ax).
These lines are at right angles if
(k² - 2ah) + 8a² = 0.
Hence the locus as before.
Also the equation (8) becomes
ky - 2ax = -8a2.
This straight line always goes through the point (4a, 0).

EXAMPLES. XXIX.

From an external point P tangents are drawn to the parabola ; find

the equation to the locus of P when these tangents make angles 6, and
02 with the axis , such that
1. tan 0₁ + tan 02 is constant ( = b).
2. tan 0, tan 02 is constant ( = c) .
3. cot 01 + cot 02 is constant ( = d) .
4. 0102 is constant ( = 2a).
5. tan2 01 + tan² 0, is constant ( = λ).
6. cos 0, cos 02 is constant ( = µ).
L. 14
210 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

7. Two tangents to a parabola meet at an angle of 45° ; prove that

the locus of their point of intersection is the curve
y² - 4ax= (x + a)².
If they meet at an angle of 60° , prove that the locus is
y2-3x² - 10ax - 3a² = 0.
8. A pair of tangents are drawn which are equally inclined to a
straight line whose inclination to the axis is a ; prove that the locus
of their point of intersection is the straight line
y= (x - a) tan 2a.
9. Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of two tangents
which intercept a given distance 4c on the tangent at the vertex is an
equal parabola.
10. Shew that the locus of the point of intersection of two tangents,
which with the tangent at the vertex form a triangle of constant area
c², is the curve x2 (y² - 4ax) = 4c²a².
11. If the normals at P and Q meet on the parabola, prove that
the point of intersection of the tangents at P and Q lies either on a
certain straight line, which is parallel to the tangent at the vertex, or
on the curve whose equation is y² (x + 2a) + 4a³ = 0.
12. Two tangents to a parabola intercept on a fixed tangent
segments whose product is constant ; prove that the locus of their
point of intersection is a straight line.
13. Shew that the locus of the poles of chords which subtend a
constant angle a at the vertex is the curve
(x+ 4a)² = 4 cot² a (y² – 4ax).
14. In the preceding question if the constant angle be a right angle
the locus is a straight line perpendicular to the axis.
15. A point P is such that the straight line drawn through it
perpendicular to its polar with respect to the parabola y² = 4ax touches
the parabola x² - 4by. Prove that its locus is the straight line
2ax +by + 4a²= 0.
16. Two equal parabolas, A and B, have the same vertex and axis
but have their concavities turned in opposite directions ; prove that
the locus of poles with respect to B of tangents to A is the parabola A.
17. Prove that the locus of the poles of tangents to the parabola
y2 = 4ax with respect to the circle x² + y² = 2ax is the circle x² +y2 =ax.
18. Shew the locus of the poles of tangents to the parabola
y2 = 4ax with respect to the parabola y² = 4bx is the parabola
462
y2 = a-X.
 XXIX.] THREE NORMALS FROM ANY POINT . 211

Find the locus of the middle points of chords of the parabola

which
19. pass through the focus.
20. pass through the fixed point (h, k).
21. are normal to the curve.
22. subtend a constant angle a at the vertex .
23. are of given length 7.
24. are such that the normals at their extremities meet on the
parabola.
25. Through each point of the straight line x = my +h is drawn
the chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax which is bisected at the point ;
prove that it always touches the parabola
(y - 2am)² = 8α (x − h).
26. Two parabolas have the same axis and tangents are drawn to
the second from points on the first ; prove that the locus of the middle
points of the chords of contact with the second parabola all lie on a
fixed parabola.
27. Prove that the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars drawn
from the vertex of the parabola upon chords, which subtend an angle
of45° at the vertex, is the curve
r2-24ar cos 0 + 16a² cos 20 =0.

236. To prove that, in general, three normals can be

drawnfrom any point to the parabola and that the algebraic
sum of the ordinates of the feet of these three normals is
zero.

The straight line

y = mx - 2am ---- am³ .. (1 )
is, by Art. 208, a normal to the
parabola at the points whose coordi-
nates are
am² and -2am....... (2).
If this normal passes through X
the fixed point 0, whose coordinates
›¤(h, k)
are h and k, we have
k = mh - 2am - am³, 3
i.e. am³ + (2a − h) m + k = 0 .. .. (3),
14-2
212 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

This equation, being of the third degree, has three

roots, real or imaginary. Corresponding to each of these
roots, we have, on substitution in ( 1 ), the equation to a
normal which passes through the point 0.
Hence three normals, real or imaginary, pass through
any point 0.
If m₁ , m2, and m, be the roots of the equation (3), we
have
m₁ + m² + m² = 0.
If the ordinates of the feet of these normals be y₁ , Y2 ,
and y , we then have, by (2),
--
Y1 + Y₂ + Y3 ·2a (m₁ + m₂ + m³) = 0.
Hence the second part of the proposition.
We shall find, in a subsequent chapter, that, for certain
positions of the point O, all three normals are real ; for
other positions of 0, one normal only will be real, and the
other two imaginary.

237. Ex. Find the locus of a point which is such that (a) two of
the normals drawn from it to the parabola are at right angles,
(B) the three normals through it cut the axis in points whose distances
from the vertex are in arithmetical progression.
Any normal is y = mx - 2am - am³, and this passes through the
point (h, k), if
am³ + (2a − h) m + k = 0 ……………………….. . (1).
If then m₁ , m , and m, be the roots , we have, by Art. 2,
. (2) ,
2a - h
= (3),
a
k
and mym₂mz = a .(4) .

(a) If two of the normals, say m₁ and m , be at right angles , we

k
have m¸m = −1 , and hence, from (4), m = =- a
k
The quantity a is therefore a root of (1) and hence, by substitution,
we have
k3 k
a² + (2a − h ) ~a + k = 0 ,
i.e. k²= a (h - 3a).
 THREE NORMALS. EXAMPLES. 213

Thelocus of the point (h, k) is therefore the parabola y² = a (x - 3a)

whose vertex is the point (3a, 0) and whose latus rectum is one-quarter
that of the given parabola .
The student should draw the figure of both parabolas.
(8) The normal y = mx - 2am - am³ meets the axis of x at a point
whose distance from the vertex is 2a + am². The conditions of the
question then give
(2a + am₂²) + (2a + am¸²) = 2 (2a + am,²),
i.e. m₁² + m² = 2m²… .. .. (5).
If we eliminate m¸ , m₂ , and m, from the equations (2 ), (3) , (4),
and (5) we shall have a relation between h and k.
From (2) and (3) , we have
2a - h -
a = m₁m² + m² (m₂ + m²) = m¸m¸ − m² (6).
Also, (5) and (2) give
2m² = (m² + m³)² – 2m¸m¸ = m¸² -– 2mμm ,
i.e. m₂² + 2mm = 0... . (7) .
Solving (6) and (7), we have
2a - h 2a - h
m₁mg = За > and m²= - X За

Substituting these values in (4) , we have

2a - h -- 2 2a - h k
За За
i.e. 27ak2 =2 (h - 2a)³,
so that the required locus is
27ay2 =2 (x - 2a)³.
238. Ex. If the normals at three points P, Q, and R meet in a
point O and S be the focus, prove that SP . SQ.SR = a.SO².
As in the previous question we know that the normals at the
points (am , -2am ) , (am,², -– 2am ) and (am,2, -2am ) meet in the
point (h, k) if
m₂ + m₂ + mz = 0 .. . (1),
2a - h
MM + MzM² + m₁m₂ = a . (2),
k
and mymomg= .(3) .
a
By Art. 202 we have
SP= a (1 + m₂²) , SQ = a (1 + m,²), and SR = a ( 1 + m²²).
214 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Hence SP.SQ.SR
a³ ´ = ( 1 + m¸²) (1 + m²) (1 + m¸²)
2 2 2
= 1 + (m₁² + m²² + m²²) + (m² m²² + m²²m¸² + m¸² m²) + m¸²m²m¸².
Also, from (1) and (2), we have
2
m₁₂² + m² + m²² = (m² + m² + m²) ² − 2 (mm + m²m² +m¸m。)
h - 2a
=2
a "
and
2
m³m¸² +m¸²m² + m²m² = (m„m¸ +mm + mm )² − 2m¸m¿m (m² + m +m²)

= (h-2a)*, by (1) and (2).

h - 2a k2
Hence SP.SQ.
a3 SR - 1 + 2-2a + ·( -2
a ) ²+
+12"

= (h - a)2 + k² = SO²
a2 a2
i.e. SP.SQ. SR SO² . a

EXAMPLES. XXX.

Find the locus of a point O when the three normals drawn from
it are such that
1. two of them make complementary angles with the axis.
2. two of them make angles with the axis the product of whose
tangents is 2.
3. one bisects the angle between the other two.
4. two ofthem make equal angles with the given line y = mx + c.
5. the sum of the three angles made by them with the axis is
constant.
6. the area of the triangle formed by their feet is constant.
7. the line joining the feet of two of them is always in a given
direction.
The normals at three points P, Q, and R of the parabola y² =4ax
meet in a point O whose coordinates are h and k ; prove that
8. the centroid of the triangle PQR lies on the axis.
9. the point O and the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the
tangents at P, Q, and R are equidistant from the axis.
[Exs. XXX . ] THREE NORMALS. EXAMPLES. 215

10. if OP and OQ make complementary angles with the axis, then

the tangent at R is parallel to SO.
11. the sum of the intercepts which the normals cut off from the
axis is 2 (h +a).
12. the sum of the squares of the sides of the triangle PQR is
equal to 2 (h - 2a) (h + 10a).
13. the circle circumscribing the triangle PQR goes through the
vertex and its equation is 2x² + 2y² - 2x ( h + 2a) - ky = 0.
14. if P be fixed , then QR is fixed in direction and the locus of
the centre of the circle circumscribing PQR is a straight line.
15. Three normals are drawn to the parabola y2 = 4ax cos a from
any point lying on the straight line y = b sin a. Prove that the locus
of the orthocentre of the triangles formed by the corresponding tan-
x2 y2
gents is the curve + = 1 , the angle a being variable.
a2 b2
16. Prove that the sum of the angles which the three normals,
drawn from any point O, make with the axis exceeds the angle which
the focal distance of O makes with the axis by a multiple of π.
17. Two of the normals drawn from a point O to the curve make
complementary angles with the axis ; prove that the locus of O and
the curve which is touched by its polar are parabolas such that their
latera recta and that of the original parabola form a geometrical
progression. Sketch the three curves.
18. Prove that the normals at the points, where the straight line
lx +my= 1 meets the parabola, meet on the normal at the point
(4am² 4am
127 of the parabola.
:)
19. If the normals at the three points P, Q, and R meet in a point
and if PP' , QQ', and RR' be chords parallel to QR, RP, and PQ
respectively, prove that the normals at P', Q' , and R' also meet in a
point.
20. If the normals drawn from any point to the parabola cut the
line x = 2a in points whose ordinates are in arithmetical progres-
sion, prove that the tangents of the angles which the normals make
with the axis are in geometrical progression .
21. PG, the normal at P to a parabola, cuts the axis in G and is
produced to Q so that GQ = PG ; prove that the other normals
which pass through Q intersect at right angles.
22. Prove that the equation to the circle, which passes through the
focus and touches the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point (at², 2at) , is
x² + y² - ax (31² + 1) - ay (3t - t³) + 3a²t² = 0 .
Prove also that the locus of its centre is the curve
27ay2 = (2x - a) (x − 5a)².
216 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.XXX .]

23. Shew that three circles can be drawn to touch a parabola and
also to touch at the focus a given straight line passing through the
focus, and prove that the tangents at the point of contact with the
parabola form an equilateral triangle.
24. Through a point P are drawn tangents PQ and PR to a
parabola and circles are drawn through the focus to touch the para-
bola in Q and R respectively ; prove that the common chord of these
circles passes through the centroid of the triangle PQR.
25. Prove that the locus of the centre of the circle, which passes
through the vertex of a parabola and through its intersections with a
normal chord, is the parabola 2y² = ax — a².
26. A circle is described whose centre is the vertex and whose
diameter is three-quarters of the latus rectum of a parabola ; prove
that the common chord of the circle and parabola bisects the distance
between the vertex and the focus.

27. Prove that the sum of the angles which the four common
tangents to a parabola and a circle make with the axis is equal to
nπ + 2a, where a is the angle which the radius from the focus to the
centre of the circle makes with the axis and n is an integer.
28. PR and QR are chords of a parabola which are normals at P
and Q. Prove that two of the common chords of the parabola and
the circle circumscribing the triangle PRQ meet on the directrix.

29. The two parabolas y2 = 4a (x - 1) and x² = 4a (y - l') always

touch one another, the quantities and l' being both variable ; prove
that the locus of their point of contact is the curve xy = 4a².
30. A parabola, of latus rectum l, moves so as always to touch an
equal parabola, their axes being parallel ; prove that the locus of their
point of contact is another parabola whose latus rectum is 21.
31. The sides of a triangle touch a parabola, and two of its angular
points lie on another parabola with its axis in the same direction ;
prove that the locus of the third angular point is another parabola.

239. In Art. 197 we obtained the simplest possible

form of the equation to a parabola.
We shall now transform the origin and axes in the
most general manner.
Let the new origin have as coordinates (h, k), and let
the new axis of x be inclined at to the original axis, and
let the new angle between the axes be w'.
 PARABOLA. TWO TANGENTS AS AXES. 217

By Art. 133 we have for x and y to substitute

x cos 0 + y cos (w' + 0) + h,
and xsin + ysin (w' + 0) + k
respectively.
The equation of Art. 197 then becomes
{xsin 0 + y sin (w' + 0) + k }² = 4a { x cos 0 + y cos (w' + 0) + h},
i.e.

{x sin + y sin (w + 0) }² + 2x {k sin 0 – 2a cos 0}

+ 2y {k sin (w' + 0) - - 4ah
— 2a cos ( w' + 0)} + k² − = 0
.. (1 ) .
This equation is therefore the most general form of the
equation to a parabola.
We notice that in it the terms of the second degree
always form a perfect square.

240. To find the equation to a parabola, any two

tangents to it being the axes of coordinates and the points of
contact being distant a and b from the origin.
By the last article the most general form of the equa-
tion to any parabola is
(Ax + By)² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ............ (1).
This meets the axis of x in points whose abscissae are
given by
A²x² + 2gx + c == 0 (2).
If the parabola touch the axis of x at a distance a from
the origin, this equation must be equivalent to

A² (x − a)² = 0 . (3).
Comparing equations (2) and (3), we have
9 = -A²a, and c = A2a2 ...(4).
Similarly, since the parabola is to touch the axis of y
at a distance b from the origin, we have
ƒ= - B²b, and c = B2b2 . (5).
218 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

From (4) and (5) , equating the values of c, we have

B²b² = A²α³,
a
so that B= + A % (6).
b

Taking the negative sign, we have

α a²
B -- A
b' g = - A³a, f= - A2 b , and c = A²a².

Substituting these values in (1 ) we have, as the required

equation,
a 2 a²2
- ―- 2αx - 2
(x − y)* - ōy + a² = 0,

y 2 2x 2y
i.e. + 1=0 (7).
b)²
( -3 α b

This equation can be written in the form

х y 2 4xy
2 - Y
(- + ) - ( a + ) + 1 - ab'
x y xy
i.e. 1 = +2
a b ab 9
2
i.e. = 1,
√

i.e. 1 (8).
+
α
[The radical signs in (8) can clearly have both the positive and
negative signs prefixed. The different equations thus obtained corre-
spond to different portions of the curve. In the figure of Art. 243,
the abscissa of any point on the portion PAQ is < a, and the ordinate
< b, so that for this portion of the curve we must take both signs
positive. For the part beyond P the abscissa is > a, and x > y SO
a b
that the signs must be + and - For the part beyond Q the
ordinate is >b, and > -x so that the signs must be - and +.
b a
There is clearly no part of the curve corresponding to two negative
signs. ]
 PARABOLA. TWO TANGENTS AS AXES. 219

241. If in the previous article we took the positive

sign in (6), the equation would reduce to
x y 2 x 2y
-2 + 1 = 0,
a α

x 2
i.e. + y -- 1 = 0.
b

This gives us (Fig. , Art. 243) the pair of coincident

straight lines PQ. This pair of coincident straight lines is
also a conic meeting the axes in two coincident points at P
and Q, but is not the parabola required .

242. To find the equation to the tangent at any point

(x , y) of the parabola
х y = 1.
√√√ +√b
Let (x" , y" ) be any point on the curve close to (x', y') .
The equation to the line joining these two points is
y" - y'
y - y'= x" - x' (x − x') (1 ).

But, since these points lie on the curve, we have

-- (2),
√½ +√t
// α +√
√√2
-
so that (3).
"
x - √x Ja

The equation ( 1 ) is therefore

√ÿ″ – √ÿ √ÿ" + √ÿ
y - y' = (x - x'),
√x √x' + √x'
or, by (3),
√ō √ÿ" + √ÿ
y - y' =- (x - x' ) (4).
√a √x" + √x
220 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

The equation to the tangent at (x', y') is then obtained

by putting a" = x' and y" = y', and is
√ √ÿ
y - y' (x - x ') ,
Ja √x
х y
i.e. + '
y 1 . (5).
Jax √by
' √ b
This is the required equation.
[In the foregoing we have assumed that (x', y') lies on the portion
PAQ (Fig., Art. 243) . If it lie on either of the other portions the
proper signs must be affixed to the radicals, as in Art. 240. ]
x y=
Ex. To find the condition that the straight line + 1 may be a
f g
tangent.
This line will be the same as (5) , if
f= √ax' and g = √by',
x' f
so that =
√a -4a, and √-- =%
Hence f =1.
a+8=1
f
This is the required condition ; also , since x' =' a and y'
(f² g2\
the point of contact of the given line is a " b
Similarly, the straight line la +my = n will touch the parabola if
n n
+ = 1.
al bm

243. To find the focus of the parabola

x y 1.
b
√a+√½-
Let S be the focus, O the origin, and P and Q the
points of contact of the parabola with the axes.
Since, by Art. 230, the triangles OSP and QSO are
similar, the angle SOP = angle SQO.
Hence if we describe a circle through O, Q, and S, then,
by Euc. III . 32, OP is the tangent to it at P.
 PARABOLA. TWO TANGENTS AS AXES. 221

Hence S lies on the circle passing through the origin

O, the point Q, (0, b), and touching the axis of x at the
origin.

b/As

a X
The equation to this circle is
x² + 2xy cos w + y² = by (1).
Similarly, since SOQ - L SPO, S will lie on the circle
through O and P and touching the axis of y at the origin,
i.e. on the circle
x² + 2xy cos ∞ + y² = ax . (2).
The intersections of ( 1 ) and (2) give the point required.
On solving (1 ) and (2), we have as the focus the point
ab2 a²b
a² + 2ab cos w + b² ' a² + 2ab cos w + b²,

244. To find the equation to the axis.

If V be the middle point of PQ, we know, by Art . 223,
that OV is parallel to the axis.
α
Now V is the point (2, 2).
b
Hence the equation to OV is y -X.
α
The equation to the axis (a line through S parallel to
OV) is therefore
a2b b ab2
y =- x-
a² + 2ab cos w + b² α (2 a² + 2ab cos w + b²,
i.e. ab (a² -
— b²)
ay - bx =
a² + 2ab cos w + b² *
222 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

245. To find the equation to the directrix.

If we find the point of intersection of OP and a
tangent perpendicular to OP, this point will (Art. 211 , y )
be on the directrix.
Similarly we can obtain the point on OQ which is on
the directrix .
A straight line through the point (f, 0) perpendicular
to OX is

У = m (x -ƒ), where (Art. 93) 1 + m cos w = 0.

The equation to this perpendicular straight line is
then
x + y cos w = ƒ ... ...(1).
This straight line touches the parabola if (Art. 242)
f+ f ab cos w
= 1, i.e. if ƒ=
a b COS W a + b cos w
ab cos w
The point (a + b cos w 0) therefore lies on the directrix.
ab cos w
is on it.
Similarly the point (0, b + a cos w

The equation to the directrix is therefore

x (a + b cos w) + y (b + a cos w ) = ab cos w .. (2).
The latus rectum being twice the perpendicular distance
of the focus from the directrix = twice the distance of the
point
ab2 a²b
+ 2ab cos w + b² ' a² + 2ab cos o + b²,
from the straight line (2)
4a2b2 sin² w
=
(a² + 2ab cos o + b²)} ?
by Art. 96, after some reduction.

246. To find the coordinates of the vertex and the

equation to the tangent at the vertex.
 PARABOLA. TWO TANGENTS AS AXES. 223

The vertex is the intersection of the axis and the curve,

i.e. its coordinates are given by
y x a² -b²
b a
818
a² + 2ab cos w + b² . (1).

\2 2x 2y
and by + 1 == 0 ....(Art. 240),
b a b
2 4x
i.e. by = . (2).
( -1 + 1) =
From ( 1 ) and (2 ) , we have
a a² - b² 2
x= 1 = ab² (b + a cos w)²
a² + 2ab cos w + b²] (a² + 2ab cos w + b²)² *
a²b (a + b cos w)²
Similarly y=
(a² + 2ab cos w + b²)² *
These are the coordinates of the vertex.
The tangent at the vertex being parallel to the directrix,
its equation is
ab² (b + a cos w)²
+b
(a+ -
cos o) [a a² + 2ab cos w + b²)².
a²b (a + b cos w)²
+ (b + a cos w) y - (a² + 2ab cos w + b²j³] = 0,
၁)
i.e. x y ab
b + a cos w a + b cos w a² + 2ab cos w + b² *

EXAMPLES. XXXI.

1. If a parabola, whose latus rectum is 4c, slide between two

rectangular axes, prove that the locus of its focus is x²y² = c² (x² + y²),
and that the curve traced out by its vertex is
x*y* (x* + y³) = c².
2. Parabolas are drawn to touch two given rectangular axes and
their foci are all at a constant distance c from the origin. Prove that
the locus of the vertices of these parabolas is the curve
x*+y³=c³.
224 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XXXI.]

3. The axes being rectangular, prove that the locus of the focus
2 ===
4xy a and b being variables such
of the parabola ( a +1) ab '
that ab c², is the curve (x2 + y²)² = c²xy .
4. Parabolas are drawn to touch two given straight lines which
are inclined at an angle w ; if the chords of contact all pass through
a fixed point, prove that
(1) their directrices all pass through another fixed point, and
(2) their foci all lie on a circle which goes through the intersection of
the two given straight lines.
5. A parabola touches two given straight lines at given points ;
prove that the locus of the middle point of the portion of any tangent
which is intercepted between the given straight lines is a straight
line.
6. TP and TQ are any two tangents to a parabola and the
tangent at a third point R cuts them in P' and Q' ; prove that
TP' TQ' QQ' = TP' = Q'R
TP + TQ = 1 , and Q'T P'P RP'
7. If a parabola touch three given straight lines , prove that each
of the lines joining the points of contact passes through a fixed point.
8. A parabola touches two given straight lines ; if its axis pass
through the point (h , k), the given lines being the axes of coordinates,
prove that the locus of the focus is the curve
x² - y² - hx + ky = 0.
9. A parabola touches two given straight lines, which meet at 0,
in given points and a variable tangent meets the given lines in P and
Q respectively; prove that the locus of the centre of the circumcircle
of the triangle OPQ is a fixed straight line.
10. The sides AB and AC of a triangle ABC are given in position
and the harmonic mean between the lengths AB and AC is also given;
prove that the locus of the focus of the parabola touching the sides at
B and C is a circle whose centre lies on the line bisecting the angle
BAC.
11. Parabolas are drawn to touch the axes, which are inclined at
an angle w, and their directrices all pass through a fixed point (h, k).
Prove that all the parabolas touch the straight line
X y
=1.
h + k sec w k+ h sec w
 CHAPTER XII.

THE ELLIPSE.

247. THE ellipse is a conic section in which the

eccentricity e is less than unity.
Tofind the equation to an ellipse.
Let ZK be the directrix, S the focus, and let SZ be
perpendicular to the directrix.
Y
B

M M'

Z IN
S' Z' X

B'
There will be a point A on SZ, such that
SA == e . AZ........ (1).
Since e < 1 , there will be another point A' , on ZS produced,
such that
SA'e . A'Z.. .. (2).
L. 15
226 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let the length AA' be called 2a, and let C be the middle
point of AA'. Adding (1 ) and (2), we have
2a =AA' e (AZ + A'Z) = 2 . e . CZ,
a
i.e. ᏟᏃ (3).
e
Subtracting (1 ) from (2), we have
-
e (A'Z – AZ) = SA' — SA = (SC + C'A') – (CA — C'S),
i.e. e . AA' = 2CS,
and hence CS = a.e · (4).
Let C be the origin, C'A' the axis of x, and a line through
C perpendicular to AA' the axis of y.
Let P be any point on the curve, whose coordinates are
x and y, and let PM be the perpendicular upon the directrix ,
and PN the perpendicular upon AA'.
The focus S is the point (--ae, 0).
The relation SP² = e² . PM² = e² . ZN2 then gives
a
(x + ae)² + y² = e²
e² ((x
x++ 2) ² , (Art. 20),

i.e x² (1 - e ) + y² = a² ( 1 -
− e² ),
y³ =1
i.e. (5).
a² + a² (1 - e²)
If in this equation we put x == 0, we have
y = ± a √√1 - e²,
shewing that the curve meets the axis of y in two points,
B and B', lying on opposite sides of C, such that
B'C = CB a√1- e , i.e. CB - CA² – CS².
Let the length CB be called b, so that
b== a √1 − e².
The equation (5) then becomes
y2
3+ 3= 1 .(6) .
 THE ELLIPSE. 227

248. The equation (6) of the previous article may be

written
y³ 1 x² a² -− x² ___ (a + x) (α −
− x)
b2 α a² a²

i.e. PN2 AN.NA'

a² "
ba
i.e. PN2 : AN. NA' :: BC² : AC².
Def. The points A and A' are called the vertices of
the curve, AA' is called the major axis, and BB′ the minor
axis. Also C is called the centre.

249. Since S is the point (-ae, 0), the equation to

the ellipse referred to S as origin is (Art. 128),
(x - αe) + y² =
ང.

a² b2
The equation referred to A as origin, and AX and a
perpendicular line as axes, is
- 2
(x− a)² + y²
1,
a² b2
2/21/3

y² 2x
i.e. 0.
a² b2 α
Similarly, the equation referred to ZX and ZK as axes is,
a
since CZ-

a 2
X
e y³ = 1.
2 +
b2

The equation to the ellipse, whose focus and directrix are any
given point and line, and whose eccentricity is known, is easily
written down.
For example, if the focus be the point ( -2, 3), the directrix be
the line 2x +3y + 4 = 0, and the eccentricity be , the required equa-
tion is
(x + 2)² + (y − 3) ²= (ƒ)² (2x + 3y + 4)²
22+ 32
i.e. 261x2 + 181y2-192xy + 1044x - 2334y + 3969 = 0.
15-2
228 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Generally, the equation to the ellipse, whose focus is the point

(f, g), whose directrix is Ax + By + C = 0 , and whose eccentricity
is e, is
(x−ƒ)² + (y −− 9)² =e² (Ax + By + C)²
A2+ B2

250. There exist a second focus and a second directrix

for the curve.
On the positive side of the origin take a point S', which
is such that SC = CS ' = ae, and another point Z' , such that
α
ZC = CZ' = 2 .
e
Draw Z'K' perpendicular to ZZ' , and PM' perpen-
dicular to Z'K'.
The equation (5) of Art. 247 may be written in the
form
x² - 2αex + a²e² + y² = e²x² -
— 2aex + a²,
α 2
i.e. (x − αe)² + y² = e² х
-x)²,
i.e. S'P2 - e2 . PM"2.
Hence any point P of the curve is such that its distance
from S' is e times its distance from Z'K' , so that we should
have obtained the same curve, if we had started with S'as
focus, Z'K' as directrix, and the same eccentricity.

251. The sum ofthe focal distances ofany point onthe

curve is equal to the major axis.
For (Fig. Art. 247) we have
SP = e . PM, and S'P = e . PM'.
Hence
SP + S'P = e (PM + PM') = e . MM'
= e . ZZ' = 2e . CZ = 2a (Art. 247.)
- the major axis.
Also SP = e . PM = e . NZ = e . CZ + e . C'N = a + ex',
and S'Pe . PM' = : e . NZ' = e . CZ' -e . CN = a- ex',
where x' is the abscissa of P referred to the centre.
 THE ELLIPSE. LATUS- RECTUM. 229

252. Mechanical construction for an ellipse .

By the preceding article we can get a simple mechanical
method of constructing an ellipse.
Take a piece of thread, whose length is the major axis
of the required ellipse, and fasten its ends at the points S
and S' which are to be the foci.
Let the point of a pencil move on the paper, the point
being always in contact with the string and keeping the
two portions of the string between it and the fixed ends
always tight. If the end of the pencil be moved about on
the paper, so as to satisfy these conditions, it will trace out
the curve on the paper. For the end of the pencil will be
always in such a position that the sum of its distances from
S and S' will be constant.

In practice, it is easier to fasten two drawing pins at S

and S' , and to have an endless piece of string whose total
length is equal to the sum of SS" and AA'. This string
must be passed round the two pins at S and S'and then be
kept stretched by the pencil as before. By this second
arrangement it will be found that the portions of the curve
near A and A' can be more easily described than in the first
method.

253. Latus-rectum ofthe ellipse.

Let LSL be the double ordinate of the curve which
passes through the focus S. By the definition of the curve,
the semi-latus-rectum SL
= e times the distance of L from the directrix
= e.SZ== e (CZ - CS) = e . CZ - e . CS
= a - ae² (by equations (3) and (4) of Art. 247)
-=b2
a (Art. 247.)

254. To trace the curve

y2 = 1
+ (1).
b2
230 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The equation may be written in either of the forms

x²
y= +b 1 ..(2),
a²

1 y2
or x= + a .(3) .
b2
-α,
From (2) , it follows that if x² > a², i.e. if x > a or < -
then y is impossible. There is therefore no part of the
curve to the right of A' or to the left of A.
From (3), it follows, similarly, that, if y > b or < - b,
x is impossible, and hence that there is no part of the curve
above B or below B'.
If x lie between --a anda, the equation (2) gives two
equal and opposite values for y, so that the curve is sym-
metrical with respect to the axis of x.
If y lie between -- b and + b, the equation (3) gives two
equal and opposite values for x, so that the curve is sym-
metrical with respect to the axis of y.
If a number of values in succession be given to x, and
the corresponding values of y be determined, we shall
obtain a series of points which will all be found to lie on a
curve of the shape given in the figure of Art. 247.

x'2 y12
The quantity a² is negative, zero, or
255. b2 1
positive, according as the point (x', y') lies within, upon, or
without the ellipse.
Let be the point (x , y), and let the ordinate QN
through meet the curve in P, so that, by equation (6) of
Art. 247,
PN2
-1
b2 α
If Q be within the curve, then y', i.e. QN, is < PN, so
that
y'² PN2
< i.e. < 1 -
b2 b29 a²
 RADIUS VECTOR IN ANY DIRECTION. 231

Hence, in this case,

y'
+ 62 < 1,
a2 b2
x'2 y12
i.e. + 1 is negative .
a² b2

Similarly, if Q' be without the curve, y' > PN, and then
y²
positive.
b2 - 1 is

256. To find the length of a radius vector from the

centre drawn in a given direction.
The equation (6) of Art. 247 when transferred to polar
coordinates becomes
r² cos² 0 72 sin² 0
+ 1,
a² b
a²b³
giving 7.2 =
b2 cos² + a2 sin² 0 °
We thus have the value of the radius vector drawn at any
inclination to the axis.
a2b2
Since 2:= we see that the greatest
b2 + (a² -
— b²) sin² 0 '
value of r is when 0-0, and then it is equal to a.
Similarly, 90° gives the least value of r, viz. b.
Also, for each value of 0, we have two equal and opposite
values of r, so that any line through the centre meets the
curve in two points equidistant from it.

257. Auxiliary circle . Def. The circle which is

described on the major axis, AA' , of an ellipse as diameter,
is called the auxiliary circle of the ellipse.
Let NP be any ordinate of the ellipse, and let it be
produced to meet the auxiliary circle in Q.
Since the angle AQA' is a right angle, being the angle
in a semicircle, we have, by Euc. vI. 8, QN² = AN . NA'.
232 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Hence Art. 248 gives

PN : QN :: BC² : AC³,
PN BC b
so that
QN =AC¯à ·

BP

A CN' Α

The point in which the ordinate NP meets the

auxiliary circle is called the corresponding point to P.
The ordinates of any point on the ellipse and the
corresponding point on the auxiliary circle are therefore to
one another in the ratio b : a, i.e. in the ratio of the
semi-minor to the semi-major axis of the ellipse.
The ellipse might therefore have been defined as follows :
Take a circle and from each point of it draw perpen-
diculars upon a diameter ; the locus of the points dividing
these perpendiculars in a given ratio is an ellipse, of which
the given circle is the auxiliary circle.

258. Eccentric Angle. Def. The eccentric angle

of any point P on the ellipse is the angle NCQ made with
the major axis by the straight line CQ joining the centre C
to the point on the auxiliary circle which corresponds to
the point P.
This angle is generally called p.
 THE ECCENTRIC ANGLE. 233

We have CN = CQ.cos & = a cos &,

and NQ CQ sin = a sin &.
Hence, by the last article,

NP = b .NQ = b sin p.
α
The coordinates of any point P on the ellipse are there-
fore a cos and b sin 4.
Since P is known when is given, it is often called
"the point ."

259. To obtain the equation ofthe straight line joining

two points on the ellipse whose eccentric angles are given.
Let the eccentric angles of the two points, P and P', be
ø and ☀', so that the points have as coordinates
(a cos p, b sin p) and (a cos p', b sin p') .
The equation of the straight line joining them is
b sin ' -b sin
y - b sin (x - a cos )
a cos da cos &
b 2 cos ( + ) sin (p' - )
(x − a cos )
a2 sin ( + ′ ) sin § (☀ − 6')
b cos ( + $')
a sin ( ' ++) (x - a cos p),
i.e.
818

- COS $ + ' y sin 6 + 6' - 6+ 6' $ + 6'

a cos & cos + sin & sin
2 2 2

= Cos Φ- Φ'
= COS . (1).
[ 中古 ] 2
This is the required equation .

Cor. The points on the auxiliary circle, corresponding to P and

P' , have as coordinates (a cos p, a sin p) and (a cos p', a sin p').
The equation to the line joining them is therefore (Art. 178)
X $+ y $+0'
- Cos + sin = COS
a
234 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

This straight line and ( 1) clearly make the same intercept on the
major axis.
Hence the straight line joining any two points on an ellipse, and
the straight line joining the corresponding points on the auxiliary
circle, meet the major axis in the same point.

EXAMPLES. XXXII.
1. Find the equation to the ellipses , whose centres are the
origin, whose axes are the axes of coordinates, and which pass
through (a) the points (2, 2) , and (3, 1),
and (8) the points (1, 4) and ( -6, 1) .
Find the equation of the ellipse referred to its centre
2. whose latus rectum is 5 and whose eccentricity is },
3. whose minor axis is equal to the distance between the foci and
whose latus rectum is 10,
4. whose foci are the points (4, 0) and ( -4, 0) and whose
eccentricity is .
5. Find the latus rectum, the eccentricity, and the coordinates
of the foci, of the ellipses
(1) x² + 3y² = a², (2) 5x² + 4y² = 1, and (3 ) 9x² + 5y² — 30y = 0.
6. Find the eccentricity of an ellipse, if its latus rectum be equal
to one half its minor axis.
7. Find the equation to the ellipse, whose focus is the point
( -1, 1), whose directrix is the straight line x −y + 3 = 0, and whose
eccentricity is .
8. Is the point (4, −3) within or without the ellipse
5x² +7y2 = 112?
9. Find the lengths of, and the equations to, the focal radii drawn
to the point (4√3, 5) of the ellipse
25x2 + 16y2 = 1600.
10. Prove that the sum of the squares of the reciprocals of two
perpendicular diameters of an ellipse is constant.
11. Find the inclination to the major axis of the diameter of the
ellipse the square of whose length is ( 1 ) the arithmetical mean,
(2) the geometrical mean, and (3) the harmonical mean, between the
squares on the major and minor axes.
12. Find the locus of the middle points of chords of an ellipse
which are drawn through the positive end of the minor axis.
13. Prove that the locus of the intersection of AP with the
straight line through A' perpendicular to A'P is a straight line which
is perpendicular to the major axis.
 [Exs. XXXII.] THE ECCENTRIC ANGLE. 235

14. Q is the point on the auxiliary circle corresponding to P on

the ellipse ; PLM is drawn parallel to CQ to meet the axes in L and M;
prove that PL = b and PM= a.
15. Prove that the area of the triangle formed by three points on
an ellipse, whose eccentric angles are 0, 4, and , is
ab sin 8-4 sin ¥ sin θ - φ
2 2 2
Prove also that its area is to the area of the triangle formed by the
corresponding points on the auxiliary circle as b : a, and hence that
its area is a maximum when the latter triangle is equilateral, i.e. when
2π
4-0 = 4-4 = 3 '

16. Any point P of an ellipse is joined to the extremities of the

major axis; prove that the portion of a directrix intercepted by them
subtends a right angle at the corresponding focus.
17. Shew that the perpendiculars from the centre upon all chords ,
which join the ends of perpendicular diameters, are of constant
length.
18. If a, ẞ, y, and 8 be the eccentric angles of the four points of
intersection of the ellipse and any circle, prove that
a + ẞ + y + d is an odd multiple
of π radians.
[See Trigonometry, Part II, Art. 31 , and Page 37, Ex. 15. ]
19. The tangent at any point P of a circle meets the tangent at a
fixed point A in T, and T is joined to B, the other end of the
diameter through A ; prove that the locus of the intersection of AP
1
and BT is an ellipse whose eccentricity is
√2°
20. From any point P on the ellipse, PN is drawn perpendicular
to the axis and produced to Q, so that NQ equals PS, where S is a
focus ; prove that the locus of Q is the two straight lines y ex + a = 0.
21. Given the base of a triangle and the sum of its sides, prove
that the locus of the centre of its incircle is an ellipse.
22. With a given point and line as focus and directrix, a series
of ellipses are described ; prove that the locus of the extremities of
their minor axes is a parabola.
23. A line of fixed length a +b moves so that its ends are always
on two fixed perpendicular straight lines ; prove that the locus of a
point, which divides this line into portions of length a and b, is an
ellipse.
24. Prove that the extremities of the latera recta of all ellipses,
having a given major axis 2a , lie on the parabola x² = -a (y - a).
236 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

260. To find the intersections ofany straight line with

the ellipse
x² y²
+ =1 .(1).
a2 b2

Let the equation of the straight line be

y== mx + c (2).
The coordinates of the points of intersection of (1) and
(2) satisfy both equations and are therefore obtained by
solving them as simultaneous equations.
Substituting for y in (1) from ( 2), the abscissae of the
points of intersection are given by the equation
x² (mx + c)² =
+ 1,
a² b2
i.e. x² (a²m² + b²) + 2a³mcx + a² (c² — b³) = 0 ....... (3 ).
This is a quadratic equation and hence has two roots,
real, coincident, or imaginary.
Also corresponding to each value of x we have from (2)
one value of y.
The straight line therefore meets the curve in two points
real, coincident, or imaginary.
The roots of the equation (3) are real, coincident, or
imaginary according as
(2a²mc)² — 4 (b² +a²m²) × a² (c² —-b²) is positive, zero, or negative,
i.e. according as b² (b² + a²m²) -b²c² is positive, zero, or negative,
i.e. according as c² is < = or > a²m² + b².

261. To find the length of the chord intercepted by the

ellipse on the straight line y = mx + c.
As in Art. 204, we have
2a2mc
= a² (c² - b²)
X₁ + x2 = − a²m² + b² ' and x₁₂- a²m² + b²

2ab √a²m² + b² — c²
so that = C2 -
X- -
a²m² + b²
 EQUATION TO THE TANGENT 237

The length of the required chord therefore

= √(x₁ — X₁)² + (Y1 -

— Y₁) ² = (x₁ — x₂) √1 + m²
2ab √1 + m² √a²m² + b² — c²
a²m² + b²

262. Tofind the equation tothe tangent at any point

(x', y') ofthe ellipse.
Let P and Q be two points on the ellipse, whose coordi-
nates are (x', y') and (x”, y″ ).
The equation to the straight line PQ is
y" -y'
y -y = a" - x' (x -
− x') (1).

Since both P and Q lie on the ellipse, we have

12 y'2 - 1
+ (2),
a2 b2
X'2 y"2
and + == 1 (3).
a² b2

Hence, by subtraction,
'2 12
y"²_y'2 =
+ = 0,
a² b2
-
i.e. '' − y) (y
(y '"' + y) ___ (a " - x ) (x " + x')
(y″ ") ,
b2 a³

i.e. y" —y' b² x" + x'

"/ x
a² y" + y' '
On substituting in (1) the equation to any secant PQ
becomes
b² x" + x'
y - y' - ..... (4).
a² y'' + y' (x − x′)

To obtain the equation to the tangent we take Q

indefinitely close to P, and hence, in the limit, we put
x' and y″ = y'.
x' = '
238 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The equation (4) then becomes

b³ x'
y - y' (x− x'),
a² y
'
xx yy 12
= y'²
i.e. + + uation (2).
a² b2 a² b2 = 1 , by eq
The required equation is therefore
XX'
² + V² =
== = 1.

Cor. The equation to the tangent is therefore ob-

tained from the equation to the curve by the rule of
Art. 152 .

263 . To find the equation to a tangent in terms of the

tangent ofits inclination to the major axis.
As in Art. 260, the straight line
y== mx + C ....... .. (1 )
meets the ellipse in points whose abscissae are given by
x² (b² + a²m²) + 2mca²x + a² (c² — b²) = 0,
and, by the same article, the roots of this equation are
coincident if
C = √a²m² + b².
In this case the straight line ( 1 ) is a tangent, and
it becomes
y = mx + √a²m² + b² ...(2) .
This is the required equation.
Since the radical sign on the right-hand of (2) may
have either + or - prefixed to it, we see that there are two
tangents to the ellipse having the same m, i.e. there are
two tangents parallel to any given direction.
The above form of the equation to the tangent may be deduced
from the equation of Art. 262, as in the case of the parabola
(Art. 206). It will be found that the point of contact is the point
- a2m b2
'a²m² + b² ' √a²m² + b²/
 EQUATION TO THE TANGENT. 239

264. By a proof similar to that of the last article, it

may be shewn that the straight line
x cos a + y sin a = p
touches the ellipse, if
p² = a² cos² a + b² sin² a .
Similarly, it may be shewn that the straight line
lx + my = n
touches the ellipse, if a²l² + b²m²:- n².

265. Equation to the tangent at the point whose

eccentric angle is .
The coordinates of the point are (a cos 4, b sin 4).
Substituting xa cos & and y' = b sin & in the equation
of Art. 262, we have, as the required equation,

cos + sin =1 (1).

This equation may also be deduced from Art. 259.

For the equation of the tangent at the point " ” is
obtained by making p' = in the result of that article.

Ex. Find the intersection of the tangents at the points 4 and p'.
The equations to the tangents are
x
a cos + sin − 1 = 0,
and x У sin ' -1 = 0.
a cos o' + b
-

The required point is found by solving these equations.

We obtain
X
216

a b -1 1
sino -sino cos '- cos sin 'cos - cos p' sin sin (p − 4') '
i.e.
x 1
+Φ
22a cousin 2b
26 xin + sin 2 min COS
2 2 2
240 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Hence x = α cos ( +0') and y = b sin } (Þ+0)

cos (4- ')' cos § (p -
− p′) *

266. Equation to the normal at the point (x', y').

The required normal is the straight line which passes
through the point (x , y) and is perpendicular to the
tangent, i.e. to the straight line
b²x²' b2
y
a²y '
y
Its equation is therefore

y - y' = m (x - x') ,
b²x² a³y
'
where m = -1 , i.e. m ==
b²x'' (Art. 69).
a³y -
The equation to the normal is therefore y - y' = b²x² (x − x'),

X - X' y - y'
i.e.
뚱뚱

267. Equation to the normal at the point whose eccentric

angle is p.
The coordinates of the point are a cos o and b sin .
Hence, in the result of the last article putting
x' = a cos and y' = b sin 4,
- si
it becomes
x - a cos -y b n&
cos sin &
α b
ax by
i.e. = -b².
cos o sino

The required normal is therefore

ax sec – by cosec = a² -
– b².
 SUBTANGENT AND SUBNORMAL. 241

* 268. Equation to the normal in the form y = mx + c.

The equation to the normal at (x' , y') is , as in Art. 266,
a²y' a2
y = b2x' x - y′ (b21 −- 1) .

a²y'm, so that
Let b ay'
a b2m '
x'2 y'2
Hence, since (x', y') satisfies the relation a2 + 62 = 1, we obtain
b2m
y'=-
√a²+b²m²•
The equation to the normal is therefore
(a² - b²) m
y = mx
√a²+b²m²⋅
This is not as important an equation as the corresponding equa-
tion in the case of the parabola. (Art. 208. )
When it is desired to have the equation to the normal expressed
in terms of one independent parameter it is generally better to use
the equation of the previous article.

269. To find the length of the subtangent and sub-

normal.

B
P

A GNS' A
' X
O

Β'

Let the tangent and normal at P, the point (x , y ),

meet the axis in T and G respectively, and let PN be the
ordinate of P.
L. 16
242 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The equation to the tangent at P is (Art. 262 )

xx' YY'
+ 1 (1).
a² b2
To find where the straight line meets the axis we put
y = 0 and have
a² a²
x= i.e. CT =
Ꮳ CN'
i.e. CT . CN = a² = CA² ……
.. . (2).
Hence the subtangent NT
a² a² -- Ꮖ12
-- CT - CN:- - =
х
The equation to the normal is (Art. 266)
х
= y - y'
x
a² b2

To find where it meets the axis, we put y = 0, and have

x - x' '
·y b²,
х y
201

b2
b2 a² - b2
i.e. CG = x = x' x' x = ẻ = ẻ . CN... ( 3).
a² a²
Hence the subnormal NG
= CN - CG = (1 - e²) CN,
i.e. NG :: NC : 1 - e2
e: 1
:: b² : a². (Art. 247. )
Cor. If the tangent meet the minor axis in t and Pn
be perpendicular to it, we may, similarly, prove that
- b².
Ct . Cn =

270. Some properties of the ellipse.

(a) SG = e.SP, and the tangent and normal at P bisect the
external and internal angles between the focal distances of P.
By Art. 269, we have CG = e²x'.
 SOME PROPERTIES OF THE ELLIPSE. 243

Hence SG = SC + CG = ae + e²x' = e . SP, by Art. 251 .

Also S'G = CS' - CG = e (a− ex') = e . S'P.
Hence SG : S'G :: SP : S'P.
Therefore, by Euc. vi, 3, PG bisects the angle SPS'.
It follows that the tangent bisects the exterior angle between
SP and S'P.

(8) If SY and S'Y' be the perpendiculars from the foci upon the
tangent at any point P of the ellipse, then Y and Y' lie on the auxiliary
circle, and SY . S'Y ' = b2. Also CY and S'P are parallel.
The equation to any tangent is
x cos a +y sin a =p (1),
where p = √a² cos² a + b² sin² a (Art . 264).
The perpendicular SY to (1) passes through the point ( -ae, 0)
and its equation, by Art. 70, is therefore
(x +ae) sin a -
− y cos a = 0 (2) .
If Y be the point (h, k) then, since Y lies on both (1) and (2) , we
have
+
h cos a + k sin a = √a² cos² a + b² sin² a,
and h sin a - k cos a ae sin a = - a² - b2 sin² a.
Squaring and adding these equations, we have h² + k² = a², so that
Y lies on the auxiliary circle x² +y² = a².
Similarly it may be proved that Y' lies on this circle.
Again S is the point ( -ae, 0) and S' is (ae, 0).
Hence, from (1),
SY=p + ae cos a, and S'Y' = p – ae cos a. (Art. 75.)
Thus SY . S'Y' =p² - a²e² cos² a
= a2 cos² a + b² sin² a - (a² - b²) cos² a
=b2.
a2
Also CT=-
CN'
a²
and therefore S'T = ae= a (a - eCN)
CN CN
CT a CY
..
S'T a- e. CN S'P'
Hence CY and S'P are parallel. Similarly CY' and SP are
parallel.
16-2
244 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

(y) If the normal at any point P meet the major and minor axes
in G and g, and if CF be the perpendicular upon this normal, then
PF. PG = b2 and PF . Pg = a².
The tangent at any point P (the point " ") is
x y
a cos + b sin = 1 .
Hence PF perpendicular from C upon this tangent
1 ab
= (1).
cos² +, sin² √b² cos² + a2 sin² &
a² b2
The normal at P is
ax by = a² - b² .......
(2).
cos o sin
a² - b2
If we put y = 0, we have CG = a cos p.
a² - b2 2
.. PG2a cos - cos +b² sin²
:( a $)².
64
= cos² + b² sin² ,
a²
i.e. PG =
a √b² cos² + a² sin² ø.
From this and (1) , we have PF.PG = b².
If we put x =0 in ( 2) , we see that g is the point
a² - b2 si
n
b »).
a² - b2 2
Hence Pg2 =a2 cos² + ( b sin ø + b sin
a
so that Pg= √√b² cos² +asin² ø.
From this result and (1) we therefore have
PF. Pg = a2.

271. To find the locus of the point of intersection of

tangents which meet at right angles.
Any tangent to the ellipse is
y== mx + √a²m² + b²,
and a perpendicular tangent is
1 2
y x + a² — + b².
m m
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. EXAMPLES. 245

Hence, if (h, k) be their point of intersection, we have

k - mh = √a²m² + b².. ... (1) ,
and mk + h = √a² + b²m²... ..(2).
If between ( 1 ) and (2 ) we eliminate m, we shall have a
relation between h and k. Squaring and adding these
equations, we have
(k² + h²) (1 + m²) = (a² + b²) ( 1 + m²),
i.e. h² + k² = a² + b².
Hence the locus of the point (h, k) is the circle
x² + y² = a² + b²,
i.e. a circle, whose centre is the centre of the ellipse, and
whose radius is the length of the line joining the ends
of the major and minor axis. This circle is called the
Director Circle .

EXAMPLES. XXXIII.

Find the equation to the tangent and normal

1. at the point (1 , 1) of the ellipse 4x² + 9y² = 20,
2. at the point of the ellipse 5x² + 3y² = 137 whose ordinate is 2,
3. at the ends of the latera recta of the ellipse 9x2 + 16y² = 144.
4. Prove that the straight line y = x + √√√½ touches the ellipse
3x² +4y² = 1 .
5. Find the equations to the tangents to the ellipse 4x² + 3y² = 5
which are parallel to the straight line y = 3x + 7.
Find also the coordinates of the points of contact of the tangents
which are inclined at 60° to the axis of x.
6. Find the equations to the tangents at the ends of the latera
x2
recta of the ellipse + y2 = 1 , and shew that they pass through the
a2 b2
intersections of the axis and the directrices .
7. Find the points on the ellipse such that the tangents there
are equally inclined to the axes. Prove also that the length of the
perpendicular from the centre on either of these tangents is
2 b²
a²+
246 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

8. In an ellipse, referred to its centre, the length of the sub-

tangent corresponding to the point (3, 12) is 16; prove that the
eccentricity is .
9. Prove that the sum of the squares of the perpendiculars on
any tangent from two points on the minor axis, each distant a²-b²
from the centre, is 2a².
10. Find the equations to the normals at the ends of the latera
recta, and prove that each passes through an end of the minor axis if
e¹ + e² = 1 .
11. If any ordinate MP meet the tangent at L in Q, prove that
MQ and SP are equal.
12. Two tangents to the ellipse intersect at right angles ; prove
that the sum of the squares of the chords which the auxiliary circle
intercepts on them is constant, and equal to the square on the line
joining the foci.
13. If P be a point on the ellipse, whose ordinate is y', prove
that the angle between the tangent at P and the focal distance of P
is tan-1 b2
aey'
14. Shew that the angle between the tangents to the ellipse
x2 y2
+
b2 = 1 and the circle x² + y² = ab at their points of intersection is
a- b
tan-1
Jab
15. A circle, of radius r, is concentric with the ellipse ; prove
that the common tangent is inclined to the major axis at an angle
p2- 12
tan-1 and find its length.
a2 22
16. Prove that the common tangent of the ellipses
x² , y2_2x
= and x2 y2 + 2x =0
a² +b² C 12 с
subtends a right angle at the origin.
17. Prove that PG.Pg = SP . S'P, and CG . CT= CS².
18. The tangent at P meets the axes in T and t, and CY is the
perpendicular on it from the centre ; prove that (1) Tt . PY= a² – b²,
and (2) the least value of Tt is a +b.
19. Prove that the perpendicular from the focus upon any tangent
and the line joining the centre to the point of contact meet on the
corresponding directrix.
20. Prove that the straight lines, joining each focus to the foot of
the perpendicular from the other focus upon the tangent at any
point P, meet on the normal at P and bisect it.
XXXIII.] TANGENTS AND NORMALS. EXAMPLES. 247

21. Prove that the circle on any focal distance as diameter touches
the auxiliary circle.
22. Find the tangent of the angle between CP and the normal at
a² - b2
P, and prove that its greatest value is 2ab •

23. Prove that the straight line lx + myn is a normal to the

a2 b² _ (a² – b²)2
ellipse, if + =
12 m2 n2
24. Find the locus of the point of intersection of the two straight
tx y x ty
lines 12-1 %- -1 = 0.
a /b +t=0 and 202
a +50b
Prove also that they meet at the point whose eccentric angle is
2tan-¹t.
25. Prove that the locus of the middle points of the portions of
tangents included between the axes is the curve
a2 b2
+ = 4.
x2 y2
26. Any ordinate NP of an ellipse meets the auxiliary circle in
Q; prove that the locus of the intersection of the normals at P and
Q is the circle x² +y² = (a + b)².
27. The normal at P meets the axes in G and g ; shew that the
loci of the middle points of PG and Gg are respectively the ellipses
4x2 4y2
a²(1 +e²)2 + b2 = 1 , and a²x² + b²y² = { (a² — b²)².
28. Prove that the locus of the feet of the perpendicular drawn
from the centre upon any tangent to the ellipse is
r2 = a2 cos2 0 + b² sin2 0. [ Use Art. 264. ]
29. If a number of ellipses be described, having the same major
axis, but a variable minor axis, prove that the tangents at the ends of
their latera recta pass through one or other of two fixed points.
30. The normal GP is produced to Q, so that GQ = n . GP.
x2
Prove that the locus of Q is the ellipse a² (n + + y2 = 1.
e² − ne²)² ↑ n²b²
31. If the straight line y = mx + c meet the ellipse, prove that the
equation to the circle, described on the line joining the points of
intersection as diameter, is
(a²m² + b²) (x² + y²) + 2ma²cx − 2b²cy + c² (a² + b²) − a²b² (1 + m²) = 0.
32. PM and PN are perpendiculars upon the axes from any point
P on the ellipse. Prove that MN is always normal to a fixed
concentric ellipse.
248 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIII.]

33. Prove that the sum of the eccentric angles of the extremities
of a chord, which is drawn in a given direction, is constant, and
equal to twice the eccentric angle of the point at which the tangent is
parallel to the given direction.
x2 y2
34. A tangent to the ellipse 2 + 72 = 1 meets the ellipse
a
x2 y2
=a + b
a2 + b2
in the points P and Q ; prove that the tangents at P and Q are at
right angles.

272. To prove that through any given point (x1 , y1)

there pass, in general, two tangents to an ellipse.
The equation to any tangent is (by Art. 263)
y = mx + √a²m² + b²..... .(1).
If this pass through the fixed point (x , y ), we have
Y₁ = mx₁ = √a²m² + b²,
i.e. 2
y₁² - 2mx₁y₁ + m²x² = a²m² + b²,
i.e. ......... (2).
m² (x¸² — a³) — 2mx¸ÿ₁ + (y¸² − b²) = 0……………………
For any given values of x, and y, this equation is in
general a quadratic equation and gives two values of m
(real or imaginary).
Corresponding to each value of m we have, by sub-
stituting in (1 ), a different tangent.
The roots of (2) are real and different, if
(-2xy₁)² - 4 (x²- a ) (y,2 - b²) be positive,
i.e. if b²x² + a²² - a2b2 be positive,
2
i. e. if - 1 be positive,
b2

i.e. if the point (x , y₁) be outside the curve.

The roots are equal, if
2
b²x² + a²¾‚² — a²b²
be zero, i.e. if the point (x , y ) lie on the curve.
 CHORD OF CONTACT OF TANGENTS. 249

The roots are imaginary, if

2 2
+ -- 1
a2 b2
be negative, i.e. if the point (x , y ) lie within the curve
(Art. 255).

273. Equation to the chord of contact of tangents

drawn from a point (x , y ).
The equation to the tangent at any point Q, whose
coordinates are x' and y', is
xx' yy ༤.
+
a² b2
Also the tangent at the point R, whose coordinates are
x" and y'" , is
xx" yy"
+ 1.
a2 b2
If these tangents meet at the point T, whose coordi-
nates are x and y₁ , we have
xxyy 1
+ . ( 1 ),
a² b2

and x₁x" Y13" . (2).

a2 b2
The equation to QR is then

+ W1:= 1 ... ..(3).

For, since (1 ) is true, the point (x', y') lies on (3) .

Also, since (2) is true, the point (x" , y″ ) lies on (3).
Hence (3) must be the equation to the straight line
joining (x , y ) and (x", y" ), i.e. it must be the equation to
QR the required chord of contact of tangents from (x1 , 1) .

274. To find the equation of the polar of the point

(x , y ) with respect to the ellipse
x² y² =
+ 1. [Art. 162. ]
a² b2
250 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let Q and R be the points in which any chord drawn

through the point (x , y₁) meets the ellipse [ Fig. Art. 214].
Let the tangents at Q and R meet in the point whose
coordinates are (h, k).
We require the locus of (h, k).
Since QR is the chord of contact of tangents from
(h, k), its equation (Art. 273) is
xh + k - 1.
a² b2
Since this straight line passes through the point (x₁ , y₁),
we have
hx, ky = 1
+ (1).
a² b2
Since the relation ( 1 ) is true, it follows that the point
(h, k) lies on the straight line
ᎩᎩ = 1 ......
+ b2
1 =1 . (2).

Hence (2) is the equation to the polar of the point

(x1 , Y₁).
Cor. The polar of the focus (ae, o) is
x . ae α
= 1, i.e. x = = ,
a² e
i.e. the corresponding directrix.

275. When the point (x , y₁) lies outside the ellipse,

the equation to its polar is the same as the equation of the
chord of contact of tangents from it.
When (x , y ) is on the ellipse, its polar is the same as
the tangent at it.
As in Art. 215 the polar of (x , y₁) might have been
defined as the chord of contact of the tangents, real or
imaginary, drawn from it.

276. By a proof similar to that of Art. 217 it can be

shewn that If the polar of P pass through T, then the polar
of Tpasses through P.
 PAIR OF TANGENTS FROM ANY POINT. 251

277. To find the coordinates of the pole of any given

line
Ax + By + C = 0 (1).
Let (x , y ) be its pole. Then (1 ) must be the same as
the polar of (x , y ), i.e.
XX1 Yy1
+ -1 .. (2).
a² b2
Comparing ( 1 ) and (2) , as in Art. 218, the required pole
is easily seen to be
Bb2
(-4a²,C BU³).

278. To find the equation to the pair of tangents that

can be drawn to the ellipse from the point (x₁ , y₁).
Let (h, k) be any point on either of the tangents that
can be drawn to the ellipse.
The equation of the straight line joining (h, k) to
(x , y ) is
k- Y₁ (x- x1),
y - Y₁ = h - x₁

k- Y1x + hy₁- kx₁

i.e. y = h- xr
h - x₁
If this straight line touch the ellipse, it must be of the
form
y = mx + √a²m² + b². (Art. 263. )
Hence
k - yi 2
m= and (hy, -
- kx₁)²
= a²m² + b².
h - x1 2 h- x1 )
2 k 2
Hence (hy₁ - kx₁ a²
(A h - X1 ) = a ' (h M) + ".
But this is the condition that the point (h, k) may lie
on the locus
(xy - x,y) = a³ (y - y₁)² + b² (x - x )² ...... ( 1 ).
This equation is therefore the equation to the required
tangents .
252 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

It would be found that (1 ) is equivalent to

2
y2
b2
G +E - 1) a b2 - 1) = (
+X a² b2 - 1) .

279. To find the locus of the middle points of parallel

chords ofthe ellipse.
Let the chords make with the axis an angle whose
tangent is m, so that the equation to any one of them,
QR, is
= mx + c......
y= ..(1),
where c is different for the different chords.

R
SAX

P'

This straight line meets the ellipse in points whose

abscissae are given by the equation
2 (mx + c)²
+ = 1,
a² b2
i.e. x² (a²m² + b²) + 2a³mcx + a² (c² - b³) = 0 ......(2).
Let the roots of this equation, i.e. the abscissae of Q
and R, be and X2, and let V, the middle point of QR, be
the point (h, k).
Then, by Arts. 22 and 1 , we have
a²mc
h = x1 + x2 (3).
2 a²m² + b²
 CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. 253

Also V lies on the straight line (1 ) , so that

k = mh + c....... .. (4).
If between (3) and (4) we eliminate c, we have
a²m (k -
— mh)
a²m² + b²
i.e. b2h = -- a²mk (5).
Hence the point (h, k) always lies on the straight line
b2
Y х (6).
a²m
The required locus is therefore the straight line
b2
y = m₁x, where m₁ a²m '
b2
i.e. mm1 (7).
a²

280. Equation to the chord whose middle point is (h, k).

The required equation is (1 ) of the foregoing article, where m and
c are given by equations (4) and (5) , so that
b2h a2k2 + b²h²
m = - k and c=
a2 , a2k
The required equation is therefore
b2h a²k² + b²h²
y= a2k x + a2k
i.c. k h -
b2 (y - k) + a² (x − h) = 0 .
It is therefore parallel to the polar of (h, k).

281. Diameter. Def. The locus of the middle

points of parallel chords of an ellipse is called a diameter,
and the chords are called its double ordinates.
By equation (6) of Art. 279 we see that any diameter
passes through the centre C.
Also, by equation (7) , we see that the diameter y = mx
bisects all chords parallel to the diameter y = mx, if
b2
mm1 (1).
a²
254 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

But the symmetry of the result (1 ) shows that, in this

case, the diameter y == mx bisects all chords parallel to the
diameter y = m₁X.

Such a pair of diameters are called Conjugate Diameters.

Hence
Conjugate Diameters. Def. Two diameters are
said to be conjugate when each bisects all chords parallel
to the other.
Two diameters y== mx and y = mx are therefore con-
jugate, if
b2
mm₁ = — a2

282. The tangent at the extremity of any diameter is

parallel to the chords which it bisects.
In the Figure of Art. 279 let (x' , y' ) be the point P on
the ellipse, the tangent at which is parallel to the chord
QR, whose equation is
y = mx + c ....... . (1).
The tangent at the point (x', y') is
xxyy
+ 1 (2).
a² b2

Since (1) and (2) are parallel, we have

b²x'
m = - a²y'

i.e. the point (x', y') lies on the straight line

b2
y X.
a²m
But, by Art. 279, this is the diameter which bisects QR
and all chords which are parallel to it.

Cor. It follows that two conjugate diameters CP and

CD are such that each is parallel to the tangent at the
extremity of the other. Hence, given either of these, we
have a geometrical construction for the other.
 CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. 255

283. The tangents at the ends of any chord meet on the

diameter which bisects the chord.
Let the equation to the chord QR (Art. 279) be
y = mx + c ...... . ( 1) .
Let T be the point of intersection of the tangents at Q
and R, and let its coordinates be X1 and Y1 .
Since QR is the chord of contact of tangents from T, its
equation is, by Art. 273,
xh gh 1
+ (2).
a² b2
The equations (1) and (2) therefore represent the same
straight line, so that
b2h
m=-
a²k'
i.e. (h, k) lies on the straight line
b2
y = - a³m X,
which, by Art. 279, is the equation to the diameter bisect-
ing the chord QR. Hence T lies on the straight line CP.

284. If the eccentric angles of the ends, P and D, ofa

pair of conjugate diameters be p and p', then 4 and p' differ
by a right angle.
Since P is the point (a cos d, b sin ), the equation to
CPis
b
y = x • α tan ... . (1 ).

So the equation to CD is
b
y= x . α tan p' ..... .(2).

These diameters are (Art. 281 ) conjugate if

b2 b2
tano tan o' = a²
a²
i.e. if tan o - cot p'tan (p' ± 90°),
i.e. if - ' + 90°.
256 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Cor. 1. The points on the auxiliary circle correspond-

ing to P and D subtend a right angle at the centre.
For if p and d be these points then, by Art. 258, we
have
LPCA' = and dCA' '.
Hence
pCd = dCA' - ≤pCA ' - ' = 90°.
Cor. 2. In the figure of Art . 286 if P be the point o,
then D is the point ☀ + 90° and D ′ is the point & -
– 90°.

285. From the previous article it follows that if P be

the point (a cos ø, b sin 4) , then D is the point
{a cos (90° + $), b sin ( 90° + $) } i. e. ( — a sin p, b cos p).
Hence, if PN and DM be the ordinates of P and D,
we have
NP CM CN MD
= and
b α 9 a b

286. If PCP' and DCD' be a pair of conjugate dia

meters, then ( 1 ) CP² + CD² is constant, and (2) the area of
the parallelogram formed by the tangents at the ends of these
diameters is constant.

Bi

M
 CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. 257

Let Pbe the point o, so that its coordinates are a cos &
and b sin 4. Then D is the point 90° + , so that its co-
ordinates are

a cos (90° + ) and b sin (90° + $),

i.e. a sin and b cos p.
(1) We therefore have
CP² = a² cos² + b² sin² 4,
and CD² = a² sin² + b² cos² 4.
Hence CP2 + CD² = a² + b²
= the sum of the squares of the semi-axes of the
ellipse.
(2) Let KLMN be the parallelogram formed by the
tangents at P, D, P'," and D'.
By Euc. 1. 36, we have
area KLMN = 4. area CPKD
-= 4. CU . PK = 4 CU . CD,
where CU is the perpendicular from C upon the tangent
at P.
Now the equation to the tangent at P is
x y·sin —
− 1 = 0,
α cos + + b
so that (Art. 75) we have
1 ab ab
CU
cos2 sin2 2
a² sin² + b² cos³ CD
+
a² b2
Hence CU . CD = ab.
Thus the area of the parallelogram KLMN = 4ab,
which is equal to the rectangle formed by the tangents
at the ends of the major and minor axes.

287. The product ofthe focal distances of a point P is

equal tothe square on the semidiameter parallel to the tangent
at P.
If P be the point o, then, by Art. 251 , we have
SP = a + ae coso, and S'P = a - ae cos p.
L. 17
258 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Hence SP . S'Pa- a²e² cos²

= a² -(a² - b2) cos2
= a³ sin² + b² cos²
== CD2.

288. Ex. If P and D be the ends of conjugate diameters, find

the locus of
(1) the middle point of PD,
(2) the intersection of the tangents at P and D,
and (3) the foot of the perpendicular from the centre upon PD.
P is the point (a cos ø, b sin ø) and D is ( – a sin ø, b cos ø).
(1 ) If (x, y) be the middle point of PD, we have
acos - a sin and y=bsin +bcos
x=
2
If we eliminate & we shall get the required locus. We obtain
x2 y2 -
a² + b2 - ≥ [ (cos • − sin µ)² + (sin p + cos p)²] = {•
The locus is therefore a concentric and similar ellipse.
[N.B. Two ellipses are similar if the ratios of their axes are the
same, so that they have the same eccentricity. ]
(2) The tangents are
X
a cos + sin = 1,
X
- sin +/ cos & = 1.
and
a
Both of these equations hold at the intersection of the tangents.
If we eliminate we shall have the equation of the locus of their
intersections.
By squaring and adding, we have
x2 y2 =
+ b2 2,

so that the locus is another similar and concentric ellipse.

(3) By Art. 259, on putting p′ = 90° + 4, the equation to PD is
x
=cos 45°.
a cos (45° +4) +2 sin (45° + ¢ ) =
Let the length of the perpendicular from the centre be p and let it
make an angle w with the axis. Then this line must be equivalent to
xcos w +y sin w =p.
 CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. 259

Comparing the equations, we have

acos w cos 45° b sin w cos 45°
cos (45° +4) = and sin (45° +4) =
p Р
Hence, by squaring and adding, 2p² = a² cos² w + b² sin² w , i.e. the
locus required is the curve
2r2 =a2 cos20 + b² sin² 0 , i.e. 2 (x² + y²)² = a²x² + b²y².

289. Equiconjugate diameters. Let P and D be ex-

tremities of equiconjugate diameters, so that CP2 - CD².
If the eccentric angle of P be ø, we then have
a² cos² + b² sin² = a² sin² + + b² cos² 4,
giving tan² = 1,
i.e. p = 45°, or 135°.
The equation to CP is then
b
y = x a tan 4 ,
b
i.e. y= +- α . (1),
b
and that to CD is
α cot 4,
y = -x -
b
i.e. y = + -a X (2).

If a rectangle be formed whose sides are the tangents

at A, A', B, and B' the lines ( 1 ) and (2) are easily seen to
be its diagonals .
The directions of the equiconjugates are therefore along
the diagonals of the circumscribing rectangle.
The length of each equiconjugate is, by Art. 286,
+ b²
2

290. Supplemental chords . Def. The chords

joining any point P on an ellipse to the extremities, R and
R' , of any diameter of the ellipse are called supplemental
chords.
Supplemental chords are parallel to conjugate diameters.
17-2
260 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let P be the point whose eccentric angle is 4, and R

and R' the points whose eccentric angles are 4 and
180° +1.

The equations to PR and PR' are then (Art. 259)

818
COS φ + Φι + У sin 6 + 0₁ COS Φ- Φι (1),
2 2 2

and
-
818

COS ++ 180° + Φι y sin ++ 180° + Φι

= COS $ – 180° - $1 ,
2 b 2 2
. Y COS $ + $1 - sin φ- Φι ...
i.e. sin $ + 1 (2).
α 2 2 2

cot Φι
The "m" of the straight line ( 1 ) +$1.
$2
a
b
The " m " of the line ( 2) -- tan ++ Φι
a 2
b2
--
The product of these " m's " a² " so that, by Art. 281,
the lines PR and PR' are parallel to conjugate diameters.
This proposition may also be easily proved geometrically.
For let V and V ' be the middle points of PR and PR'.
Since V and C are respectively the middle points of RP and RR',
the line CV is parallel to PR'. Similarly CV is parallel to PR.
Since CV bisects PR it bisects all chords parallel to PR, i.e. all
chords parallel to CV' . So CV ' bisects all chords parallel to CV.
Hence CV and CV' are in the direction of conjugate diameters and
therefore PR' and PR, being parallel to CV and CV' respectively, are
parallel to conjugate diameters.
 CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. 261

291. To find the equation to an ellipse referred to a

pair ofconjugate diameters.
Let the conjugate diameters be CP and CD (Fig. Art.
286), whose lengths are a' and b' respectively.
If we transform the equation to the ellipse, referred to
its principal axes, to CP and CD as axes of coordinates ,
then, since the origin is unaltered, it becomes, by Art. 134,
of the form
Ax² + 2Hxy + By² = 1 ...... (1 ).
Now the point P, (a' , 0) , lies on ( 1 ), so that
Aa'² - = 1 (2).
So since Q, the point (0, b′) , lies on ( 1 ) , we have
Bb'2 = 1 .
1 1
Hence Α =a'as and B =
b'2'
Also, since CP bisects all chords parallel to CD, there-
fore for each value of x we have two equal and opposite
values of y. This cannot be unless H= 0.

The equation then becomes

2
y⁹ =
+ 1.
a's b'2
Cor. If the axes be the equiconjugate diameters, the
equation is x² + y² = a'³. The equation is thus the same in
form as the equation to a circle. In the case of the ellipse
however the axes are oblique.

292. It will be noted that the equation to the ellipse,

when referred to a pair of conjugate diameters, is of the
same form as it is when referred to its principal axes.
The latter are merely a particular case of a pair of conjugate
diameters .
Just as in Art. 262, it may be shewn that the equation
to the tangent at the point (x', y') is
xxyy' ---
+ 1.
a's b'2
Similarly for the equation to the polar.
262 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Ex. If QVQ' be a double ordinate of the diameter CP, and if the

tangent at Q meet CP in T, then CV . CT = CP2.
If Q be the point (x', y'), the tangent at it is
xx ' yy'
=1.
a'2 + b'2

Putting y = 0, we have x=
CP2
a'2
i.e. CT=
CV'
i.e. CV.CT = CP2.

EXAMPLES. XXXIV.
x2 y2
1. In the ellipse 36 + 9 1, find the equation to the chord which
passes through the point (2, 1) and is bisected at that point.
2. Find, with respect to the ellipse 4x² + 7y2 = 8,
(1) the polar of the point ( -
− 1, 1), and
(2) the pole of the straight line 12x + 7y + 16 = 0 .
3. Tangents are drawn from the point (3, 2) to the ellipse
x²+4y2-9. Find the equation to their chord of contact and the
equation of the straight line joining (3, 2) to the middle point of this
chord of contact.
4. Write down the equation of the pair of tangents drawn to the
ellipse 3x² + 2y2-5 from the point (1, 2), and prove that the angle
12/5
between them is tan-1
5
x2 y2
5. In the ellipse a2 + 2 = 1, write down the equations to the
diameters which are conjugate to the diameters whose equations are
a
x - y = 0, x + y = 0, y = 2x, and y = -x.

6. Shew that the diameters whose equations are y + 3x = 0 and

4y - x=0, are conjugate diameters of the ellipse 3x² + 4y² = 5.
7. If the product of the perpendiculars from the foci upon the
polar of Pbe constant and equal to c², prove that the locus of P is the
ellipse b4x² (c² + a²e²) + c²a¹y² = aªbª.
8. Shew that the four lines which join the foci to two points P
and Q on an ellipse all touch a circle whose centre is the pole of PQ.
 [Exs. XXXIV.] CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. EXAMPLES. 263

9. If the pole of the normal at P lie on the normal at Q , then

shew that the pole of the normal at Q lies on the normal at P.
10. CK is the perpendicular from the centre on the polar of any
point P, and PM is the perpendicular from P on the same polar and
is produced to meet the major axis in L. Shew that (1 ) CK . PL = b²,
and (2) the product of the perpendiculars from the foci on the polar
= CK.LM.
What do these theorems become when P is on the ellipse ?
11. In the previous question, if PN be the ordinate of P and the
polar meet the axis in T, shew that CL - e² . CN and CT . CN = a².
12. If tangents TP and TQ be drawn from a point T, whose
coordinates are h and k, prove that the area of the triangle TPQ is
h2 k2
ab + b2 "
1-1 )+(+税 )
and that the area of the quadrilateral CPTQ is
h2 k2 -
ab +
( b2 1)*.
13. Tangents are drawn to the ellipse from the point
a2
a² - b²
(Ja²= b2', √a² + 12) ;
prove that they intercept on the ordinate through the nearer focus a
distance equal to the major axis.
14. Prove that the angle between the tangents that can be drawn
from any point (x₁ , y₁ ) to the ellipse is
2ab x12 y₁2 - 1
a2 + b2
-
tan-1 2 2 a² - b2
x₁² + y₁²-
15. If T be the point ( 1, 1), shew that the equation to the
straight lines joining it to the foci, S and S' , is
(x₁y — xу₁ )² -— a²e² (y — y₁)² = 0.
Prove that the bisector of the angle between these lines also
bisects the angle between the tangents TP and TQ that can be drawn
from T, and hence that
L STP =LS'TQ.
16. If two tangents to an ellipse and one of its foci be given, prove
that the locus of its centre is a straight line.
17. Prove that the straight lines joining the centre to the inter-
a2m²+ b2
sections of the straight line y = mx + √am2 Iwith the ellipse are
conjugate diameters.
264 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIV.]

18. Any tangent to an ellipse meets the director circle in p and d ;

prove that Cp and Cd are in the directions of conjugate diameters of
the ellipse.
19. If CP be conjugate to the normal at Q, prove that CQ is
conjugate to the normal at P.
20. If a fixed straight line parallel to either axis meet a pair of
conjugate diameters in the points K and L, shew that the circle
described on KL as diameter passes through two fixed points on the
other axis.
21. Prove that a chord which joins the ends of a pair of conjugate
diameters of an ellipse always touches a similar ellipse.
22. The eccentric angles of two points P and Q on the ellipse are
41 and 42 ; prove that the area of the parallelogram formed by the
tangents at the ends of the diameters through P and Q is
4ab cosec ($1- $2),
and hence that it is least when P and Q are at the end of conjugate
diameters.
23. A pair of conjugate diameters is produced to meet the
directrix ; shew that the orthocentre of the triangle so formed is at
the focus.
24. If the tangent at any point P meet in the points L and L'
(1) two parallel tangents, or (2) two conjugate diameters,
prove that in each case the rectangle LP . PL' is equal to the square
on the semidiameter which is parallel to the tangent at P.
25. A point is such that the perpendicular from the centre on its
polar with respect to the ellipse is constant and equal to c ; shew that
its locus is the ellipse
x2 y2 1
64 c²
2 y2
26. Tangents are drawn from any point on the ellipse a2 + b2 =1
to the circle x² + y2 =r2 ; prove that the chords of contact are tangents
to the ellipse a²x² + b²y² = r².
1 1 1
If = ;, prove that the lines joining the centre to the points
r² a² + b²'
of contact with the circle are conjugate diameters of the second
ellipse.
27. CP and CD are conjugate diameters of the ellipse ; prove that
the locus of the orthocentre of the triangle CPD is the curve
2 (b2y +a²x²) = (a² - b2)2 (b²y2 - a²x²)2.
28. If circles be described on two semi-conjugate diameters of the
ellipse as diameters, prove that the locus of their second points of
intersection is the curve 2 (x2 + y²)² = a²x² + b²y².
 FOUR NORMALS TO AN ELLIPSE. 265

293. To prove that, in general, four normals can be

drawn from any point to an ellipse, and that the sum ofthe
eccentric angles of their feet is equal to an odd multiple of
two right angles.
The normal at any point, whose eccentric angle is ø, is
ax by
a² - b² = a²e².
cos & sin

If this normal pass through the point (h, k), we have

ah bk
a²e2 (1).
cos sin

For a given point (h, k) this equation gives the

eccentric angles of the feet of the normals which pass
through (h, k).
Let tan φ = t, so that

1- tan2 2 tan
2 1-12 2t
cos = and sin ==
1 + 12 , 1 + t² °
1 + tan² $ 1 + tan²

Substituting these values in (1 ), we have

1 + 12 1 + t²
ah bk = a²e²,
1-12 2t
i.e. bkt¹ + 2ť³ (ah + a²e²) + 2t (ah — a³e²) — bk = 0 ….. (2).
Let t₁ , ta, to, and to be the roots of this equation, so that,
by Art. 2,
ah + a²e²
t₁ + t₂ + t + ts: -2 bk (3),

t₁t₂ + t₁tз + tits + tątз + tots + tзts = 0 ........ (4),

ah - a²e²
tatts + tзtst₁ + tşt₁të + t₁tąt² = -2 bk (5),

and titatзts =-
= 1. (6).
266 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Hence (Trigonometry, Art. 125), we have

Φι Φ 81-83 81
tan + + Φ + - 83 = ∞ .
2 1 82 +84 0
1+ 2+ 3+ 4 П
= Nπ + 9
2 2
and hence Þ1 + 2 + P3 + 4 = (2n + 1 ) π
·
= an odd multiple of two right angles.

294. We shall conclude the chapter with some ex-

amples of loci connected with the ellipse.
Ex. 1. Find the locus of the intersection of tangents at the ends
ofchords ofan ellipse, which are of constant length 2c.
Let QR be any such chord, and let the tangents at Q and R meet
in a point P, whose coordinates are (h, k) .
Since QR is the polar of P, its equation is
xh yk
+ =1 .(1).
a2 b2
The abscisse of the points in which this straight line meets the
ellipse are given by
2 k2
(1 – a2h ) ² = b22 (1-2 a2 ) ,
x² /h2 k2 2xh k2
i.e. --- +1 -
a2 a2 + b2 a2 b2 =0.
If x and x be the roots of this equation, i.e. the abscisse of Q
and R, we have
2a2b2h a¹ (b² - k²)
x1 +x2 = b2h2 + a2k2' and 12=b²h² +a²k² °

4a4 [b2h2 + a2k2 -– a²b²] k²

.. (xx )² = (x1 + xg)² - 4X1Xq = ...(2).
(b²h² + a²k²)²
If y, and y₂ be the ordinates of Q and R, we have from (1)
x₁h y₁k =
ང་

a2 + 62

and xh + yok =1 ,
a2 b2
so that, by subtraction,
b2h
Y2 - Y1 = -a²k (x2 - X1).
 THE ELLIPSE. EXAMPLES. 267

The condition of the question therefore gives

- - b4h2
4c² = (X₂ − x1)² + (Y₂ — Y₁)² = ( 1+
1 a4k2 (x2 - x₁)²

=4 (a4k² + b¹h²) (b²h² + a²k² — a²b²) " by (2).

(b²h² + a²k²)2
Hence the point (h, k) always lies on the curve
(x2 y2 = a²y2 b²x²\ x2 y2
+ b2 + a2
( b2 a² + −1 ) ,
which is therefore the locus of P.
Ex. 2. Find the locus (1) of the middle points, and (2) of the poles,
ofnormal chords of the ellipse.
The chord, whose middle point is (h , k) , is parallel to the polar of
(h, k), and is therefore
h k
(x - —₂ + (y - k) b2 ==0.
− h) a2 . (1) .
If this be a normal, it must be the same as
ax sec - by cosec 0 = a2 - b2..…………………. ..(2).
We therefore have
a sec - b cosec 0 a² -b2
h k h2 k²,
a2 b2 a2 + b2
a³ h2 k2
so that cos 0= +
h (a²- b²) a2 b2
b3 h2 k2
and sin 0:= +
k(a2-62) a2
Hence, by the elimination of 0,
a h2 k22
(~h2 b2 =(a² - b²)2.
k2) (12 + 1-2)²=
2 + 10
The equation to the required locus is therefore

( + ) (+-1/2)) = (a² - b²)².

Again, if (x , y ) be the pole of the normal chord (2), the latter
equation must be equivalent to the equation
1_991_1
+ .(3).
a2 b2
Comparing (2) and (3) , we have
a³ sec e b³ cosec 0
= a² – b²,
x1 Y1
a6 1
so that 1 cos20 +sin² 0 = (a3+y³)
, (a²-=b²)² ,
268 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

and hence the required locus is

a6 b6 =
+ = (a² – b²)².
x2 y2
x2 y2
Ex. 3. Chords of the ellipse +
a2 b2 = 1 always touch the concentric
x2 y2
and coaxal ellipse +
a2 B2 = 1 ; find the locus of their poles.
Any tangent to the second ellipse is
y = mx + √a²m² +p² .(1).
Let the tangents at the points where it meets the first ellipse meet
in (h, k). Then (1) must bethe same as the polar of (h, k) with
respect to the first ellipse, i.e. it is the same as
xh yk
+ -1 = 0 . (2).
a2 b2
Since (1) and (2) coincide, we have
m √a²m²+ß².
||

=
F

k -1
"

a2

Hence b2 h b2
m =- and a2m² + 82
a2 k
Eliminating m, we have
b4 h2 64
a2
a4k2 k2'
i.e. the point (h, k) lies on the ellipse
a2 2 B2
2 + b4y2 = 1,
812

a4
b2
i.e. on a concentric and coaxal ellipse whose semi-axes are α and
respectively.

EXAMPLES. XXXV.

The tangents drawn from a point P to the ellipse make angles

and 0, with the major axis ; find the locus of P when
1. 01 +0, is constant ( = 2a) . [ Compare Ex. 1 , Art. 235. ]
2. tan 01 +tan 02 is constant ( = c).
3. tan 0, -tan 0, is constant ( = d).
4. tan2 0, +tan" 0, is constant ( = X).
 [Exs. XXXV.] THE ELLIPSE. EXAMPLES. 269

Find the locus of the intersection of tangents

5. which meet at a given angle a.
6. if the sum of the eccentric angles of their points of contact
be equal to a constant angle 2a.
7. if the difference of these eccentric angles be 120°.
8. if the lines joining the points of contact to the centre be
perpendicular.
9. ifthe sum of the ordinates of the points of contact be equal to b.
Find the locus of the middle points of chords of an ellipse
10. whose distance from the centre is the constant length c.
11. which subtend a right angle at the centre.
12. which pass through the given point (h, k).
13. whose length is constant ( = 2c).
14. whose poles are on the auxiliary circle.
15. the tangents at the ends of which intersect at right angles.
16. Prove that the locus of the intersection of normals at the
ends of conjugate diameters is the curve
2 (a²x² + b²y2) = (a² - b²)² (a²x² - b²y2)2.
17. Prove that the locus of the intersection of normals at the ends
of chords, parallel to the tangent at the point whose eccentric angle is
a, is the conic
2 (ax sin a + by cos a) (ax cos a + by sin a) = ( a² – b²)² sin 2a cos² 2a.
If the chords be parallel to an equiconjugate diameter, the locus
is a diameter perpendicular to the other equiconjugate.
18. A parallelogram circumscribes the ellipse and two of its
opposite angular points lie on the straight lines x2h2 ; prove that
the locus of the other two is the conic
x2 y2
+ = 1.
a2 b2
19. Circles of constant radius c are drawn to pass through the
ends of a variable diameter of the ellipse. Prove that the locus of
their centres is the curve
(x²+y²) (a²x² + b²y² + a²b²) = c² (a²x² + b²y²).
20. The polar of a point P with respect to an ellipse touches a
fixed circle, whose centre is on the major axis and which passes
through the centre of the ellipse. Shew that the locus of P is a
parabola, whose latus rectum is a third proportional to the diameter
of the circle and the latus rectum of the ellipse.
21. Prove that the locus of the pole, with respect to the ellipse, of
x2 y2 1
any tangent to the auxiliary circle is the curve a4 + 64 =
270 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XXXV.]

22. Shew that the locus of the pole, with respect to the auxiliary
circle, of a tangent to the ellipse is a similar concentric ellipse,
whose major axis is at right angles to that of the original ellipse.
23. Chords of the ellipse touch the parabola ay² = -2b²x ; prove
that the locus of their poles is the parabola ay² = 26²x.
24. Prove that the sum of the angles that the four normals
drawn from any point to an ellipse make with the axis is equal to
the sum of the angles that the two tangents from the same point
make with the axis.
[Use the equation of Art. 268. ]
25. Triangles are formed by pairs of tangents drawn from any
point on the ellipse
y2
a²x² +b²y² = (a² + 62)² to the ellipse
a² + 2 =1,
e
and their chord of contac . Prove that the orthoc tr of each such
t en
triangle lies on the ellipse .
26. An ellipse is rotated through a right angle in its own plane
about its centre, which is fixed ; prove that the locus of the point of
intersection of a tangent to the ellipse in its original position with
the tangent at the same point of the curve in its new position is
(x² + y²) (x² + y² -— a² -
— b²) = 2 (a² — b²) xy.
27. If Y and Z be the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci
upon the tangent at any point P of an ellipse, prove that the tangents
at Y and Z to the auxiliary circle meet on the ordinate of P and that
the locus of their point of intersection is another ellipse.
28. Prove that the directrices of the two parabolas that can be
drawn to have their foci at any given point P of the ellipse and to
pass through its foci meet at an angle which is equal to twice the
eccentric angle of P.
29. Chords at right angles are drawn through any point P of the
ellipse, and the line joining their extremities meets the normal in the
point Q. Prove that Q is the same for all such chords, its
a³e2 cos a - a2be2 sin a
coordinates being and
a² +b² a² +b²
Prove also that the major axis is the bisector of the angle PCQ,
and that the locus of Q for different positions of P is the ellipse
x2 y2 a² - b2\ 2
= •
a² + b2 2+b²
 CHAPTER XIII.

THE HYPERBOLA.

295. THE hyperbola is a Conic Section in which the

eccentricity e is greater than unity.

To find the equation to a hyperbola.

Let ZK be the directrix, S the focus, and let SZ be
perpendicular to the directrix.
There will be a point A on AZ, such that
SA= e . AZ. (1).

R
R

B
M' M
N

SA Z' ZANS X

Bald P

R R
272 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Since e > 1 , there will be another point A', on SZ pro-

duced , such that
SA'e . A'Z....... (2).
Let the length AA' be called 2a, and let C be the middle
point of AA'.
Subtracting (1 ) from (2), we have
2a = AA' = e . A'Z--e . AZ
= e [ CA′ + CZ ] − e [ CA − CZ ] = e . 2CZ,
α
i.e. CZ= 2 (3).
e
Adding (1 ) and (2), we have
e (AZ + A'Z) = SA' + SA = 2CS,
i.e. e . AA' 2. CS,
and hence CS = ae (4).
Let C be the origin, CSX the axis of x, and a straight
line CY, through C perpendicular to CX, the axis of y.
Let P be any point on the curve, whose coordinates are
x and y, and let PMbe the perpendicular upon the directrix,
and PN the perpendicular on AA'.
The focus S is the point (ae, 0).
The relation SP² = e² . PM² = e² . ZN² then gives
a
(x - αe)² + y² = e² x ²,
]
e² [x – ²
i.e. x² - 2aex + a²e² + y² = e²x² - 2αex + a².
Hence x² (e - 1) -y = a² (e² - 1 ),
x² y²
i.e. 1 (5).
a² a² (e² - 1)
Since, in the case of the hyperbola, e > 1 , the quantity
a² (e - 1) is positive. Let it be called b² , so that the equa-
tion (5) becomes
x2 y2
a2 - b = 1 (6),

where b² = a²e² - a² = CS² – CA². (7),

and therefore CS² = a² + b² (8).
 THE HYPERBOLA. FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION. 273

296. The equation (6) may be written

y²x² -1 x² -a² (x - a)(x + a)
b2 a² a²
PN2 AN. NA'
i.e. "
b2 a²
so that PN2 : AN . NA' :: b² : a².
If we put x = 0 in equation ( 6) , we have y² = — b³,
shewing that the curve meets the axis CY in imaginary
points.
Def. The points A and A' are called the vertices of the
hyperbola , C is the centre , AA ' is the transverse axis of the
curve, whilst the line BB' is called the conjugate axis,
where B and B' are two points on the axis of y equidistant
from C, as in the figure of Art. 315, and such that
B'C CB = b.

297. Since S is the point (ae, 0), the equation referred to the
focus as origin is, by Art. 128,
(x + αe)² - y² 1,
a2 b2
ex y2
i.e. +2 + e² - 1 = 0.
a2 a b2
Similarly, the equations, referred to the vertex A and foot of the
directrix Z respectively as origins, will be found to be
x2 y2 2x
+ ==0,
a2 b2 a
x2 - y2 2x 1
and =1-
a² b2 + ae e2 *
The equation to the hyperbola, whose focus, directrix, and eccen-
tricity are any given quantities, may be written down as in the case
of the ellipse (Art. 249).
298 . There exist a second focus and a second directrix
to the curve.
On SC produced take a point S', such that
SC = CS' = ae,
and another point Z' , such that
α
ZC = CZ' = ·
e
L. 18
274 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Draw Z'M' perpendicular to AA', and let PM be pro-

duced to meet it in M' .

The equation (5) of Art. 295 may be written in the

form
x² + 2αex + a²e² + y² = e²x² + 2aex + a²,
α 2
i.e.
(x + ae)" + y² = e² ( " + x ) " ,
i.e. S′P² = e² (Z'C + CN)² = e² . PM" .
Hence any point P of the curve is such that its distance
from S' is e times its distance from Z'K', so that we should
have obtained the same curve if we had started with S' as
focus, Z'K' as directrix, and the same eccentricity e.

299. The difference of the focal distances ofany point

on the hyperbola is equal to the transverse axis.
For (Fig., Art 295) we have
SP == e . PM, and S'P = = e . PM '.
-
Hence S'P - SP = e (PM' – PM) = e . MM'
= e . ZZ' = 2e . CZ = 2a
-- the transverse axis AA'.

Also SP = e . PM = e . ZN = e . CN - e . CZ = ex' -
— a,
and S'Pe . PM' = e . Z'Ne . CN + e . Z'C = ex' + a,
where x' is the abscissa of the point P referred to the centre
as origin.
300. Latus-rectum ofthe Hyperbola.
Let LSL' be the latus-rectum, i.e. the double ordinate
of the curve drawn through S.
By the definition of the curve, the semi-latus-rectum SL
= e times the distance of L from the directrix
e.SZ = e (CS - CZ)
b2
= e . CS - eCZ = ae² - α =
α"
by equations (3), (4), and (7) of Art. 295.
 THE HYPERBOLA. 275

301. To trace the curve

x² y² -
1 (1).
a2 b2

The equation may be written in either of the forms

22
y = ±b 1 (2),

or y² + 1
b2 (3).

From (2), it follows that, if x² < a², i.e. if x lie between a

and -a, then y is impossible. There is therefore no part
of the curve between A and A'.

For all values of x2 > a² the equation (2) shews that

there are two equal and opposite values of y, so that the
curve is symmetrical with respect to the axis of x. Also,
as the value of x increases, the corresponding values of y
increase, until, corresponding to an infinite value of x, we
have an infinite value of y.

For all values of y, the equation (3) gives two equal

and opposite values to x, so that the curve is symmetrical
with respect to the axis of y.
If a number of values in succession be given to x, and
the corresponding values of y be determined, we shall
obtain a series of points, which will all be found to lie on a
curve of the shape given in the figure of Art. 295.
The curve consists of two portions, one of which extends
in an infinite direction towards the positive direction of
the axis of x, and the other in an infinite direction towards
the negative end of this axis.

12 ----- y'2 -
302. The quantity 1 is positive, zero, or
a² b2
negative, according as the point (x', y') lies within, upon,
or without, the curve.
Let be the point (x , y ), and let the ordinate QN
18-2
276 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

through meet the curve in P, so that, by equation ( 6) of

Art. 295 ,
x'2 PN2
- 1,
a² b2
PN2
and hence = 1.
b2 a²

If Q be within the curve then y', i.e. QN, is less than

y/2 PN2
PN, so that < i.e. < 1.
b2 b2 a²
12
y'2
Hence, in this case, > 0, i.e. is positive.
a² b2

Similarly, if be without the curve, then y' > PN, and

x'2 y12
we have
a b2 -1 negative.

303. To find the length of any central radius drawn in

a given direction.
The equation (6) of Art. 295, when transferred to polar
coordinates, becomes
cos2 0 sin2
2.2
in 0)= 1,
1 cos20 sin² 0 cos20 /b2 -
i.e. tan2
2.2 a² b2 b2

This is the equation giving the value of any central

radius of the curve drawn at an inclination to the trans-
verse axis.
b2
So long as tan² 0 < two equal
a², the equation (1 ) gives
and opposite values of r corresponding to any value of 0.
b2
For values of tan³ 0 > the corresponding values of
a²,
1
are negative, and the corresponding values of r imaginary.
b
Any radius drawn at a greater inclination than tan-¹ .
 LENGTH OF A CENTRAL RADIUS. 277

does not therefore meet the curve in any real points, so

that all the curve is included within two straight lines
b
drawn through C and inclined at an angle ± tan-¹ α to CX.

Writing (1 ) in the form

b2
p2=
b2 -
cos20 tan20
a2
we see that r is least when the denominator is greatest, i.e.
when 00. The radius vector CA is therefore the least.
b
Also, when tan the value of r is infinite.
a'
1b
For values of between 0 and tan- - the corresponding
а
positive values of r give the portion AR of the curve (Fig. ,
Art. 295) and the corresponding negative values give the
portion A'R'.
b
For values of 0 between 0 and - tan -1 9 the positive
α
values of R give the portion AR₁ , and the negative values
give the portion A'R₁'.
The ellipse and the hyperbola since they both have a
centre C, such that all chords of the conic passing through
it are bisected at it, are together called Central Conics.

304. In the hyperbolà any ordinate of the curve does

not meet the circle on AA' as diameter in real points.
There is therefore no real eccentric angle as in the case of
the ellipse.
When it is desirable to express the coordinates of any
point of the curve in terms of one variable, the substitutions
x = a sec and y = btanø
may be used ; for these substitutions clearly satisfy the
equation (6) of Art. 295.
The angle can be easily defined geometrically.
On AA' describe the auxiliary circle, ( Fig., Art. 306)
278 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

and from the foot N of any ordinate NP of the curve draw

a tangent NU to this circle, and join CU. Then
CUCN cos NCU,
i.e. x= CN = a sec NCU.
The angle NCU is therefore the angle .
Also NUCUtan = a tan 6,
so that NP: NU :: b : a.
The ordinate of the hyperbola is therefore in a constant
ratio to the length of the tangent drawn from its foot to
the auxiliary circle.
This angle is not so important an angle for the
hyperbola as the eccentric angle is for the ellipse.

305. Since the fundamental equation to the hyper-

bola only differs from that to the ellipse in having -- b
instead of b², it will be found that many propositions for
the hyperbola are derived from those for the ellipse by
changing the sign of b².
Thus, as in Art. 260, the straight line y = mx + c meets
the hyperbola in points which are real, coincident, or
imaginary, according as
c² > = < a²m² — b².
As in Art. 262, the equation to the tangent at (x', y') is
xx - yy 1.
a² b2
As in Art. 263, the straight line
y = mx + √a²m² = b²
is always a tangent.
The straight line
x cos a + y sin a = p
is a tangent, if p² = a² cos² a -− b² sin² a.
The straight line lx + my = n
is a tangent, if n² = a²l² - b²m². [Art. 264.]
 PROPERTIES OF THE HYPERBOLA. 279

The normal at the point (x', y') is, as in Art. 266 ,

x - x' y - y'
y
77'
- b2

306. With some modifications the properties of Arts.

269 and 270 are true for the hyperbola also, if the
corresponding figure be drawn .
In the case of the hyperbola the tangent bisects the
interior, and the normal the exterior, angle between the
focal distances SP and S'P. P

A SN

It follows that, if an ellipse and a hyperbola have the

same foci S and S', they cut at right angles at any common
point P. For the tangents in the two cases are respec-
tively the internal and external bisectors of the angle SPS',
and are therefore at right angles.

307. The equation to the straight lines joining the

points (asec , b tan 4) and (a sec p' , b tan o') can be
shewn to be
818

COS φ'- Φ y sin $+$' = COS $ + $

2 b 2 2
280 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Hence, by putting ′ = 4, it follows that the tangent at

the point (a sec 4, btan 4) is
х y
- sin & = cos &.
α b
It could easily be shewn that the equation to the
normal is
ax sin + by = (a² + b²) tan 4.

308. The proposition of Art. 272 is true also for the

hyperbola.
As in Art. 273, the chord of contact of tangents
from (x , y ) is
XX1 - yy = 1 .
a² b2
As in Art. 274, the polar of any point (x , y ) is
XX1 - yy = 1.
a² b2
As in Arts. 279 and 281 , the locus of the middle
points of chords, which are parallel to the diameter y = mx,
is the diameter y = m₁x, where
b2
mm1 = a²

The proposition of Art. 278 is true for the hyperbola

also, if we replace b² by -62.

309. Director circle . The locus of the intersection

of tangents which are at right angles is, as in Art. 271 ,
found to be the circle x² + y² = a² —- b², i.e. a circle whose
centre is the origin and whose radius is a² - b².
If b² < a², this circle is real.
If b² = a², the radius of the circle is zero, and it reduces
to a point circle at the origin. In this case the centre is
the only point from which tangents at right angles can be
drawn to the curve.
If b² > a², the radius of the circle is imaginary, so that
there is no such circle, and so no tangents at right angles
can be drawn to the curve.
 THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA. 281

310. Equilateral, or Rectangular, Hyperbola.

The particular kind of hyperbola in which the lengths
of the transverse and conjugate axes are equal is called an
equilateral, or rectangular, hyperbola. The reason for the
name “ rectangular "" I
will be seen in Art. 318.
Since, in this case, b = a, the equation to the equilateral
hyperbola, referred to its centre and axes, is x² - y³ = a².
The eccentricity of the rectangular hyperbola is 2.
For, by Art. 295, we have, in this case,
a² + b² 2a2
e2 = = 2,
a² a²
so that e = √2.

311. Ex. The perpendiculars from the centre upon the tangent
x2 y2
and normal at any point of the hyperbola a2 - = 1 meet them in Q
and R. Find the loci of Q and R.
As in Art. 308, the straight line
x cos a +y sin a =p
is a tangent, if p² = a2 cos² a - b2 sin2 a.
But p and a are the polar coordinates of Q, the foot of the perpen-
dicular on this straight line from C.
The polar equation to the locus of M is therefore
r2a2 cos20- b² sin² 0,
i.e., in Cartesian coordinates,
(x² +y2)² = a²x² - b²y².
If the hyperbola be rectangular, we have a = b, and the polar
equation is
r²= a² (cos² 0 - sin2 0) = a2 cos 20.
Again, by Art. 307, any normal is
ax sin +by = (a² + b²) tan p……..... .(1).
The equation to the perpendicular on it from the origin is
bx - ay sin p = 0 .... (2).
If we eliminate p, we shall have the locus of R.
bx
From (2), we have sin &=
ay
sin & bx
and then tan = =
1-sina²y - b²x² ° ²
Substituting in (1) the locus is
(x² +y²)² (a²y² — b²x²) = (a² + b²)²x²y².
282 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

EXAMPLES. XXXVI.

Find the equation to the hyperbola, referred to its axes as axes of

coordinates,
1. whose transverse and conjugate axes are respectively 3 and 4,
2. whose conjugate axis is 5 and the distance between whose foci
is 13,
3. whose transverse axis is 7 and which passes through the point
(3, -2) ,
4. the distance between whose foci is 16 and whose eccentricity
is №2.
5. In the hyperbola 4x2 - 9y2 = 36, find the axes, the coordinates
of the foci, the eccentricity, and the latus rectum.
6. Find the equation to the hyperbola of given transverse axis
whose vertex bisects the distance between the centre and the focus.
7. Find the equation to the hyperbola, whose eccentricity is { ,
whose focus is (a, 0) , and whose directrix is 4x - 3y = a.
Find also the coordinates of the centre and the equation to the
other directrix.
8. Find the points common to the hyperbola 25x² - – 9y² = 225
and the straight line 25x + 12y – 45 = 0.
9. Find the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 4x²- 9y² =1
which is parallel to the line 4y = 5x +7.
10. Prove that a circle can be drawn through the foci of a
hyperbola and the points in which any tangent meets the tangents at
the vertices.
11. An ellipse and a hyperbola have the same principal axes.
Shew that the polar of any point on either curve with respect to the
other touches the first curve.
12. In both an ellipse and a hyperbola, prove that the focal
distance of any point and the perpendicular from the centre upon the
tangent at it meet on a circle whose centre is the focus and whose
radius is the semi-transverse axis.
X y x y 1
13. Prove that the straight lines a =m and + = always
a m
meet on the hyperbola.
14. Find the equation to, and the length of, the common tangent
x2 y2 y2 x2
to the two hyperbolas a2 - b2 = 1 and a2 -
b2=1.
15. In the hyperbola 16x2 - 9y2 = 144, find the equation to the
diameter which is conjugate to the diameter whose equation is x=2y.
 [Exs. XXXVI.] THE HYPERBOLA. EXAMPLES. 283

16. Find the equation to the chord of the hyperbola

25x2-16y2 =400
which is bisected at the point (5, 3) .
17. In a rectangular hyperbola, prove that
SP.S'P CP2.
18. the distance of any point from the centre varies inversely as
the perpendicular from the centre upon its polar.
19. if the normal at P meet the axes in G and g, then PG = Pg = PC.
20. the angle subtended by any chord at the centre is the
supplement of the angle between the tangents at the ends of the
chord.
21. the angles subtended at its vertices by any chord which is
parallel to its conjugate axis are supplementary.
x2 y2
22. The normal to the hyperbola a2 b2 = 1 meets the axes in M
and N, and perpendiculars MP and NP are drawn to the axes ; prove
that the locus of P is the hyperbola
a²x²- b²y² = (a² + b²)².
23. If one axis of a varying central conic be fixed in magnitude
and position, prove that the locus of the point of contact of a tangent
drawn to it from a fixed point on the other axis is a parabola.
24. If the ordinate MP of a hyperbola be produced to Q, so that
MQ is equal to either of the focal distances of P, prove that the locus
of Q is one or other of a pair of parallel straight lines.
25. Shew that the locus of the centre of a circle which touches
externally two given circles is a hyperbola.
26. On a level plain the crack of the rifle and the thud of the ball
striking the target are heard at the same instant ; prove that the
locus of the hearer is a hyperbola.
27. Given the base of a triangle and the ratio of the tangents of
half the base angles, prove that the vertex moves on a hyperbola
whose foci are the extremities of the base.
28. Prove that the locus of the poles of normal chords with
x2 y2 -1 is the curve
respect to the hyperbola a2 b2 =
y2a6 - x2b6 = (a + b²)²x²y².
29. Find the locus of the pole of a chord of the hyperbola which
subtends a right angle at (1) the centre, (2) the vertex, and (3) the
focus of the curve.
30. Shew that the locus of poles with respect to the parabola
y2 = 4ax of tangents to the hyperbola x² - y² = a2 is the ellipse
4x² +y2 = 4a².
284 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVI.]

31. Prove that the locus of the pole with respect to the hyperbola
x2 y2
= 1 of any tangent to the circle, whose diameter is the line
a2 b2
x2 y2 1
joining the foci , is the ellipse a¹ + 64 = a²+b²·

32. Prove that the locus of the intersection of tangents to a

hyperbola, which meet at a constant angle ß, is the curve
(x² + y² + b²- a²)² = 4 cot2 B (a²y2 - b²x²+a²b²).
33. From points on the circle x² + y² =a2 tangents are drawn to
the hyperbola x2 - y² = a2 ; prove that the locus of the middle points of
the chords of contact is the curve
(x² — y²)² = a² (x² + y²).
34. Chords of a hyperbola are drawn, all passing through the
fixed point (h, k) ; prove that the locus of their middle points is a
'h k
and which is similar to
hyperbola whose centre is the point (h, 2' 2
either the hyperbola or its conjugate.

312. Asymptote . Def. An asymptote is a straight

line, which meets the conic in two points both of which are
situated at an infinite distance, but which is itself not alto-
gether at infinity.

313. Tofind the asymptotes of the hyperbola

x² y² -
1.
a² b2
As in Art. 260, the straight line
y = mx + C ..(1)
meets the hyperbola in points, whose abscissae are given by
the equation
x² (b² — a²m²) - ......
— 2a²mcx — a² (c² + b²) = 0 …………
.. (2).
If the straight line ( 1 ) be an asymptote, both roots of (2)
must be infinite.
Hence (C. Smith's Algebra, Art. 123) , the coefficients of
x² and x in it must both be zero.
We therefore have
b² - a²m² = 0, and a²mc = 0.
 ASYMPTOTES. 285

b
Hence M= , and c = 0.
α
Substituting these values in ( 1 ), we have, as the re-
quired equation,
b
y = ± XC.
a
There are therefore two asymptotes both passing
through the centre and equally inclined to the axis of x,
the inclination being
b
tan -1 .
α

The equation to the asymptotes, written as one equa-

tion, is
x2 y2
- = 0.
a² bab2
Cor. For all values of c one root of equation ( 2) is
b
infinite if m = ±· • Hence any straight line, which is
α
parallel to an asymptote, meets the curve in one point at
infinity and in one finite point.

314. That the asymptote passes through two coincident points

at infinity, i.e. touches the curve at infinity, may be seen by finding
the equations to the tangents to the curve which pass through any
b
point ( 1,1) on the asymptote y = a -x.

As in Art. 305 the equation to either tangent through this point is

y= mx + √a²m² — b²,

where ax₁ = mx₁ + √a²m² — b²,

i.e. on clearing of surds,
2- b 2 b2
m² (x¸² — a²) − 2m a
— x¸² + (x¸² + a²) 2½2= 0.

One root of this equation is m ==; so that one tangent through

a
b
the given point is y ==a x, i.e. the asymptote itself.
286 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

315. Geometrical construction for the asymptotes.

Let A'A be the transverse axis, and along the conju-
gate axis measure off CB and C'B' , each equal to b.
Through B and B' draw parallels to the transverse axis
and through A and A' parallels to the conjugate axis, and
let these meet respectively in K1, K2, K , and K4 , as in the
figure.

B
K

N
IN

SA AS X
N
Ꮎ
·

K3 B'
f has

magnat od R

Clearly the equations of KCK, and KCK are

b b
y= X, and y = x,
a a
and these are therefore the equations of the asymptotes.
316. Let any double ordinate PNP' of the hyperbola
',
be produced both ways to meet the asymptotes in Q and Q
and let the abscissa CN be x'.
Since P lies on the curve, we have, by Art. 302,
b
NP == √x² - a².
a
 ASYMPTOTES. 287

b
Since Q is on the asymptote whose equation is y x,
a
b
we have NQ =-
a
b
Hence PQ = NQ - NP
a (x' — √x¹² — a²),
=
b
and QP = (x' + √x¹² — a²).
a
b2
Therefore PQ.QP' = ·{x²² - (x²² - a²) } == b².
a²
Hence, if from any point on an asymptote a straight
line be drawn perpendicular to the transverse axis, the
product of the segments of this line, intercepted between
the point and the curve, is always equal to the square on
the semi-conjugate axis.
Again,
b b a²
-
PQ = a= (x' — √ x¹² — a²) = 12- a²

- ab
x² + √x²² — a²
PQ is therefore always positive, and therefore the
part of the curve, for which the coordinates are positive,
is altogether between the asymptote and the transverse
axis.
Also as a' increases, i. e. as the point P is taken further
and further from the centre C, it is clear that PQ con-
tinually decreases ; finally, when x' is infinitely great, PQ
is infinitely small.
The curve therefore continually approaches the asymp-
tote but never actually reaches it, although, at a very great
distance, the curve would not be distinguishable from the
asymptote.
This property is sometimes taken as the definition of an
asymptote .

317. If SF be the perpendicular from S upon an

asymptote, the point Flies on the auxiliary circle. This
288 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

follows from the fact that the asymptote is a tangent,

whose point of contact happens to lie at infinity, or it may
be proved directly.
For
CA α
CFCScos FCS = CS. = √a² + b². = α.
CK √a² + b²
Also Z being the foot of the directrix, we have
CA² = CS.CZ, (Art. 295)
and hence CF2 CS . CZ, i.e. CS : CF :: CF : CZ.
By Euc. VI. 6, it follows that CZFL CFS = a right
angle, and hence that Flies on the directrix.
Hence the perpendiculars from thefoci on either asymptote
meet it in the same points as the corresponding directrix,
and the common points of intersection lie on the auxiliary
circle.

318. Equilateral or Rectangular Hyperbola.

In this curve (Art. 310) the quantities a and b are equal.
The equations to the asymptotes are therefore y = x, i.e.
they are inclined at angles ± 45° to the axis of x, and hence
they are at right angles. Hence the hyperbola is generally
called a rectangular hyperbola.

319. Conjugate Hyperbola . The hyperbola which

has BB' as its transverse axis, and AA' as its conjugate
axis, is said to be the conjugate hyperbola of the hyperbola
whose transverse and conjugate axes are respectively AA'
and BB'.
Thus the hyperbola
y² x²
=1 (1),
b2 a²
is conjugate to the hyperbola
x² y² 1
= (2).
a² ba
b2
Just as in Art. 313, the equation to the asymptotes of
y²x² -
(1) is
b2 a² = 0,
 THE HYPERBOLA. CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. 289

which, by the same article, is the equation to the asymp-

totes of (2).
Thus a hyperbola and its conjugate have the same
asymptotes.
The conjugate hyperbola is the dotted curve in the
figure of Art. 323.

320. Intersections of a hyperbola with a pair of con-

jugate diameters.
The straight line y = mx intersects the hyperbola
x² y
-
a² b²
in points whose abscissæ are given by
- mi
b2]= 1,
a²b⁹
i.e. by the equation x² ==
b² - a²m²2.
The points are therefore real or imaginary, according as
am is < or > b²,
i.e. according as
b
m₁ is numerically < or > a ( 1),

i.e. according as the inclination of the straight line to the

axis of x is less or greater than the inclination of the
asymptotes.
Now, by Art. 308, the straight lines y = mx and y = mx
are conjugate diameters if
b2
mym₂ - ૨૨ ..(2) .

Hence one of the quantities m, and m, must be less

b b
than and the other greater than
a α
b
Let m, be < a
- , so that, by (1 ), the straight line y = m,
meets the hyperbola in real points.
L. 19
290 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

b
Then, by (2), m, must be > " so that, by ( 1 ) , the straight
a
line y = mx will meet the hyperbola in imaginary points.
It follows therefore that only one of a pair of conjugate
diameters meets a hyperbola in real points.
321. If a pair of diameters be conjugate with respect
to a hyperbola, they will be conjugate with respect to its con-
jugate hyperbola.
For the straight lines y = mx and y = mx are conjugate
with respect to the hyperbola
ха y³
- = 1. .. (1 ),
a² b⁹
b2
if m₁m₂ = ..(2).

Now the equation to the conjugate hyperbola only

differs from ( 1 ) in having -
– a² instead of a² and - 6² instead
of b², so that the above pair of straight lines will be con-
jugate with respect to it, if
-- b2 b2
mym₂ = a² 2 (3).
α
But the relation (3) is the same as (2).
Hence the proposition .
322. If a pair of diameters be conjugate with respect
to a hyperbola, one of them meets the hyperbola in real points
and the other meets the conjugate hyperbola in real points.
Let the diameters be y = m₂x and y = max, so that
b2
ՊՈՊՈՆ» = a²
b b
As in Art. 320 let m₁ < - " and hence m₂ > - " so that the
a a
straight line y = mx meets the hyperbola in real points.
Also the straight line y = ma meets the conjugate
y² x²
hyperbola b2 - a² - 1 in points whose abscissæ are given by
ՊՈՆջ2 a²b
the equation a² b2 1)
a² = 1 , i.e. by a² = m²² a² -b2
 THE HYPERBOLA. CONJUGATE DIAMETERS . 291

Since m₂> b these abscissæ are real.

a"
Hence the proposition .

323. Ifapair ofconjugate diameters meet the hyperbola

and its conjugate in P and D, then ( 1 ) CP² − CD² = a² – b³,
and (2 ) the tangents at P, D and the other ends of the
diameters passing through them form a parallelogram whose
vertices lie on the asymptotes and whose area is constant.
x2 y2
Let P be any point on the hyperbola - 1 whose
a² b2
coordinates are (a sec 4, b tan 4).
The equation to the diameter CP is therefore
b tan b
y= x = x . sin .
a seco α

B
K

Α
K

By Art. 308, the equation to the straight line, which

is
conjugate to CP, is
b
y=x
a sin
19-2
292 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

This straight line meets the conjugate hyperbola

y² - x² =
= 1,
b2 a²
- b sec ) so
in the points (a tan 4, b sec 4), and (— a tan 4, −
that D is the point (a tan d, b sec ).
We therefore have
CP² = a² sec² $ + b² tan² 4,
and · CD2 == a2 tan² + b² sec² p.
Hence
CP² -
– CD² = (a² – b²) (sec² -
— tan² 4) = a³ — b².
Again, the tangents at P and D to the hyperbola and
the conjugate hyperbola are easily seen to be
818 ১১/০

y
sin = cos p, .........
... …….. ( 1) ,
a
х
and sin = cos 0. ......... (2).
a
These meet at the point
х y
= cos &
α b 1- sin
This point lies on the asymptote CL.
Similarly, the intersection of the tangents at P and D'
lies on CL , that of tangents at D' and P' on CL', and
those at D and P' on CL₁.
If tangents be therefore drawn at the points where a
pair of conjugate diameters meet a hyperbola and its
conjugate, they form a parallelogram whose angular points
are on the asymptotes.
Again, the perpendicular from C on the straight line ( 1)
cos & ab cos
1 √√b² + a² sin³
+ sin
√ a² b2
ab ab ab
=
√b² sec² + a² tan² CD PK'
 THE CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA. 293

so that PK × perpendicular from C on PK = ab,

i.e. area of the parallelogram CPKD = ab.
Also the areas of the parallelograms CPKD, CDK¸P',
CP'K'D ', and CD'K, P are all equal.
The area KK,K'K' therefore = 4ab.
Cor. PK = CD = D'C = KP, so that the portion of a
tangent to a hyperbola intercepted between the asymptotes
is bisected at the point of contact.

324. Relation between the equation to the hyperbola,

the equation to its asymptotes, and the equation to the conju-
gate hyperbola .
The equations to the hyperbola, the asymptotes, and the
conjugate hyperbola are respectively
33 38
218

x2 - y2 =
21

a² b2 . (1 ),
8

x2 - y2 =
............ ( 2) ,
a² b2
x² y³
and - - 1 (3).
a2 b2
We notice that the equation ( 2) differs from equation (1 )
by a constant, and that the equation (3) differs from (2) by
exactly the same quantity that (2) differs from ( 1 ) .
If now we transform the equations in any way we
please- by changing the origin and directions of the axes—
by the most general substitutions of Art. 132 and by
multiplying the equations by any-the same constant,
we shall alter the left-hand members of (1 ), (2 ) , and (3) in
exactly the same way, and the right-hand constants in the
equations will still be constants, and differ in the same way
as before.
Hence, whatever be the form of the equation to a
hyperbola, the equation to the asymptotes only differs from
it by a constant, and the equation to the conjugate
hyperbola differs from that to the asymptotes by the same
constant .
294 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

325. As an example of the foregoing article, let it be required

to find the asymptotes of the hyperbola
3x²- 5xy - 2y² + 5x + 11y - 8 = 0 ...………………….. ..(1).
Since the equation to the asymptotes only differs from it by a
constant, it must be of the form
3x² - 5xy - 2y² + 5x + 11y + c = 0 ....... . (2) .
Since (2) represents the asymptotes it must represent two straight
lines. The condition for this is (Art. 116)
3 ( −2 ) c + 2 . § . ¹¹- ( − §) − 3 ( 11 )² – ( − 2) (§ ) ² − c ( — §)² = 0,
i.e. c= -12,
The equation to the asymptotes is therefore
3x² - 5xy - 2y² + 5x + 11y −12 = 0,
and the equation to the conjugate hyperbola is
3x²- 5xy - 2y2 + 5x + 11y - 16 = 0.
326. As another example we see that the equation to any
hyperbola whose asymptotes are the straight lines
Ax +By + C = 0 and A₁x + By + C₁ = 0,
is (Ax + By + C) (A¸¤ + B₁¥ + С₁ ) = λ² ...............
……….. (1),
where X is any constant.
For (1 ) only differs by a constant from the equation to the
asymptotes, which is
.......... (2).
(Ax + By + C) (A¸≈ + B₁î + С₁ ) = 0 ....
If in (1) we substitute - λ² for λ² we shall have the equation to its
conjugate hyperbola.
It follows that any equation of the form
(Ax + By + C) (A₁≈ + B₁î + С₁) = λ²
represents a hyperbola whose asymptotes are
Ax + By + C = 0, and A₁x + B₁y + C₁ = 0.
Thus the equation_x (x + y) = a² represents a hyperbola whose
asymptotes are x = 0 and x + y = 0.
Again, the equation x² + 2xy cot 2a —- y² = a²,
i.e. (x cot a - y) (xtan a +y) = a²,
represents a hyperbola whose asymptotes are
x cot a - y = 0, and x tan a +y = 0.
827. It would follow from the preceding articles that the
equation to any hyperbola whose asymptotes are x = 0 and y =0 is
xy =const.
 THE HYPERBOLA. EXAMPLES. 295

The constant could be easily determined in terms of the semi-

transverse and semi-conjugate axes.
In Art. 328 we shall obtain this equation by direct transformation
from the equation referred to the principal axes.

EXAMPLES. XXXVII.

1. Through the positive vertex of the hyperbola a tangent is

drawn; where does it meet the conjugate hyperbola?
2. Ife and e' be the eccentricities of a hyperbola and its conjugate,
1 1
prove that + 2
e' =1.
3. Prove that chords of a hyperbola, which touch the conjugate
hyperbola, are bisected at the point of contact.
4. Shew that the chord, which joins the points in which a pair of
conjugate diameters meets the hyperbola and its conjugate, is parallel
to one asymptote and is bisected by the other.
5. Tangents are drawn to a hyperbola from any point on one of
the branches of the conjugate hyperbola ; shew that their chord of
contact will touch the other branch of the conjugate hyperbola.
6. A straight line is drawn parallel to the conjugate axis of a
hyperbola to meet it and the conjugate hyperbola in the points P and
Q; shew that the tangents at P and Q meet on the curve
y /y2 x2 = 4.x2
64 b2 a² a² ,
and that the normals meet on the axis of x.
7. From a point G on the transverse axis GL is drawn perpen-
dicular to the asymptote, and GP a normal to the curve at P. Prove
that LP is parallel to the conjugate axis.
8. Find the asymptotes of the curve 2x2 + 5xy + 2y² + 4x + 5y = 0,
and find the general equation of all hyperbolas having the same
asymptotes.
9. Find the equation to the hyperbola, whose asymptotes are the
straight lines x + 2y + 3 = 0, and 3x + 4y + 5 = 0, and which passes
through the point (1, −1).
Write down also the equation to the conjugate hyperbola.
10. In a rectangular hyperbola, prove that CP and CD are equal,
and are inclined to the axis at angles which are complementary.
296 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVII . ]

x2 - y2
11. C is the centre of the hyperbola b2 = 1 and the tangent at
any point P meets the asymptotes in the points Q and R. Prove that
the equation to the locus of the centre of the circle circumscribing
the triangle CQR is 4 (a²x² – b²y²) = (a² + b²)².
12. A series of hyperbolas is drawn having a common transverse
axis of length 2a. Prove that the locus of a point P on each hyper-
bola, such that its distance from the transverse axis is equal to its
distance from an asymptote, is the curve (x²- y²)² = 4x² (x² — a²).

328. Tofind the equation to a hyperbola referred to its

asymptotes.
K

a A M
A' α X
R

Let P be any point on the hyperbola, whose equation

referred to its axes is
2
- y² 1 .(1).
a² b2
Draw PH parallel to one asymptote CL to meet the
other C'K' in H, and let CH and HP be h and k respec-
tively. Then h and k are the coordinates of P referred to
the asymptotes .
Let a be the semi-angle between the asymptotes, so that,
b
by Art. 313, tan a == "
a
sin a COS a 1
and hence
b a √a² + b²
Draw HN perpendicular to the transverse axis, and HR
parallel to the transverse axis, to meet the ordinate PM of
the point P in R.
 ASYMPTOTES AS AXES. 297

Then, since PH and HR are parallel respectively to CL

and CM, we have L
▲ PHR = ▲ LCM = a.
Hence CMCN + HR = CH cos a + HP cos a
a
== (h + k)
a² + b²²
√a²
and MP = RP - HN = HP sin a-- CH sin a
= b
= (h − k)
√a² + b²
Therefore, since CM and MP satisfy the equation ( 1 ) ,
we have
(h + k)² - (h - k)²-= 1 , i.e. hk:= a²+ b²
a² + b² a²+ b² 4

Hence, since (h, k) is any point on the hyperbola, the

required equation is
a² + b²
xy
4

This is often written in the form xy = c², where 4c²

equals the sum of the squares of the semiaxes of the
hyperbola.
Similarly, the equation to the conjugate hyperbola is,
when referred to the asymptotes,
a² + b²
xy = 4

329. To find the equation to the tangent at any point

ofthe hyperbola xy = c².
Let (x , y ) be any point P on the hyperbola, and
(a", y") a point Q on it, so that we have
x'y' = c² (1),
and x"y" = c² (2).
The equation to the line PQ is then
y" -y
'
y -y' = x" (x -x ') (3).
298 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

But, by (1 ) and (2), we have

c³ c²
" c²x² - x"
y" - y' = x х
---
x" - x' x -- х x'x" x" — x′ acac"

Hence the equation (3) becomes

c²
y - y' - (x -
− x') (4).

Let now the point Q be taken indefinitely near to P, so

that x" = x′ ultimately, and therefore, by Art. 149, PQ
becomes the tangent at P.
Then (4) becomes
c²
y - y' =-y
'
x'2 (x − x') (x − x'), by (1).

The required equation is therefore

xy' + x'y = 2x'y' = 2c² (5).
The equation (5) may also be written in the form
x У
+ 2 (6).
x y

330. The tangent at any point of a hyperbola cuts off a triangle

of constant area from the asymptotes, and the portion of it intercepted
between the asymptotes is bisected at the point of contact.
Take the asymptotes as axes and let the equation to the hyperbola
be xy = c².
x y
The tangent at any point P is x' + =2.
y
This meets the axes in the points (2x' , 0) and (0, 2y') .
If these points be L and L' , and the centre be C, we have
CL = 2x', and CL' = 2y'.
If 2a be the angle between the asymptotes, the area of the triangle
a² + b²
LCL'CL.CL' sin 2a = 2x'y' sin 2a =- 2 2 sin a cos a =ab.
(Art. 328.)
Also, since L is the point (2x', 0) and L' is (0, 2y'), the middle
point of LL' is (x' , y′) , i.e. the point of contact P.
 ASYMPTOTES AS AXES. 299

331. As in Art. 274, the polar of any point (x , y )

with respect to the curve can be shewn to be
xY1 + x₁y = 2c .
Since, in general, the point (x , y ) does not lie on the
curve the equation to the polar cannot be put into the form
(6) of Art. 329.

332. The equation to the normal at the point (x , y)

- x' ), where m is chosen so that this line is
is y - y' = m (x −
perpendicular to the tangent
y 2c²
y x+ •
Ꮳ х
If o be the angle between the asymptotes we then
obtain, by Art. 93,
x'y' cos w
m=
y' - x' cos w
so that the required equation to the normal is
y (y' — x' cos w) — x (x' — y' cos w) = y'² — x²².
a² - b²
Also cos = cos 2a = cos² a - sin² a =
[Also a +b²
If the hyperbola be rectangular, then w12= 90° , and the
equation to the normal becomes xx' — yy' = x²² — y'².

333. Equation referred to the asymptotes.

One Variable .
The equation xy = c is clearly satisfied by the substitu-
с
tion xct and y -

Hence, for all values of t, the point whose coordinates

are ct, lies on the curve, and it may be called the point
(ct, 9)

The tangent at the point " t" is by Art. 329,

X
+ yt = 2c.
300 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

Also the normal is, by the last article,

C
-
y ( 1 – tª cos w) — x (tª — cos w) = — (1 − t),
or, when the hyperbola is rectangular,

} -x =t
(1 − t ).
The equations to the tangents at the points " t," and " t,”
are
x X
+ yt₁ = 2c, and + yt₂ = 2c,
t₁ tz
and hence the tangents meet at the point
2ct t₂ 2c
\t₂ + to ' ).
t₂ + to
The line joining " t " and " ta," which is the polar of this
point, is therefore, by Art. 331 ,
x + yt₁t₂ = c (t₁ + t₂).
This form also follows by writing down the equation
to the straight line joining the points

(ct , 1) and (ct₂, ).

334. Ex. 1. Ifa rectangular hyperbola circumscribe a triangle,

it also passes through the orthocentre ofthe triangle.
Let the equation to the curve referred to its asymptotes be
xy = c²..... ..(1).
Let the angular points of the triangle be P, Q, and R, and let their
coordinates be
ct₁,
( )
(et .; ) . (et₂, ) , and (et. 1) )
respectively.
As in the last article, the equation to QR is
x + yttз = c (t₂ + tz).
The equation to the straight line, through P perpendicular to QR,
is therefore
с
y- ——t1 = t₂ts [x — ct₂ ],
i.e. с
x+
y + ct₂tats =tats [ titats.
 ASYMPTOTES AS AXES. 301

Similarly, the equation to the straight line through Q perpendicular

to RP is
с
| x + titat
y +ct₁t₂t3 = tât₁ [ . (3).

The common point of (2) and (3) is clearly

с
. (4),
(-tists - cttsta ).
and this is therefore the orthocentre.
But the coordinates (4) satisfy (1). Hence the proposition.
Also if ct4, be the orthocentre of the points " t₁ ," " t ," and
"t ," we have titätзt = −1.
Ex. 2. If a circle and66the rectangular hyperbola xy = c² meet in
the four points " t₁, " " tq, " " tq," and " t ," prove that
(1) tatatat = 1,
(2) the centre of mean position of the four points bisects the
distance between the centres of the two curves,
and (3) the centre of the circle through the points “ t₁ ,” “ t ,” “ " is
с
{6 (4 +4 +4 + titats
16 ) , 8 (1 + tą
1 + 1
tz + 946 )}} ·
tata)}·
Let the equation to the circle be
x² +y2-2gx - 2fy + k = 0,
30 that its centre is the point (g, f).
Any point on the hyperbola is (ct, ( ct, ;). If this lie on the circle,

we have c2t2 + c2 -- 2get − 2f — + k = 0,

t2
k 2f
so that # - 22с to+ c2 t2 с t+
21 t 1= 0 .
12 - 21t+ . (1).

If t₁, t₂, tg, and to be the roots of this equation, we have, by Art. 2,
titat t = 1 ........ .. (2),
2g
t₁ + t₂ + tz + t = с (3),
and 2f
tëtзt +tзtştı + tåt₁të + t1t2t3 = · .(4).
Dividing (4) by (2), we have
1 1 1 - 2f
+++ .(5).
302 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The centre of the mean position of the four points,

C 1 1
( 1, +++
i.e. the point {{ (₁ + t₂ + la + ta), (2

is therefore the point (2,5) , and this is the middle point of the line
joining (0, 0) and (g, f).
1
Also, since t₁ == " we have
titats
с с 1
g= t1 f
x = (4 +4 +4 + 1 ), and 1-12 (} t + to + t3 +445).
atata) .
Again, since tttst = 1, we have product of the abscissae of the
four points =product of their ordinates = c4.

EXAMPLES . XXXVIII.
a² + b²
1. Prove that the foci of the hyperbola xy =
4 are given by
a² +b²
x= y = ± 2a

2. Shew that two concentric rectangular hyperbolas, whose axes

meet at an angle of 45°, cut orthogonally.
3. A straight line always passes through a fixed point; prove
that the locus of the middle point of the portion of it, which is
intercepted between two given straight lines, is a hyperbola whose
asymptotes are parallel to the given lines.
4. If the ordinate NP at any point P of an ellipse be produced to
Q, so that NQ is equal to the subtangent at P, prove that the locus of
Qis a hyperbola.
5. From a point P perpendiculars PM and PN are drawn to two
straight lines OM and ON. If the area OMPN be constant, prove
that the locus of P is a hyperbola.
6. A variable line has its ends on two lines given in position and
passes through a given point ; prove that the locus of a point which
divides it in any given ratio is a hyperbola.
7. The coordinates of a point are a tan (0 + a ) and btan (0 +ß),
where is variable ; prove that the locus of the point is a hyperbola.
8. A series of circles touch a given straight line at a given point.
Prove that the locus of the pole of a given straight line with regard to
these circles is a hyperbola whose asymptotes are respectively a
parallel to the first given straight line and a perpendicular to the
second.
 [Exs. XXXVIII.] THE HYPERBOLA. EXAMPLES . 303

9. If a right-angled triangle be inscribed in a rectangular hyper-

bola, prove that the tangent at the right angle is the perpendicular
upon the hypothenuse.
10. In a rectangular hyperbola, prove that all straight lines, which
subtend a right angle at a point P on the curve, are parallel to the
normal at P.
11. Chords of a rectangular hyperbola are at right angles , and
they subtend a right angle at a fixed point 0 ; prove that they inter-
sect on the polar of 0.
12. Prove that any chord of a rectangular hyperbola subtends
angles which are equal or supplementary ( 1) at the ends of a perpen-
dicular chord, and (2) at the ends of any diameter.
13. In a rectangular hyperbola, shew that the angle between a
chord PQ and the tangent at P is equal to the angle which PQ
subtends at the other end of the diameter through P.
14. Show that the normal to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c² at
the point "t" meets the curve again at a point "t" such that
t³t' -1.
15. If P1 , P2, and P,3 be three points on the rectangular hyperbola
xy=c2, whose abscissæ are x1 , x2 , and x,, prove that the area of the
triangle P,P,P is
- - -
c² (X3 — Xg) (X3 — X1) (X1 — X2) ,
X1X2X3
and that the tangents at these points form a triangle whose area is
2c2 (X2 — X3) (X3 − X1) (X1− X2)
(X3 + X3) (X3 + X1) (X1 + X2) °
16. Find the coordinates of the points of contact of common
tangents to the two hyperbolas
x² -y2 = 3a² and xy = 2a2.
17. The transverse axis of a rectangular hyperbola is 2c and the
asymptotes are the axes of coordinates ; shew that the equation of the
chord which is bisected at the point (2c, 3c) is 3x + 2y = 12c.
18. Prove that the portions of any line which are intercepted
between the asymptotes and the curve are equal.
19. Shew that the straight lines drawn from a variable point on
the curve to any two fixed points on it intercept a constant distance on
either asymptote .
20. Shew that the equation to the director circle of the conic
xy =c2 is x² + 2xy cos w + y² = 4c² cos w.
21. Prove that the asymptotes of the hyperbola xy = hx + ky are
x=k and y = h.
304 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

22. Shewthat the straight line y = mx + c√m always touches the

с
hyperbola xy = c², and that its point of contact is - m " √=m).
23. Prove that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular let fall
from the centre upon chords of the rectangular hyperbola xy = c²
which subtend half a right angle at the origin is the curve
4-2c2-2 sin 20 = c4.
24. A tangent to the parabola x2 = 4ay meets the hyperbola xy = k²
in two points P and Q. Prove that the middle point of PQ lies on a
parabola.
25. If a hyperbola be rectangular, and its equation be ry = c²,
prove that the locus of the middle points of chords of constant length
2d is (x² + y²) (xy − c²) = d²xy.
26. Shew that the pole of any tangent to the rectangular hyper-
bola xy = c², with respect to the circle x² + y² = a2, lies on a concentric
and similarly placed rectangular hyperbola.
27. Prove that the locus of the poles of all normal chords of the
rectangular hyperbola xy = c² is the curve
(x² -
— y²)² +4c²xy =0.
28. Any tangent to the rectangular hyperbola 4xy = ab meets the
x2 y2
ellipse a2 + b2 == 1 in the points P and Q ; prove that the normals at P
and Q to the ellipse meet on a fixed diameter of the ellipse.
29. Prove that triangles can be inscribed in the hyperbola xy = c²,
whose sides touch the parabola y² = 4ax.
30. A point moves on the given straight line y = mx ; prove that
the locus of the foot of the perpendicular let fall from the centre upon
x2 y2
its polar with respect to the ellipse a2 + b2 = 1 is a rectangular
hyperbola, one of whose asymptotes is the diameter of the ellipse
which is conjugate to the given straight line.
31. A quadrilateral circumscribes a hyperbola ; prove that the
straight line joining the middle points of its diagonals passes through
the centre of the curve.
32. A, B, C, and D are the points of intersection of a circle and a
rectangular hyperbola. If AB pass through the centre of the hyper-
bola, prove that CD passes through the centre of the circle.
33. If a circle and a rectangular hyperbola meet in four points P,
Q, R, and S, shew that the orthocentres of the triangles QRS, RSP,
SPQ, and PQR also lie on a circle.
Prove also that the tangents to the hyperbola at R and S meet
in a point which lies on the diameter of the hyperbola which is at
right angles to PQ.
 XXXVIII .] THE HYPERBOLA. EXAMPLES . 305

34. A series of hyperbolas is drawn, having for asymptotes the

principal axes of an ellipse ; shew that the common chords of the
hyperbolas and the ellipse are all parallel to one of the conjugate
diameters of the ellipse.

35. A circle, passing through the centre of a rectangular hyperbola,

cuts the curve in the points A, B, C, and D ; prove that the circum-
circle of the triangle formed by the tangents at A, B, and C goes
through the centre of the hyperbola, and has its centre at the point
of the hyperbola which is diametrically opposite to D.
36. Given five points on a circle of radius a ; prove that the
centres of the rectangular hyperbolas, each passing through four of
a
these points, all lie on a circle of radius 2 ·

37. If a rectangular hyperbola circumscribe a triangle, shew that

it meets the circle circumscribing the triangle in a fourth point, which
is at the other end of the diameter of the hyperbola which passes
through the orthocentre of the triangle.
Hence prove that the locus of the centre of a rectangular hyper-
bola which circumscribes a triangle is the nine-point circle of the
triangle.
38. Two rectangular hyperbolas are such that the asymptotes of
one are parallel to the axes of the other and the centre of each lies on
the other. If any circle through the centre of one cut the other again
in the points P, Q, and R, prove that PQR is a triangle such that each
side is the polar of the opposite vertex with respect to the first
hyperbola.

L. 20
 CHAPTER XIV.

POLAR EQUATION OF A CONIC SECTION, ITS FOCUS

BEING THE POLE.

335. Let S be the focus, A the vertex, and ZM the

directrix ; draw SZ perpendicular to ZM.
Let ZS be chosen as the positive direction of the
initial line, and produce it to X.
Take any point P on the
curve, and let its polar co- M
ordinates ber and 0, so that
we have
SP = r, and XSP = 0.
Draw PN perpendicular
to the initial line, and PM
perpendicular to the directrix.
Z A SN X
Let SL be the semi-latus-
rectum, and let SL = 1.
Since SL = e . SZ, we have
SZ = -
e
Hence
r=SP e . PM = e . ZN
= e (ZS + SN)
= e -+ SP . cos ) == 1 + e.r. c 0.
e.r.cos
= (1e + SP . cos 0) =
1
Therefore ..(1).
1 - e cos
 THE POLAR EQUATION, FOCUS BEING POLE. 307

This, being the relation holding between the polar

coordinates of any point on the curve, is, by Art. 42, the
required polar equation.
Cor. If SZ be taken as the positive direction of the initial line and
the vectorial angle measured clockwise, the equation to the curve is
r= 1+e cos 0

336. If the conic be a parabola, we have e = 1, and the equation

1 Ꮎ
is r= = = cosec²
1 cos e 2 2'
2 sin2

If the initial line, instead of being the axis, be such that the axis
is inclined at an angle y to it, then, in the previous article, instead of
e we must substitute -y.
The equation in this case is then
=1-- e cos (0 - y).
r

337. To trace the curve - - 1 - e cos 0.

r

Case I. e = 1, so that the equation is 1 - cos 0.

When is zero, we have 0, so that is infinite. As

r
0 increases from 0° to 90°, cos @ decreases from 1 to 0,
and hence increases from 0 to 1 , i.e. r decreases from
γ
infinity to l.
As increases from 90° to 180° , cos decreases from
1
0 to 1, and hence increases from 1 to 2, i.e. r decreases
γ
from 7 to 1.
Similarly, as changes from 180° to 270°, r increases
from 12to l, and, as changes from 270° to 360°, r increases
from too .
The curve is thus the parabola ∞ FPLAL'P'F' ∞ of
Art. 197.
20-2
308 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Case II. e < 1. When is zero, we have = 1 - e,

1
i.e. r = · This gives the point A ' in the figure of Art.
1 -e
247.
As increases from 0° to 90°, cos 0 decreases from 1 to
ι
O, and therefore 1 - e cos increases from 1 - e to 1 , i.e.
I'
l
increases from 1 - e to 1 , i.e. r decreases from 1. e to l.
We thus obtain the portion A'PBL.
As increases from 90° to 180°, cos decreases from 0
to - 1 , and therefore 1 -− e cos increases from 1 to 1 + e,
1
i.e. - increases from 1 to 1 + e, i.e. r decreases from / to 1 + e'
γ
We thus obtain the portion LA of the curve, where
7
SA == •
1 +e
Similarly, as increases from 180° to 270° and then to
360°, we have the portions AL' and L'B'P'A'.
Since cos = cos (— 0) = cos (360° - 6) , the curve is sym-
metrical about the line SA'.
Case III. e > 1 . When is zero, 1 - e cos is equal
to 1 - e, i.e. (e - 1), and is therefore a negative quantity,
since e > 1. This zero value of ◊ gives r = − 1 ÷ (e -
− 1 ).
We thus have the point A' in the figure of Art. 295.
Let increase from 0° to cos -1 Thus 1 - e cos

increases algebraically from - (e− 1 ) to −0,

7
i.e. increases algebraically from - (e− 1 ) to −0 ,

i.e. r decreases algebraically from - e - 1 to - co

For these values of the radius vector is therefore

negative and increases in numerical length from to ∞ .

e
 THE POLAR EQUATION, FOCUS BEING POLE. 309

We thus have the portion A'PR'∞ of the curve. For

this portion r is negative.
1
If be very slightly greater than cos-1 e then cos is
1
slightly less than " so that 1 - e cos is small and positive,
e
and therefore r is very great and is positive. Hence, as
1
increases through the angle cos -¹ the value of changes
from - co to + ∞ .
1
As increases from to π, 1 - e cos increases

from 0 to 1 + e and hencer decreases from co to

1 +e
7 7
Now is < Hence the point A, which corresponds
1+ e e 1
=
to 0π, is such that SA < SA'.
1
For values of 0 between cos .1 and we therefore
e
have the portion, ∞o RPA, of the curve . For this portion
r is positive.
As increases from 7 to 2π - cos-1 , e cos increases
e
from - e to 1 , so that 1 - e cos decreases from 1 + e to 0,
and therefore r increases from to co . Correspo
1+e nding
to these values of we have the portion ALR₁ ∞ of the
curve, for which r is positive.
1
Finally, as increases from 2π- cos - ¹ to 2π, e cos 0
e
increases from 1 to e, so that 1 e cos decreases algebraic-
ally from 0 to 1 e, i.e. is negative and increases
r
numerically from 0 to e - 1, and therefore r is negative and
7
decreases from co to Corresponding to these values
e 1
of 0 we have the portion, ∞o R'A', of the curve. For this
portion r is negative.
310 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

r is therefore always positive for the right-hand branch

of the curve and negative for the left-hand branch.
It will be noted that the curve is described in the order
A'P'R' ∞ ∞ RPAL'R, ∞ ∞ RA'.

338. In Case III. of the last article, let any straight line be
drawn through S to meet the nearer branch in p, and the further
branch in q.
The vectorial angle of p is XSp, and we have
1
Sp I-– e cos XSp *

The vectorial angle of q is not XSq but the angle that qS produced
makes with SX, i.e. it is XSqπ. Also for the point q the radius
vector is negative so that the relation (1) of Art. 335 gives, for the
point q,
-Sq= =
- e cos (XSq FT) 1 +e cos XSq'
i.e. Sq=
1+e cos XSq
This is the relation connecting the distance, Sq, of any point on
the further branch of the hyperbola with the angle XSq that it makes
with the initial line.

339. Equation to the directrices.

Considering the figure of Art. 295, the numerical values
1 7
of the distances SZ and SZ' are and + 2CZ,
e

i.e.
e and e +2 ( -1)'
+
α 1
since CZ = [Art. 300. ]
e e (e² - 1 )*
The equations to the two directrices are therefore
1
r cos 0:

21 l e² + 1
and r cos == + - •
[ e (e² - 1) e e² - 1
The same equations would be found to hold in the case
of the ellipse.
 POLAR EQUATION TO A CONIC. 311

340. Equation to the asymptotes.

The perpendicular distance from S upon an asymptote
(Fig. , Art. 315)
b
- CS sin ACK₁ = ae . √a² +b² b.

Also the asymptote CQ makes an angle cos with the

e
axis. The perpendicular on it from S therefore makes an
π 1
angle 2 + cos-¹
e

Hence, by Art. 88, the polar equation to the asymptote

CQ is
π -1
b = rcos [ 2 cos-' ] = r sin [ -cos -1 ]
[06 --

The polar equation to the other asymptote is similarly

3π
b== r cos 0- COS -1 = -rsin ( 0+ cos-
2 ]
)=
10 (0 + cos -¹ -1) .

341. Ex. 1. In any conic, prove that

(1) the sum of the reciprocals of the segments of any focal chord
is constant, and
(2) the sum ofthe reciprocals of two perpendicular focal chords is
constant.
Let PSP' be any focal chord, and let the vectorial angle of P be a,
so that the vectorial angle of P' is π + α.
(1) By equation (1) of Art. 335, we have
ι
= 1 - e cosa,
SP
and ι
SP =1 - e cos (π + a) = 1 + e cos a.
1
Hence =2,
SP + SP
1 1 2
so that + =
SP SP
The semi-latus-rectum is therefore the harmonic mean between
the segments of any focal chord.
312 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

(2) Let QSQ' be the focal chord perpendicular to PSP', so that the
П 3п
vectorial angles of Q and Q' are + a and 2 + a. We then have

= 1 - e cos
SQ ( ++ a) =1
= 1 + esin a,
3п π
and -e cos + a = 1 + e cos + a = 1 - e sin a.
SQ 2 H
( :)
Hence
21
PP' SP +SP' = + =
1-- e cos a 1 + ecos a 1 - e² cos² a'
21
and QQ' = SQ + SQ':= 1 + e sin a + 1- e sin a 1 - e2 sin2 a
Therefore
1 1 1- e² cos² a 1- e² sin² a 2 - e2
- + =
PP + QQ ' 21 21 21
and is therefore the same for all such pairs of chords.

Ex. 2. Prove that the locus of the middle points offocal chords of
a conic section is a conic section.
Let PSQ be any chord, the angle PSX being 0, so that
SP =
1 - e cose

and SQ = 1 — e·cos (π + 0) = 1+ e cos 0

Let R be the middle point of PQ, and let its polar coordinates be
r and 0.
SQ
Then r=SP - RP= SP- SP +SQ = SP -
2
1 e cos e
= [1 - ecos 0-1 + e cos 0 ] = ¹1 - ecos³0' 2
i.e. p2 - e2r2 cos20 = le . r cos 0.
Transforming to Cartesian coordinates this equation becomes
x² + y² - e²x² = lex ..(1) .
If the original conic be a parabola, we have e = 1, and equation (1)
becomes y² = lx, so that the locus is a parabola whose vertex is S and
latus-rectum l.
If e be not equal to unity, equation (1) may be written in the form
le 2 12e2
e²) [ x-
(1 -- e²) ² + y² = 4 (1 - 6²)
x − 1 11 -22 e22]
and therefore represents an ellipse or a hyperbola according as the
original conic is an ellipse or a hyperbola.
 POLAR EQUATION TO THE TANGENT. 313

342. To find the polar equation of the tangent at any

1
point P ofthe conic section -- 1- e cos 0.
7°
Let P be the point (r₁ , a), and let Q be another point
on the curve, whose coordinates are (r₁ , ẞ), so that we have
7
1 - e cos a . (1 ),
r1

and 1 - e cos B (2).

r2
By Art. 89, the polar equation of the line PQ is
sin (B - a) __ sin ((0 -a)
– a) + sin (B - 0)
r T2 r1
By means of equations ( 1 ) and (2) this equation becomes
- -
- sin (ẞ − a ) = sin ( 0 − a ) { 1 − e cos ẞ} + sin (ẞ — 0) { 1 − e cos a}

= {sin ( -a) + sin (B - 0) } - e {sin ( 0 - a) cosẞ + sin (B -0) cos a}

-α -a - B
=-2 sin B COS 20
2 2

-e{(sin cosa - cos @sin a) cosẞ + (sinßcos e -cos ẞsine) cosa}

-α
= 2 sin β COS a +B -
- e cos ◊ sin (ẞ − a),
2 B.
a +)
B α
i.e. - = sec Cos - - e cos 0......... (3) .
r 2 2B
a+ )-

This is the equation to the straight line joining two

points, P and Q, on the curve whose vectorial angles, a and
ẞ, are given.
To obtain the equation of the tangent at P we take Q
indefinitely close to P, i.e. we put B - a, and the equation
(3) then becomes
1
= cos ( -a) - e cos 0 ............(4).

This is the required equation to the tangent at the

point a.
314 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

343. If we assume a suitable form for the equation to the

joining chord we can more easily obtain the required equation.
Let the required equation be
-
ሞ =Lcos (0 − y) − e cos 0 .. (1).
[On transformation to Cartesian coordinates this equation is
easily seen to represent a straight line ; also since it contains two
arbitrary constants, L and y, it can be made to pass through any two
points. ]
If it pass through the point (r₁ , a) , we have
1 - e cos a === Lcos (ay) - e cos a,
i.e. L cos (ay) = 1 ...…………………. . (2).
Similarly, if it pass through the point (r₂ , ß) on the curve, we have
.........
Lcos (8 - y) = 1…………………………….. (3).
Solving these, we have, [ since a and ẞ are not equal]
a - y = −- (B− y) , i.e. y=a 2 +ß

α -β
Substituting this value in (3), we obtain L -sec
The equation (1) is then
α- Ᏸ a +B
-=sec COS - e cos 0.
T 2 2 -
(0-058)
As in the last article, the equation to the tangent at the point a is
then

7-=cos
° (0 - a) - e cos 0.

* 344. To find the polar equation of the polar ofany

l
point (r1 , 01 ) with respect to the conic section = 1 - e cos 0.
r
Let the tangents at the points whose vectorial angles
are a and ß meet in the point (r₁, 01).
The coordinates r, and 0, must therefore satisfy equation
(4) of Art. 342, so that

·= cos (0₁ − a) — e cos 0₁1 ..... .(1).

71
Similarly,

== cos (0₁ - B) - e cos 0₁ .(2).

r1
 POLAR EQUATION TO THE POLAR. 315

Subtracting (2) from (1 ), we have

-
cos (0, - a) = cos (0₁ — ẞ),
and therefore
0₁ - a = - (0₁ - ẞ), [since a and ẞ are not equal],
i.e. a +B =
01 . (3) .
2
Substituting this value in (1 ), we have
- = COS
{a +B_a} e cos 01 ,
r1
В- α =
i.e. COS + e cos 0₂ .. (4).
2 r1
Also, by equation (3) of Art. 342 , the equation of the
line joining the points a and ẞ is

-+ e cos 0 = sec β - α COS Ꮎ

γ 2 ( a+B
2 ),
β -a a+
i.e. COS COS
+ + e cos80)
(
G+ @ ) 008 B 2 = 008 (0+ ),

i.e. + e cos 0
o)( + e cos 0₂ ) = cos (0-0 )...... (5) .
( + ecos 0)
This therefore is the required polar equation to the polar
of the point (r1, 01).

*345. To find the equation to the normal at the point

whose vectorial angle is a.
The equation to the tangent at the point a is

r cos (0 - a) — e cos 0,

i.e., in Cartesian coordinates,

x (cos a -
− e) + y sin a = (1 ).
Let the equation to the normal be

A cos + B sin --
1274 .. (2),
i.e. Ax + By = l . (3).
316 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Since ( 1 ) and (3 ) are perpendicular, we have

A (cos a - e) + B sin a = .. (4).

" wehave
Since (2 ) goes through the point (1 -e cos a a)
A cos a + B sin a = 1 - e cos a ... (5).
Solving (4) and (5), we have
1.- e cos a (1 − e cos a) (e- cos a)
A " and B = e sin a
e
The equation (2) then becomes
le sin a
sin a cos + (e- cos a) sin 0: =
r (1 - e cos a)'
e sin a
i.e. sin (0- a) - e sin ✪ -- 1 e cos a r

346. If the axis of the conic be inclined at an angle y to the

initial line, so that the equation to the conic is
cos (0 - y) ,
Τ =1 - e
the equation to the tangent at the point a is obtained by substituting
α -- γ and 0 -·y for a and 0 in the equation of Art. 342.
The tangent is therefore

==e cos (0 - a) — e cos (0 − y).

The equation of the line joining the two points a and ẞ is, by the
same article,
1 -α
-sec β . COS
2 (0- a+B2 )-- e cos (0 - y).
The equation to the polar of the point (r₁ , 0₁) is, by Art. 344,
+ ecos (0.1 - x) } {{ + e008 (01-7 )} = cos (0 - 0₁).
{+
Also the equation to the normal at the point a
el sin (ay)
r {e sin (0 -
− y) + sin (a - 0) } = 1- ecos (a - 7)`

347. Ex. 1. If the tangents at any two points P and Q of a

conic meet in a point T, and if the straight line PQ meet the directrix
corresponding to S in a point K, then the angle KST is a right angle.
 POLAR EQUATION. EXAMPLES. 317

If the vectorial angles of P and Q be a and ẞ respectively, the

equation to PQ is, by equation (3) of Art. 342,
= sec β - α COS - e cos 0
ecß- 2a 2 . (1) .
2° (0_a+B).
Also the equation to the directrix is, by Art. 339,
-= e cos e . (2).
7'
If we solve the equations (1) and (2) , we shall obtain the polar
coordinates of K.
But, by subtracting (2) from ( 1 ) , we have
B- a α +β a+B π
0 =sec COS i.e. 0
2 (0- a+2p), 2
π
i.e. LKSX = + a +ß ,
2 2
so that SK bisects the exterior angle between SP and SQ.
Also, by equation (3) of Art. 344, we have the vectorial angle of T
a +ß i.e. 4 TSX = a +ß •
equal to
2 2 2
П
Hence LKST= LKSX - L TSX =

Ex. 2. S is the focus and P and Q two points on a conic such that
the angle PSQ is constant and equal to 28 ; prove that
(1) the locus of the intersection of tangents at P and Q is a conic
section whose focus is S,
and (2) the line PQ always touches a conic whose focus is S.
(1) Let the vectorial angles of P and Q be respectively y + d and
7-8, where γ is variable.
By equation (4) of Art. 342, the tangents at P and Q are therefore
7
==
7° cos (0-8) - e cos e . (1),

and .. (2).
2° cos (0 −y + d) — e cos 0
If, between these two equations, we eliminate the variable quantity
y, we shall have the locus of the point of intersection of the two
tangents.
Subtracting (2) from (1) , we have
cos (0 - y - d) = cos (0 −y + d).
Hence, (since d is not zero) we have y =0.
318 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Substituting for y in (1), we have

= cos de cos 8,
r
7 sec d
i.e. = 1 - e sec & cos 0.
r
Hence the required locus is a conic whose focus is S, whose latus
rectum is 21 sec 8, and whose eccentricity is e sec d.
It is therefore an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, according as
e sec d is <=> 1, i.e. according as cos &> = < e.
(2) The equation to PQ is, by equation (3) of Art. 342,
-=sec
ጥ & cos (0− y) − e cos 0,
l cos d - -
i.e.
ጥ = cos (0 − y) − e cos d cos 0 ..(3).
Comparing this with equation (4) of Art. 342, we see that it always
touches a conic whose latus rectum is 2l cos d and whose eccentricity
is e cos d.
Also the directrix is in each case the same as that of the original
1 sec d l cos d
conic. For both e sec d and e cos d are equal to ·
e
Ex. 3. A circle passes through the focus S of a conic and meets it
infour points whose distances from S are r₁ , 72, 73 , and г. Prove that
d212
(1) Tr2374 = " where 21 and e are the latus rectum and
e2
eccentricity of the conic, and d is the diameter of the circle,
1 1 1 1-2
and (2) + + +
71 Ta T3 ΤΑ
Take the focus as pole, and the axis of the conic as initial line, so
that its equation is
=1.- e cos 0........... ..(1).
If the diameter of the circle, which passes through S, be inclined
at an angle y to the axis, its equation is, by Art. 172,
r = dcos (0 - y) .. .(2).
If, between (1) and (2) , we eliminate e, we shall have an equation
in r, whose roots are T1 , T2, T3, and r₁.
r-
From (1) we have cos 0 = and hence sin 0 =
er √₁- ('er =') .
and then (2) gives
r=dcos y cos 0+d sin y sin 0,
i.e. {er² -
– d cosy (r − 1) } ² = d² sin² y [e²r² — (r − 1)²],
i.e. e24-2ed cosy .• p³ +r² ( d² +2eld cosy - e²d² sin²y) — 2ld²r + d²l² =0.
 POLAR EQUATION. EXAMPLES. 319

Hence, by Art. 2, we have

d212
e2 (3) ,
21d2
and r3r3r4 + r3r4r1 + ~4~1~2 +r1″2″3= (4).
Dividing (4) by (3) , we have
1 1 1 1 2
+ + + =
Τι Te

EXAMPLES. XXXIX.
1. In a parabola, prove that the length of a focal chord which is
inclined at 30° to the axis is four times the length of the latus-rectum.
The tangents at two points, P and Q, of a conic meet in T, and S
is the focus ; prove that
2. if the conic be a parabola, then ST2- SP . SQ.
1 1 1
3. if the conic be central, then = where b is
SP.SQ ST22
the semi-minor axis .
4. The vectorial angle of T is the semi-sum of the vectorial
angles of P and Q.
Hence, by reference to Art. 338, prove that, if P and Q be on
different branches of a hyperbola, then ST bisects the supplement of
the angle PSQ, and that in other cases, whatever be the conic, ST
bisects the angle PSQ.
5. A straight line drawn through the common focus S of a
number of conics meets them in the points P1 , P2, ... ; on it is taken
a point Q such that the reciprocal of SQ is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of SP1 , SP2, .... Prove that the locus of Q is a conic
section whose focus is O, and shew that the reciprocal of its latus-
rectum is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the latera recta of the
given conics.
6. Prove that perpendicular focal chords of a rectangular hyper-
bola are equal.
7. PSP' and QSQ' are two perpendicular focal chords of a conic ;
1 1
prove that + is constant.
PS.SP' QS.SQ'
8. Shew that the length of any focal chord of a conic is a third
proportional to the transverse axis and the diameter parallel to the
chord.
9. If a straight line drawn through the focus S of a hyperbola,
parallel to an asymptote, meet the curve in P, prove that SP is one
quarter of the latus rectum.
320 COORDINATE GEOMETRY . [Exs.

10. Prove that the equations -= 1 - e cose and e.cos 0 - 1

T
represent the same conic.
11. Two conics have a common focus ; prove that two of their
common chords pass through the intersection of their directrices.
12. P is any point on a conic, whose focus is S, and a straight
line is drawn through S at a given angle with SP to meet the tangent
at P in T; prove that the locus of T is a conic whose focus and
directrix are the same as those of the original conic.
13. If a chord of a conic section subtend a constant angle at the
focus, prove that the locus of the point where it meets the internal
bisector of the angle 2a is the conic section
I cos d
= 1 .- e cos & cos 0.

14. Two conic sections have a common focus about which one of
them is turned ; prove that the common chord is always a tangent to
another conic, having the same focus, and whose eccentricity is the
ratio of the eccentricities of the given conics.
15. Two ellipses have a common focus ; two radii vectores, one to
each ellipse, are drawn from the focus at right angles to one another
and tangents are drawn at their extremities ; prove that these tangents
meet on a fixed conic, and find when it is a parabola.
16. Prove that the sum of the distances from the focus of the
points in which a conic is intersected by any circle, whose centre is at
a fixed point on the transverse axis, is constant.
17. Shew that the equation to the circle circumscribing the triangle
2a
formed by the three tangents to the parabola r = 1- cos 0 drawn at
the points whose vectorial angles are a, ß, and 7, is
α β
ra cosec cosec cosec sin a + B + Y
2 ( 2 -0),
and hence that it always passes through the focus.
18. If tangents be drawn to the same parabola at points whose
vectorial angles are a, ẞ, y, and 8, shew that the centres of the circles
circumscribing the four triangles formed by these four lines all lie on
the circle whose equation is
α β δ -
ra cosec cosec cosec cosec COS
2 2 [o_a+ B+y 2 + 0] .
19. The circle circumscribing the triangle formed by three tangents
to a parabola is drawn ; prove that the tangent to it at the focus
makes with the axis an angle equal to the sum of the angles made
with the axis by the three tangents.
XXXIX .] POLAR EQUATION. EXAMPLES. 321

20. Shew that the equation to the circle, which passes through
the focus and touches the curve -= 1- - e cose at the point 0 = a, is
r
r(1 - e cos a)² = l cos (0 − a) -– el cos (0 – 2a).
-
21. A given circle, whose centre is on the axis of a parabola,
passes through the focus S and is cut in four points A, B, C, and D by
any conic, of given latus-rectum, having S as focus and a tangent to
the parabola for directrix ; prove that the sum of the distances of the
points A, B, C, and D from S is constant.
22. Prove that the locus of the vertices of all parabolas that can be
drawn touching a given circle of radius a and having a fixed point on
0 the fixed point being the
the circumference as focus is r = 2a cos³
3'
pole and the diameter through it the initial line.
23. Two conic sections have the same focus and directrix. Shew
that any tangent from the outer curve to the inner one subtends a
constant angle at the focus.
24. Two equal ellipses , of eccentricity e, are placed with their
axes at right angles and they have one focus S in common ; if PQ be
e
a common tangent, shew that the angle PSQ is equal to 2 sin-1
√2'
25. Prove that the two conics 2-1= - ecose and = 1 - e₂cos (0 -− a)
T
will touch one another, if
42 (1 - e ) + (1 - e ) + 2llee, cos a = 0.
26. An ellipse and a hyperbola have the same focus S and
intersect in four real points, two on each branch of the hyperbola ; if
and be the distances from S of the two points of intersection on
the nearer branch, and r, and r, be those of the two points on the
further branch, and if land l' be the semi-latera-recta of the two
conics, prove that
1 ,
/+1
(1 + 1) (,(21 /2)+ ( )(12/2+1) =4.
2-2
[Make use of Art. 338.]

27. If the normals at three points of the parabola r = a cosec² 2'

whose vectorial angles are a, ẞ, and y, meet in a point whose vectorial
angle is d, prove that 28 = a +B + Y - π..

L. 21
 CHAPTER XV.

GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE.

TRACING OF CURVES.

348. Particular cases of Conic Sections. The

general definition of a Conic Section in Art. 196 was that
it is the locus of a point P which moves so that its distance
from a given point S is in a constant ratio to its perpen-
dicular distance PM from a given straight line ZK.
When S does not lie on the straight line ZK, we have
found that the locus is an ellipse, a parabola, or a hyperbola
according as the eccentricity e is < = or > 1 .
The Circle is a sub-case of the Ellipse. For the
equation of Art. 139 is the same as the equation ( 6) of
Art. 247 when b2a2, i.e. when e == 0. In this case
α
CS = 0, and SZ:= αe = ∞ . The Circle is therefore a
e
Conic Section, whose eccentricity is zero, and whose direc-
trix is at an infinite distance.
Next, let S lie on the straight line ZK, so that S and Z
coincide.
In this case, since IK
SP = e . PM,
we have M
PM 1
sin PSM -
SP e
If e > 1 , then P lies on one or
other of the two straight lines SU
and SU' inclined to KK' at an angle

sin-1
()
 GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE. 323

If e = 1 , then PSM is a right angle, and the locus

becomes two coincident straight lines coinciding with SX.
If e < 1 , the PSM is imaginary, and the locus consists
of two imaginary straight lines.
If, again, both KK' and S be at infinity and S be on
KK' , the lines SU and SU' of the previous figure will be
two straight lines meeting at infinity, i. e. will be two
parallel straight lines.
Finally, it may happen that the axes of an ellipse may
both be zero, so that it reduces to a point.
Under the head of a conic section we must therefore
include :
(1 ) An Ellipse (including a circle and a point).
(2) A Parabola.
(3) A Hyperbola.
(4) Two straight lines, real or imaginary, inter-
secting, coincident, or parallel.

349. To shew that the general equation of the second

degree
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ………………….. ( 1)
always represents a conic section.
Let the axes of coordinates be turned through an angle
0, so that, as in Art. 129, we substitute for x and y the
quantities x cos - y sin 0 and x sin + y cos respec-
tively.
The equation (1 ) then becomes
a(x cos 0 -− y sin 0)² + 2h (x cos 0 -
− y sin 0) (x sin 0 + y cos 0)
+ b (x sin 0 + y cos 0)² + 2g (x cos 0 --
— y sin ◊)
+ 2f(x sin 0 + y cos 0) + c = 0,
i.e. x² (a cos² 0 + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin² )
+ 2xy {h (cos² 0 − sin² 0) -— (a - b ) cos 0 sin 0}
+ y² (a sin² 0 -
− 2h cos ◊ sin ◊ + b cos² 0) + 2x (g cos 0 + ƒ sin 0)
+ 2y (f cos 0 - g sin 0) + c = 0 ............ (2 ).
21-2
324 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Now choose the angle so that the coefficient of xy in

this equation may vanish,
i.e. so that h (cos² 0 -
— sin² 0) = (a - b) sin 0 cos 0,
i.e. 2h cos 20 = (a - b) sin 20,
2h
i.e. so that tan 20 =
a-
Whatever be the values of a, b, and h, there is always
a value of satisfying this equation and such that it lies
between - 45° and + 45°. The values of sin 0 and cos 0 are
therefore known.
On substituting their values in (2), let it become
Ax² + By² + 2Gx + 2Fy + c =
First, let neither A nor B be zero.
The equation (3) may then be written in the form
G\2 F2 G2 F2
= + ---- C.
A (x + 2)² + B (y + B
x) A B
G -
Transform the origin to the point (-2 , B
The equation becomes
G2 F2
Ax² + By : + c = K (say) . . (4),
A B
2
i.e. + y² 1 . (5).
K K
A B
K K
If and be both positive, the equation represents an
A B
ellipse. (Art. 247.)
K K
If and be one positive and the other negative, it
Α B
represents a hyperbola (Art. 295) . If they be both
negative, the locus is an imaginary ellipse.
If K be zero, then (4) represents two straight lines,
which are real or imaginary according as A and B have
opposite or the same signs.
 CENTRE OF A CONIC SECTION. 325

Secondly, let either A or B be zero, and let it be A.

Then (3) can be written in the form
F2 с F2
- = 0.
B (y + B2 ) ² + 2G [ x + 2G - 2BG

Transform the origin to the point whose coordinates

are
с F2 F
- 2G
( 2BG ' B
E).
This equation then becomes
By² + 2Gx = 0,
2G
i.e. y2 B X,
which represents a parabola. (Art. 197.)
If, in addition to A being zero, we also have G zero, the
equation (3) becomes
By² + 2Fy + c = 0,
F F2 с
i.e. y + B = + √T- B
B2 B'
and this represents two parallel straight lines, real or
imaginary.
Thus in every case the general equation represents one
of the conic sections enumerated in Art. 348.

350. Centre of a Conic Section . Def. The

centre of a conic section is a point such that all chords of
the conic which pass through it are bisected there.
When the equation to the conic is in the form
ax² + 2hxy + by² + c == 0 ....... (1),
the origin is the centre.
For let (x', y') be any point on ( 1), so that we have
ax² + 2hx'y' + by'² + c = 0 ....... (2).
This equation may be written in the form
- -
a (− x')² + 2h (− x') ( − y') + b ( − y')² + c == 0,
and hence shews that the point (-x', -y') also lies on ( 1 ).
326 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

But the points (x' , y') and (-x', -y') lie on the same
straight line through the origin, and are at equal distances
from the origin.
The chord of the conic which passes through the origin
and any point (x , y ) of the curve is therefore bisected at
the origin.
The origin is therefore the centre.

351. When the equation to the conic' is given in the

form
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ......... (1 ),
the origin is the centre only when both ƒ and g are zero.
For, if the origin be the centre, then corresponding
to each point (x', y') on ( 1 ), there must be also a point
(-x', -y') lying on the curve.
Hence we must have

ax² + 2hx'y' + by'² + 2gx' + 2ƒy' + c = 0 ...... (2),

and - -
ax² + 2hx'y' + by'² – 2gx' − 2ƒy' + c = 0 ………….. (3).
Subtracting (3) from (2), we have
gx' +fy'=- 0.
This relation is to be true for all the points (x', y')
which lie on the curve ( 1 ). But this can only be the case
when 90 and ƒ= 0.

352. To obtain the coordinates of the centre of the

conic given by the general equation, and to obtain the
equation to the curve referred to axes through the centre
parallel to the original axes.
Transform the origin to the point (x, y), so that for x
and y we have to substitute x + and y + y. The equation
then becomes

a (x + x)² + 2h (x + x) (y + ÿ) + b (y + ÿ)² + 2g (x + x)
+ 2f(y + y) + c = 0,
i.e. ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2x (ax + hý + g) + 2y (hã + bỷ +ƒ)
+ ax² + 2hxý + by² + 2yã + 2ƒÿ + c = 0 ......... ( 2 ).
 EQUATION REFERRED TO THE CENTRE. 327

If the point (x, y) be the centre of the conic section, the

coefficients of x and y in the equation ( 2) must vanish, so
that we have
ax + hý + g = 0. (3),
and hã + bý + ƒ = 0 ………………….. . (4).
Solving (3) and (4), we have, in general,

x - fh - bg and y = gh - af (5).
ab - h2' ab - h²
With these values the constant term in (2)
=
= ax² + 2hxý + bý² + 2gx + 2ƒÿ + c
= x (ax + hý + g) + ÿ (hx + bý + ƒ) + gã + ƒÿ + c
= gx + fÿ + c
= (6),
by equations (3) and (4),
abc + 2ƒgh --
— af² — bg² — ch²
" by equations (5),
ab - h2
=
ab -- h2'
where A is the discriminant of the given general equation
(Art. 118).
The equation (2) can therefore be written in the form
A
ax² + 2hxy + by² +· 0.
ab - h²
This is the required equation referred to the new axes
through the centre.

Ex. Find the centre of the conic section

2x2-5xy - 3y² - — x-
− 4y + 6 = 0,
and its equation when transformed to the centre.
The centre is given by the equations 2x - y - = 0 , and
-x - 3y - 2 = 0, so that x = -4, and y = -4 .
The equation referred to the centre is then
2x²- 5xy - 3y² + c′ = 0,
where c' .- 2.y + 6 = 1 ++ 6 = 7. (Art . 352.)
The required equation is thus
2x² - 5xy - 3y² + 7 = 0.
328 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

353. Sometimes the equations (3) and (4) of the last

article do not give suitable values for x and y.
For, if ab - h² be zero, the values of ≈ and ÿ in (5) are
both infinite. When ab - h² is zero, the conic section is a
parabola.
The centre of a parabola is therefore at infinity.
α h g
Again, if = ' the result (5) of the last article is
h¯ b¯¯ƒ
of the form and the equations (3) and (4) reduce to the
same equation, viz. ,
ax + hý + g = 0.
We then have only one equation to determine the
centre, and there is therefore an infinite number of centres
all lying on the straight line
ax + hy + g = 0.
In this case the conic section consists of a pair of
parallel straight lines, both parallel to the line of centres.

354. The student who is acquainted with the Dif-

ferential Calculus will observe, from equations (3) and (4)
of Art. 352, that the coordinates of the centre satisfy the
equations that are obtained by differentiating, with regard
to x and y, the original equation of the conic section.
It will also be observed that the coefficients of x, ÿ, and
unity in the equations (3), (4), and (6) of Art. 352 are the
quantities (in the order in which they occur) which make
up the determinant of Art. 118.
This determinant being easy to write down , the student
may thence recollect the equations for the centre and the
value of c.
The reason why this relation holds will appear from the
next article.

355. Ex. Find the condition that the general equation of the
second degree may represent two straight lines.
The centre (x, y) of the conic is given by
ax+hy + g = 0 (1),
and ha +by +f= 0 .... ..(2).
 EQUATION TO THE ASYMPTOTES. 329

Also, if it be transformed to the centre as origin, the equation

becomes
ax² +2hxy + by² + c' = 0 ........ .(3),
where c' = ga +fy + c.
Now the equation (3) represents two straight lines if c' be zero,
i.e. if gx +fÿ + c = 0 ...... . (4).
The equation therefore represents two straight lines if the relations
(1), (2), and (4) be simultaneously true.
Eliminating the quantities and 7 from these equations, we have,
by Art. 12,
a, h, g
h, b, f = 0.
9, f, c
This is the condition found in Art. 118.

356. To find the equation to the asymptotes ofthe conic

section given by the general equation of the second degree.
Let the equation be
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c =
Since the equation to the asymptotes has been shewn to
differ from the equation to the curve only in its constant
term, the required equation must be
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c + λ = 0 ...... (2).
Also ( 2) is to be a pair of straight lines.
Hence
ab (c + λ) + 2fgh - af² - bg² - (c + λ) h² = 0. (Art. 116. )
Therefore λ abc + 2fgh - af² — bg² - — ch² A
ab - h² ab - h2
The required equation to the asymptotes is therefore
A
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c - ab - h2 -0 ...(2).

Cor. Since the equation to the hyperbola, which is

conjugate to a given hyperbola, differs as much from the
equation to the common asymptotes as the original equation
does, it follows that the equation to the hyperbola, which is
conjugate to the hyperbola (1 ), is
A
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2ƒy + c − 2 ab - h2 0.
330 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

357. To determine by an examination of the general

equation what kind of conic section it represents.
[On applying the method of Art. 313 to the ellipse and
parabola, it would be found that the asymptotes of the
ellipse are imaginary, and that a parabola only has one
asymptote, which is at an infinite distance and perpen-
dicular to its axis. ]
The straight lines ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0 ....... ........
.. (1 )
are parallel to the lines (2) of the last article, and hence
represent straight lines parallel to the asymptotes.
Now the equation ( 1 ) represents real, coincident, or
imaginary straight lines according as h² is > = or < ab,
i.e. the asymptotes are real, coincident, or imaginary,
according as h² > = or < ab, i.e. the conic section is a hyper-
bola, parabola, or ellipse, according as h³ > or < ab.
Again, the lines ( 1 ) are at right angles, i. e. the curve is
a rectangular hyperbola, if a + b = 0.
Also, by Art. 143, the general equation represents a
circle if ab, and h = 0.
Finally, by Art. 116 , the equation represents a pair of
straight lines if ▲ = 0 ; also these straight lines are parallel
if the terms of the second degree form a perfect square, i.e.
if h² = ab.

358. The results for the general equation

ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
are collected in the following table, the axes of coordinates
being rectangular.
Curve. Condition .
Ellipse. h2 <ab.
Parabola. h² = ab.
Hyperbola. h2 >ab.
Circle. a = b, and h = 0.
Rectangular hyperbola. a + b = 0.
Two straight lines, real or A = 0,
imaginary. i.e.
abc+2fgh - af -bg" - — ch²-0.
Two parallel straight lines. A = 0, and h² = ab,
 EXAMPLES. 331

If the axes of coordinates be oblique, the lines ( 1) of Art. 356 are

at right angles if a + b - 2h cos w = 0 (Art. 93) ; so that the conic
section is a rectangular hyperbola if a + b - 2h cos w = 0.
Also, by Art. 175, the conic section is a circle if ba and
h = a cos w.
The conditions for the other cases in the previous article are the
same for both oblique and rectangular axes.

EXAMPLES. XL.
What conics do the following equations represent ? When
possible, find their centres, and also their equations referred to the
centre.
1. 12x² - 23xy + 10y² – 25x + 26y = 14.
2. 13x² - 18xy + 37y² + 2x + 14y −2 = 0.
3. y² - 2 /3xy + 3x² + 6x − 4y + 5 = 0 .
4. 2x² - 72xy + 23y² – 4x – 28y – 48 −0.
5. 6x²- 5xy - 6y² + 14x + 5y + 4 = 0.
6. 3x² - 8xy - 3y² + 10x - 13y + 8 = 0.
Find the asymptotes of the following hyperbolas and also the
equations to their conjugate hyperbolas .
7. 8x² + 10xy -– 3y² – 2x + 4y = 2. 8. y² – xy – 2x² -
– 5y + x - 6 = 0.
9. 55x2-120xy + 20y² + 64x - − 48y = 0.
10. 19x² + 24xy + y² -− 22x − 6y = 0.
11. If (x, y) be the centre of the conic section
f(x, y) = ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
prove that the equation to the asymptotes is ƒ (x, y) =ƒ(x, y) .
If t be a variable quantity, find the locus of the point (x, y) when
12. x = a t and y = a (1-1).
t-
a (1+ 1)
13. x= at + bt² and y = bt +at².
14. x = 1 + t + t² and y = 1 − t + t².
If @ be a variable angle, find the locus of the point (x, y) when
15. x = atan (0 + a) and y = b tan (0 + B).
16. x = a cos (0 + a) and y = b cos (0 + B) .
What are
represented by the equations
17. (xy)² + (x - a)²= 0. 18. xy + a² = a (x + y).
332 COORDINATE GEOMETRY, [Exs. XL.]

19. x³ - y = (y − a) (x² - y²).

20. x +y³ - xy (x + y) + a² (y - x) = 0. 21. (x² - a2)2 - y¹ = 0.
22. x + y + (x + y) (xy - ax - ay) = 0. 23. x² +xy +y2 = 0.
24. (r cos 0 - a) (r- a cos 0) = 0. 25. rsin20 = 2a cos 0.
1
26. r+ = 3 cos 0+sin 0.
7° 27. T =1 +cos 0 +√√3 sin 0.
28. r (4-3 sin² ) = 8a cos 0.
359. To trace the parabola given by the general equa-
tion ofthe second degree
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ......... (1 ),
and to find its latus rectum.
First Method . Since the curve is a parabola we
have hab, so that the terms of the second degree form
a perfect square.
Put then a = a² and b = p², so that haẞ, and the
equation (1 ) becomes
(ax + By)² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ......……………. (2 ).
Let the direction of the axes be changed so that the
α
straight line ax + ẞy = 0, i. e. y x, may be the new
В
axis of X.

S
N

K
X
M
H
x

We have therefore to turn the axes through an angle

α
such that tan 0 and therefore
B'
α β
sin 0:== and cos 0 =
√a² + B² √a² + B²
 TRACING OF PARABOLAS. 333

For a we have to substitute

- Y sin ◊, i.e. BX + aY
X cos
–
√a²+ß² '
and for y the quantity
-aX + BY
X sin + Y cos 0, i. e. (Art. 129.)
√a² +ß²
For ax +By we therefore substitute Y√(a² + ẞ²).
The equation (2) then becomes
2
Y² (a² + B²) + [g (BX + aY) +ƒ(BY − aX)] + c = 0,
a² + B²
с
i.e. Y2 + 2Y ag + Bƒ 2X af- Bg
(a² + B²)* (a²+ B²)¹ a² + ẞ²,

i.e. af- Bg
(Y- K)² = 2 [X - H] (3),
(a² + B²)#
where K ag + Bf
(4),
(a² + B²)
and - 2 af- Bg xH K²-
(a² +B²)# a²+ B²¹
√a² + B² (ag + Bf2
i.e. H= -2
(5).
2 (af -By) [ (a + B2)².
The equation ( 3) represents a parabola whose latus
rectum is 2 af- Bg
whose axis is parallel to the new axis
(a²+B²) '
of X, and whose vertex referred to the new axes is the
point (H, K) .

360. Equation of the axis, and coordinates of the

vertex, referred to the original axes.
Since the axis of the curve is parallel to the new axis of
I, it makes an angle with the old axis of x, and hence
the perpendicular on it from the origin makes an angle
90° +0.

Also the length of this perpendicular is K.

334 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The equation to the axis of the parabola is therefore

x cos (90° + 0) + y sin (90° + 0) = K,
i.e. - x sin + y cos 0 = K,
i.e. ag + Bf
ax + By = K √a² + ß² =- . (6).
a² + B²
Again, the vertex is the point in which the axis (6)
meets the curve (2) .
We have therefore to solve (6) and (2) , i. e. (6) and
(ag + Bƒ)²
+ 2gx + 2ƒy + c = 0 ………………………. ·(7).
(a² + B²)3
The solution of (6) and (7) therefore gives the required
coordinates of the vertex.

361. It was proved in Art . 224 that if PV be a

diameter of the parabola and QV the ordinate to it drawn
through any point Q of the curve , so that QV is parallel to
the tangent at P, and if ✪ be the angle between the diameter
PV and the tangent at P, then
QV² = 4a cosec² 0 . PV. (1 ).
If QL be perpendicular to PV and QL' be perpendicular
to the tangent at P, we have
QL = QVsin 0, and QL' = PV sin 0,
so that (1 ) is QL2 = 4a cosec 0. QL'.
Hence the square of the perpendicular distance of any
point on the parabola from any diameter varies as the
perpendicular distance of Q from the tangent at the end of
the diameter.
Hence, if Ax + By + C = 0 be the equation of any
diameter and A'x + B'y + C'0 be the equation of the
tangent at its end, the equation to the parabola is
(Ax + By + C)² = λ ( A'x + B'y + C ') ……………………. (2),
where A is some constant.
Conversely, if the equation to a parabola can be reduced
to the form (2), then
Ax + By + C = 0 ……………………. . (3)
 TRACING OF PARABOLAS. 335

is a diameter of the parabola and the axis of the parabola is

parallel to (3).
We shall apply this property in the following article.

362. To trace the parabola given by the general equa-

tion ofthe second degree

ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c == 0 .........

……………………. ( 1 ).
Second Method . Since the curve is a parabola, the
terms of the second degree must form a perfect square
and h² = ab.

Put then a = a² and b = ß², so that haß, and the

equation (1) becomes
(ax + By)² = - (2gx + 2fy + c ) ............ (2).
As in the last article the straight line ax + By = 0 is a
diameter, and the axis of the parabola is therefore parallel
to it, and so its equation is of the form
ax + By + λ = 0 …………………. .. (3).
The equation (2) may therefore be written
(ax + By + λ)² = - (2gx + 2fy + c ) + λ² + 2λ (ax + ẞy)
-
= 2x (λa -− g) + 2y (ßλ − ƒ) + λ² − c ....... (4).
Choose A so that the straight lines
ax + By + λ = 0 ………………….. (5)
and
2x (λa - g) + 2y (ẞλ −ƒ) + λ² − c = 0 ....... (6)
are at right angles, i . e. so that
a (λa − - ƒ) = 0,
-- g) + ẞ (ẞλ −

i.e. so that λ = Bf + ag (7).

a² + B²

The lines (5) and (6) are now, by the last article, a
diameter and a tangent at its extremity ; also, since they
are at right angles, they must be the axis and the tangent
at the vertex .
336 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The equation (4) may now, by (7), be written

2(af- Bg) [ẞx- ay + µ],
{ax + By + λ}² =
a² + ß²
a² + B³
where μπ ·(λ³ — c),
2 (af- Bg)
2 - -
– µ
i e. (ax + By + λ) ² = 2 ( af- Bg) Bax- ay + μ "
√a² + B² (a²+ B²) √a² + B²

i.e. PN2 2 (af- Bg)

.AN,
=
(a² + ẞ²)³
where PN is the perpendicular from any point P of the
curve on the axis, and A is the vertex.
Hence the axis and tangent at the vertex are the lines
(5) and (6), where λ has the value (7), and the latus rectum

2 af- Bg
(a² + ẞ²)³ ·
363. Ex. Trace the parabola
9x² - 24xy + 16y² – 18x -
– 101y + 19 = 0.
The equation is
(3x - 4y)² - 18x - 101y +190 ........ . (1).
First Method. Take 3x - 4y = 0 as the new axis of x, i.e. turn
the axes through an angle 0, where tan 0 = , and therefore sin0 =}
and cos 0= .
4X - 3Y for
For x we therefore substitute Xcos 0 - Y sin 0, i.e. 5
3X +4Y
y we put Xsin 0+ Y cos 0, i.e. and hence for 3x - 4y the
5
quantity -5Y.
The equation (1) therefore becomes
25Y2 - [72X - 54Y] – † [303X +404Y] + 19 = 0,
i.e. 25Y2-75X - 70Y + 19 = 0 ..... (2).
This is the equation to the curve referred to the axes OX and OY.
But (2) can be written in the form
14Y
Y2- =3X - 19,
5
i.e. (Y- 7)² = 3x - 18 + 18 = 3 (X + %).
 TRACING OF PARABOLAS. 337

Take a point A whose coordinates referred to OX and OY are

and }, and draw AL and AM parallel to OX and OY respectively.

Referred to AL and AM the equation to the parabola is Y² = 3X.

It is therefore a parabola, whose vertex is A, whose latus rectum is 3,
and whose axis is AL.
Second Method. The equation (1) can be written
(3x - 4y + λ)² = (6λ + 18) x + y (101 - 8λ) + x² - 19 ...... (3).
Choose A so that the straight lines
3x - 4y + λ = 0
and (6λ+ 18) x + y (101 − 8λ) + λ² – 19 = 0
may be at right angles.
Hence λ is given by
3 (6λ + 18) - 4 (101 --
– 8λ) = 0 (Art. 69),
and therefore λ= 7.
The equation (3) then becomes
(3x - 4y + 7)² = 15 (4x + 3y + 2),
i.e. 3x - 4y + 7\ 2 3 .4x +3y + 2
25 +7) = · (4).
√25
Let AL be the straight line
3x - 4y + 7 = 0 (5),
and AM the straight line 4x +3y + 2 = 0........ . (6).
These are at right angles.
If P be any point on the parabola and PN be perpendicular to
AL, the equation (4) gives PN2= 3 . AN.
Hence, as in the first method, we have the parabola.
The vertex is found by solving (5) and (6) and is therefore the
point (-2,8).
L. 22
338 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

In drawing curves it is often advisable, as a verification, to find

whether they cut the original axes of coordinates.
Thus the points in which the given parabola cuts the axis of x
are found by putting y = 0 in the original equation. The resulting
equation is 9x²- 18x + 19-0, which has imaginary roots.
The parabola does not therefore meet Ox.
Similarly it meets Oy in points given by 16y² -– 101y + 19 = 0, the
roots of which are nearly 63 and 1 .
The values of OQ and OQ' should therefore be nearly and 64.
364. To find the direction and magnitude of the axes
of the central conic section
ax² + 2hxy + by² = 1 …….. ... (1 ).
First Method . We know that, when the equation to
a central conic section has no term containing xy and the
axes are rectangular, the axes of coordinates are the axes of
the curve.
Now in Art. 349 we shewed that, to get rid of the term
involving xy, we must turn the axes through an angle
given by
2h
tan 20 -- .. (2).
α--b
The axes of the curve are therefore inclined to the axes
of coordinates at an angle 0 given by (2) .
Now (2) can be written
2 tan 2h 1
=
1- tan² 0 α - b λ (say),
.. tan² 0 + 2λ tan 6 -
− 1 = 0 …………………………….. (3) .
This, being a quadratic equation, gives two values for 0,
which differ by a right angle, since the product of the two
values of tan @ is 1. Let these values be 0, and 02, which
are therefore the inclinations of the required axes of the
curve to the axis of x.
Again, in polar coordinates, equation ( 1 ) may be written
r² (a cos² 0 + 2h cos ✪ sin 0 + b sin³ 0) = 1 = cos² 0 + sin³ 0,
i.e.
cos20 + sin² 0 1 + tan² 0
дов
a cos² 0 + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin² 0 a + 2h tan + b tan² 0
...(4).
 AXES OF A CENTRAL CONIC SECTION. 339

If in (4) we substitute either value of tan derived

from (3) we obtain the length of the corresponding
semi-axis.
The directions and magnitudes of the axes are therefore
both found.
Second Method. The directions of the axes of the
conic are, as in the first method, given by
2h
tan 20-=
α-
When referred to the axes of the conic section as the
axes of coordinates, let the equation become
x² y2
+ =1 (5).
a² Ba

Since the equation (1) has become equation (5) by a

change of axes without a change of origin, we have, by
Art. 135,
1 1
+ = a + b ......... (6),
B2
1
and = ab - h². .. (7) .
a²ß²
These two equations easily determine the semi-axes a
and B. [For if from the square of (6) we subtract four
1 2 1 1
- 2 and hence a² Ba
times equation (7) we have
1 1
hence by (6) we get a² and B²

The difficulty of this method lies in the fact that we

cannot always easily determine to which direction for an
axis the value a belongs and to which the value ß.
If the original axes be inclined at an angle w, the equa-
tions (6) and (7) are, by Art . 137 ,
1 1 a + b - 2h cos w
+ =
sin2 w
1 ab - h²
and
a²ß2 sin²2 w
22-2
340 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Cor. 1. The reciprocals of the squares of the semi-

axes are, by (3) and (4), the roots of the equation

Z³ − (a + b) Z + ab − h² = 0.

Cor. 2 . From equation (4) we have

π
Area of an ellipse = παß =
=
√ab - h²
365. Ex. 1. Trace the curve
14x² - 4xy + 11y2 - 44x - 58y + 71 = 0 ........... .(1).
Since (-2)2-14 . 11 is negative, the curve is an ellipse. [Art. 358.]
By Art. 352 the centre (x, y) of the curve is given by the equations
14x - 2y - 22 = 0, and -2x + 11y - 29 = 0.
Hence 2, and y = 3.
The equation referred to parallel axes through the centre is
therefore 14x² - 4xy + 11y² + c' = 0,
where c' = − 22x – 297 + 71 = − 60,
so that the equation is
14x² - 4xy + 11y2 = 60 ...... (2).
The directions of the axes are given by
2h -4
tan 20 = = =
a - b 14-11
2 tan 0 -
so that 1 - tan20- -3,
and hence 2 tan2 0 - 3 tan 0-2 = 0.
Therefore tan 0₁ = 2, and tan 0₂ = − §.
Referred to polar coordinates the equation (2) is
r2 (14 cos² 0 - 4 cos 0 sin 0 +11 sin² 0) = 60 (cos² + sin² 0),
1 +tan2 0
i.e. 72=60
14-4 tan 0 + 11 tan2 0°
1+4
When tan 0₁ = 2, r₁² = 60 × 14-8 +44 6.

1+1
When tan 02 - § , r‚² = 60 × ·14 +2 +1 ==4.
 TRACING A CENTRAL CONIC SECTION. 341

The lengths of the semi-axes are therefore /6 and 2.

Hence, to draw the curve,
take the point C, whose coordi-
nates are (2, 3).
Through it draw 'CA in-
clined at an angle tan-¹ 2 to the S
axis of x and mark off
A'C= CA= √6.
Draw BCB' at right angles
to ACA' and take B'C = CB = 2.

BB'requi
andThe red
as its ellips
axe s. e has AA' Α'
It would be found, as a veri- M Χ
fication, that the curve does not meet the original axis of x, and
that it meets the axis of y at distances from the origin equal to
about 2 and 3 respectively.
Ex. 2. Trace the curve
x² - 3xy + y² + 10x - 10y + 21 = 0 ...…………………….. . (1) .
Since 312
-1.1 is positive, the curve is a hyperbola.
( 2
[Art. 358. ]
The centre (x, y) is given by
3
- y + 5 = 0,

and -3
-x + y - 5 = 0,
so that 2, and y = 2.
The equation to the curve, referred to parallel axes through the
centre, is then
x² -
− 3xy + y² + 5 ( − 2) − 5 × 2 + 21 = 0 ,
i.e. . (2).
x² - 3xy + y² = − 1.…......
The direction of the axes is given by
2h -3
tan 20 = = =∞"
a--b 1-1
so that 20 =90° or 270°,
and hence 01 =45° and 02 = 135°.
The equation (2) in polar coordinates is
r² (cos²0 - 3 cos 0 sin 0 + sin² 0) = -− (sin²0 +cos² (),
i.e. 1 +tan20
1-3 tan 0 +tan² 0 *
342 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

2
When 0 = 45°, r₁² = 1-3 + 1-2, so that r₁ = /2.
2 2
When 0, = 135°, r₂² = = so that T2=
1 +3 + 1 5 "
To construct the curve take the point C whose coordinates are -2
and 2. Through C draw a straight line ACA' inclined at 45° to the
axis of x and mark off A'C = CA = √2.
Also through 4 draw a straight line KAK' perpendicular to CA
and take AK - K'A= √ . By Art. 315, CK and CK' are then the
asymptotes.
The curve is therefore a hyperbola whose centre is C, whose
transverse axis is A'A, and whose asymptotes are CK and CK'.

K'

1
R M X

On putting x = 0 it will be found that the curve meets the axis of

y where y = 3 or 7, and, on putting y = 0, that it meets the axis of x
where x =-- 3 or -7.
Hence OQ =3, 0Q' = 7, OR = 3, and OR' = 7.

366. Tofind the eccentricity of the central conic section

ax² + 2hxy + by² = 1 .......... ... (1).
First, let h²- ab be negative, so that the curve is
 ECCENTRICITY OF A CONIC SECTION. 343

an ellipse, and let the equation to the ellipse, referred to

its axes, be
y² = 1.
+
a² B2
By the theory of Invariants (Art. 135) we have
1 1
= a + b ... .. (2 ),
B2
and ab - h2. (3).
aα²B²
Also, if e be the eccentricity, we have, if a be > ß,
a² - B²
€2
a²
a² - -B²
2 - e2 a² + B²'
But, from (2) and (3), we have
a+b 1
a²+ B²:= and a²ß2
ab - h² ab - h²'
Hence
√(a − b)² + 4h²
a² − ß² = + √ (a² + ß²)² − 4a²ß² = + ab - h²
e2
.. = + √(a − b)² + 4h² . (4).
2 a+b
This equation at once gives e².
Secondly, let h² --
— ab be positive, so that the curve is
a hyperbola, and let the equation referred to its principal
axes be
x² - y2
= 1,
a2 B2
so that in this case
1 1 1
- = a + b, and - = ab - h²: -(h² - ab).
a² B2 a²ß2
a+b 1
Hence a² - —B² = and a²ß² =
h² - ab h² - ab'
√(a -— b)² + 4h²
so that a² + ẞ² = + √√ (a² -
— ẞ²)² + 4a³ß² = + h² - ab
344 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

In this case, if e be the eccentricity, we have

e² = a² + B²
a²

i.e.
e²
= a² + B² √(a -
− b)² + 4h³
..(5).
2 e2 a² B2 a+b
This equation gives e².
In each case we see that e is a root of the equation
2
= (a - b)² + 4h² "
(a + b)²
i.e. of the equation
e (ab - h²) + {(a - b)² + 4h²} (e² - 1 ) = 0.

367. To obtain the foci of the central conic

ax² + 2hxy + by² = 1 .
Let the direction of the axes of the conic be obtained as
in Art. 364, and let ₁ be the inclination of the major axis
in the case of the ellipse, and the transverse axis in the case
of the hyperbola, to the axis of x.
Let r² be the square of the radius corresponding to 01 ,
and let r² be the square of the radius corresponding to the
perpendicular direction. [ In the case of the hyperbola 1,2
will be a negative quantity. ]
2
The distance of the focus from the centre is √r— r²²
(Arts. 247 and 295) . One focus will therefore be the point
-
(√r₁² — r,² cos 0₁ , √r¸² — r‚² sin 0, ),
and the other will be
2
(-√r² - r₂² cos 0₁ , - — √r₁² — r₂² sin 0₁ ) .
Ex. Find the foci of the ellipse traced in Art. 365.
2 1
Here tan 6, = 2, so that sin 0₁ = and cos 01 =
√5 √5
Also r₁² = 6, and r² = 4, so that √r₁² - r₂² = √2.
The coordinates of the foci referred to axes through C are therefore
2/2 and √2 2/2
(√2, 23) al ( √5'
 FOCI OF A CONIC. 345

Their coordinates referred to the original axes OX and OY are

3 ± 2/2
(2 ± √
/3 , 9 ± 2√2 ) , i.c. ( 2 ± √3 ,

368. The method of obtaining the coordinates of the

focus of a parabola given by the general equation may be
exemplified by taking the example of Art. 363.
Here it was shewn that the latus rectum is equal to 3,
so that, if S be the focus, AS is 3.
It was also shewn that the coordinates of A referred to
OX and OY are - and 7.
The coordinates of S referred to the same axes are
- + 3 and 7, i.e. zō and .
Its coordinates referred to the original axes are therefore
7
2 cos -
20 – sin andsin 0 + cos 0,
i.e. 7 4 7 3 7 3 7 4
20. and 20 . 5 + 5 . ,
i.e. 14 and 133
100'
In Art. 393 equations will be found to give the foci of
any conic section directly, so that the conic need not first
be traced.
369. Ex. 1. Trace the curve
3 (3x - 2y +4)² + 2 (2x + 3y -− 5 )² = 39 .( 1).
The equation may be written
2
3 3x - 2y + 4 +2 (2x + 3y - 5\ 2 ..............
=3 (2) .
√13 √13-5 )²=
Now the straight lines 3x - 2y + 4 = 0 and 2x + 3y - 5 = 0 are at
right angles. Let them be CM and
CN, intersecting in C which is the
point ( -1,3).
If P be any point on the curve
and PM and PN the perpendiculars
MP
upon these
and PN arelines, the lengths of PM
10

NXB
3x - 2y +4 and 2x +3y - 5
13 √13
A

Hence equation (2) states that

3PM2+2PN2=3 ,
i.e. PM2 PN2
1.
1 +
346 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The locus of P is therefore an ellipse whose semi-axes measured

along CM and CN are / and 1 respectively.
Ex. 2. What is represented by the equation
(x² — a²)² + (y² -
— a²)² =a¹ ?
The equation may be written in the form
x +y¹- 2a² (x² + y²) + a+ = 0,
i.e. (x² +y²)² - 2a² (x² + y²) + a^ = 2x²y²,
i.e. (x² +y² -
— a²)² - ( √2xy)² = 0,
i.e. (x² + 2xy + y²- a²) (x² - 2xy + y² - a²) = 0 .
The locus therefore consists of the two ellipses
x² + √2xy + y² — a² = 0 , and x² - √2xy + y² — a² = 0 .
These ellipses are equal and their semi-axes would be found to be
a√2+√2 and a√2 - √2.
The major axis of the first is inclined at an angle of 135° to the
axis of x, and that of the second at an angle of 45º.

EXAMPLES. XLI.
Trace the parabolas
1. (x - 4y)2 = 51y. 2. (x - y) = x + y + 1.
3. (5x - 12y)2 = 2ax + 29ay + a².
4. (4x + 3y + 15)² = 5 (3x − 4y).
5. 16x² + 24xy + 9y² − 5x − 10y + 1 = 0.
6. 9x2 + 24xy + 16y² -− 4y −x + 7 = 0.
7. 144x² - 120xy + 25y² + 619x – 272y + 663 = 0 , and find its focus.
8. 16x2-24xy + 9y² + 32x + 86y – 39 = 0.
9. 4x² - 4xy + y² - 12x + 6y + 9 = 0.
Find the position and magnitude of the axes of the conics
10. 12x² - 12xy + 7y² =48. 11. 3x² + 2xy + 3y² = 8.
12. x² - xy - 6y² = 6.
Trace the following central conics.
13. x2-2xy cos 2a +y² = 2a². 14. x2-2xy cosec 2a +y² =a².
15. xy = a (x +y). 16. xy - y² =a².
17. y² - 2xy + 2x² + 2x - 2y = 0. 18. x² + xy + y² + x + y = 1.
[Exs. XLI.] TRACING OF CONIC SECTIONS. EXAMPLES. 347

19. 2x² +3xy - 2y2-7x + y - 2 = 0.

20. 40x² + 36xy + 25y² – - 196x – 122y + 205 = 0.
21. x² - 3xy + y² + 10x - 10y + 21 = 0.
22. x²- xy + 2y² – 2ax – 6ay + 7a² = 0.
23. 10x2-48xy - 10y² + 38x + 44y — 51 = 0.
24. 4x² + 27xy + 35y2-14x - 31y - 6 = 0.
25. (3x - 4y + a) (4x + 3y + a) = a².
26. 3 (2x - 3y + 4)² + 2 (3x + 2y - 5)² = 78.
27. 2 (3x - 4y + 5 )² − 3 (4x + 3y −10)² = 150.
Find the products of the semi-axes of the conics
28. y² - 4xy + 5x² = 2. 29. 4 (3x + 4y - 7)² + 3 (4x - 3y + 9)² = 3.
30. 11x² + 16xy - y² - – 70x –- 40y + 82 = 0.
Find the foci and the eccentricity of the conics
31. x² - 3xy + 4ax = 2a². 32. 4xy - 3x² - 2ay = 0.
33. 5x² + 6xy + 5y² + 12x + 4y + 6 = 0.
34. x² + 4xy + y² − 2x + 2y − 6 = 0.
35. Shew that the latus rectum of the parabola
(a² + b²) (x² + y²) = (bx + ay — ab)²
2ab ÷ √a² + b².
36. Prove that the lengths of the semi-axes of the conic
ax² +2hxy + ay² = d
are d d
and
√ a +h √ a- h
respectively, and that their equation is x² -— y² = 0 .
37. Prove that the squares of the semi-axes of the conic
ax² +2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
are 2A÷ {(ab - h²) (a + b ± √(a − b)² + 4h²)},
where A is the discriminant.
38. If λ be a variable parameter, prove that the locus of the
vertices of the hyperbolas given by the equation x²- y² + λxy = a² is
the curve (x² + y2)² = a² (x² — y²).
39. If the point (at₁², 2at₁) on the parabola y² = 4ax be called the
point t , prove that the axis of the second parabola through the four
points t₁ , ta, ts, and t makes with the axis of the first an angle
cot-1
· (4x +by 4+ ty + ts) .
Prove also that if two parabolas meet in four points the distances
of the centroid of the four points from the axes are proportional to the
latera recta.
348 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XLI.]

40. If the product of the axes of the conic x² + 2xy + 17y² = 8 be

unity, shew that the axes of coordinates are inclined at an angle
sin-1 .
41. Sketch the curve 6x2-7xy - 5y² - 4x + 11y = 2, the axes being
inclined at an angle of 30°.
42. Prove that the eccentricity of the conic given by the general
equation satisfies the relation
e4
+4 = (a +b - 2h cos w)2
1 - e2 (ab - h²) sin² w
where w is the angle between the axes.
43. The axes being changed in any way, without any change of
origin, prove that in the general equation of the second degree the
f2g2-2fg cos w af² +bg³ - 2fgh and A
quantities c, sin² w 9 are
sin² w sin² w
invariants, in addition to the quantities in Art. 137.
[On making the most general substitutions of Art. 132 it is clear
that c is unaltered ; proceed as in Art. 137, but introduce the condition
that the resulting expressions are equal to the product of two linear
quantities (Art. 116) ; the results will then follow. ]
 CHAPTER XVI.

THE GENERAL CONIC.

370. IN the present chapter we shall consider proper-

ties of conic sections which are given by the general equation
of the second degree, viz.
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ......... (1 ).
For brevity, the left-hand side of this equation is often
called ø (x, y) , so that the general equation to a conic is
(x, y) = 0.
Similarly, (x , y ) denotes the value of the left-hand
side of (1 ) when x and y' are substituted for x and y.
The equation ( 1 ) is often also written in the form S = 0.

371. On dividing by c, the equation (1 ) contains five

α h b 9
independent constants 9 and f
с C с" с 9 с
To determine these five constants, we shall therefore
require five conditions. Conversely, if five independent
conditions be given, the constants can be determined.
Only one conic, or, at any rate, only a finite number of
conics, can be drawn to satisfy five independent conditions.

372. To find the equation to the tangent at any point

(x, y) ofthe conic section
(x, y) = ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1).
Let (x", y' ) be any other point on the conic.
350 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The equation to the straight line joining this point to

(x', y') is
y" —y'
y-y' = x" -- x' (x - x') (2).

Since both (x', y' ) and (x", y″ ) lie on ( 1 ), we have

ax'² + 2hx'y' + by'² + 2gx' + 2ƒy' + c = 0 ...... (3),
and ax"² + 2hx"y" + by" ² + 2gx" + 2fy" + c = 0 ...... (4).
Hence, by subtraction, we have
a (x²² — x'²) + 2h ( x'y' — - x'y' ) + b (y'² — y'²)

+ 2g (x′ − x' ) + 2ƒ (y' − y″ ) = 0 . ……….. (5).

But
2 (x'y' - - y ″ ) + (x′ — x'') (y' + y″),
— x'y' ') = ( x′ + x″ ) (y′ −
so that (5) can be written in the form
(x′ -— x' ) [α (x² + x' ) + h (y' + y ' ') + 2g]
+ (y' -
− y″ ) [h (x' + x' ) + b (y′ + y′ ) + 2ƒ] = 0,
-
y" — y' a (x² + x' ) + h (y' + y′ ) + 2g
i.e.
DC h (x' + x' ) + b (y' + y′ ) + 2ƒ°
The equation to any secant is therefore
a (x + x") + h (y' + y' ) + 2g
y -y' = ·(x -− x') ….. (6) .
´h (x' + x' ) + b (y' + y' ') + 2ƒ'
To obtain the equation to the tangent at (x , y), we put
x" = x' and y" = y' in this equation, and it becomes
ax' + hy' + g
y -y': (x -− x'),
hx + by + f
i.e. (ax + hy + g) x + (hx' + by' + ƒ) y
= ax2 + 2hx'y' + by + gx' + fy'
= -gx' -fy' - c, by equation (3).
The required equation is therefore
axx' + h (xy' + x'y) + byy' + g (x + x') + f (y + y′)
+ c = 0...... (7).
Cor. 1. The equation (7) may be written down, from
the general equation of the second degree, by substituting
xx for x², yy' for y², xy' + x'y for 2xy, x + x' for 2x, and
y + y' for 2y. (Cf. Art. 152. )
 THE GENERAL CONIC. POLE AND POLAR. 351

Cor. 2. If the conic pass through the origin we have

c = 0, and then the tangent at the origin (where x = 0 and
y = 0) is gx +fy = 0,
i.e. the equation to the tangent at the origin is obtained by
equating to zero the terms of the lowest degree in the
equation to the conic.

373. The equation of the previous article may also be obtained

as follows ; If (x', y') and ( x' , y") be two points on the conic section ,
the equation to the line joining them is
− x') (y -
a(x - x) (x - x') + h [ (x - − y" ) + (x − x") (y - y ')] + b (y — y') (y - y")
= ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c......... (1).
For the terms of the second degree on the two sides of ( 1) cancel,
and the equation reduces to one of the first degree, thus representing
a straight line.
Also, since (x' , y') lies on the curve, the equation is satisfied by
putting x =x' and y = y'.
Hence (x' , y' ) is a point lying on (1).
So (x", y') lies on (1).
It therefore is the straight line joining them.
Putting x" = x′ and y" = y' we have, as the equation to the tangent
at (x', y'),
− y') + b (y -
a (x − x')² + 2h (x − x′) (y - − y′)²
= ax2 + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c,
i.e. 2axx' + 2h (x'y + xy') + 2byy' + 2gx + 2fy + c
= ax2 + 2hx'y' + by'²
= -2gx' - 2fy' - c, since (x', y') lies on the conic.
Hence the equation (7) of the last article.

374. To find the condition that any straight line

lx + my + n = 0 ....... (1),
may touch the conic
ax² +2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...... (2).
Substituting for y in (2) from ( 1), we have for the equation giving
the abscissæ of the points of intersection of (1 ) and (2),
x2 (am² - 2hlm + b1²) – 2x (hmn – bln — gm² +flm)
+bn² - 2fmn + cm² = 0 ...... . (3) .
If (1) be a tangent, the values of x given by (3) must be equal.
The condition for this is, (Art. 1 ,)
– bln -
(hmn - − gm² +flm)² = (am² — 2hlm + bl²) (bn² – 2fmn + cm²).
352 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

On simplifying, we have, after division by m²,

1² (bc −ƒ²) + m² (ca − g²) + n² (ab -
− h²) + 2mn (gh – af) + 2nl (hf-- bg)
+2lm (fg - ch) = 0.
Ex. Find the equations to the tangents to the conic
x² + 4xy + 3y² – 5x -− 6y + 3 = 0 ....... ......... (1),
which are parallel to the straight line x + 4y = 0.
The equation to any such tangent is
x+ 4y + c = 0 ....... (2),
where c is to be determined.
This straight line meets (1 ) in points given by
3x² - 2x (5c + 28) + 3c² + 24c + 48 = 0.
The roots of this equation are equal , i.e. the line ( 2) is a tangent,
if {2 (5c + 28) } ² = 4.3 . (3c² + 24c +48) , i.e. if c = -5 or -8.
The required tangents are therefore
x +4y - 5 = 0, and x + 4y - 8 = 0.
375 . As in Arts. 214 and 274 it may be proved that
the polar of (x', y') with respect to p (x, y) = 0 is
(ax' + hy' + g) x + (hx' + by' + ƒ) y + gx' + ƒy' + c = 0.
The form of the equation to a polar is therefore the
same as that of a tangent.
Just as in Art. 217 it may now be shewn that, if the
polar of P passes through T, the polar of T passes through
P.
The chord of the conic which is bisected at (x', y'),
being parallel to the polar of (x' , y') [ Arts. 221 and 280],
has as equation
― - y') = 0 .
(ax' + hy' + g) (x − x') + (hx' + by' + ƒ) (y —

376. To find the equation to the diameter bisecting all

chords parallel to the straight line y := mx.
Any such chord is y = mx + K (1).
This meets the conic section
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
in points whose abscissæ are given by
ax² + 2hx (mx + K) + b (mx + K)² + 2gx + 2ƒ(mx + K) + c = 0,
i.e. by x² (a + 2hm + bm²) + 2x (hK + bmK + g + fm)
+ bK² + 2fK + c = 0.
 THE GENERAL CONIC. CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. 353

If X1 and x2 be the roots of this equation, we therefore

have

x1 + x2
-= 2 (h + bm) K + g +fm
a + 2hm + bm²
Let (X, Y) be the middle point of the required chord,
so that
x2 (h + bm) K + g + fm
X= x1 + ..(2).
2 a + 2hm + bm2
Also, since (X, Y) lies on ( 1 ) we have
Y = mx + K.... .. (3).
If between (2) and (3) we eliminate K we have a
relation between X and Y.
This relation is
− (a + 2hm + bm²) X = (h + bm) ( Y − mX) + g +fm,
i.e. X (a + hm) + Y (h + bm) + g + fm = 0.
The locus of the required middle point is therefore the
straight line whose equation is
x(a + hm) + y (h + bm) + g + fm = 0.
If this be parallel to the straight line y = m'x, we
have
a + hm
m':—— .. (4),
h + bm
i.e. a +h (m + m') + bmm' = 0 ......... (5).
This is therefore the condition that the two straight
lines y = mx and y = m'x may be parallel to conjugate
diameters of the conic given by the general equation.
377. To find the condition that the pair of straight lines, whose
equation is
Ax² +2Hxy + By² = 0 (1),
may be parallel to conjugate diameters of the general conic
ax² +2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 . (2).
Let the equations of the straight lines represented by (1) be y = mx
and y = m'x, so that (1) is equivalent to
B (y - mx) (y - m'x) = 0,
2H A
and hence m + m' = - and mm'
B B
L. 23
354 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

By the condition of the last article it therefore follows that the

lines (1) are parallel to conjugate diameters if
2H A
a +h + bB
+h (- B
i.e. if Ab - 2Hh + Ba = 0.

378. To prove that two concentric conic sections always have a

pair, and only one pair, of common conjugate diameters and to find
their equation.
Let the two concentric conic sections be
ax² + 2hxy + by² = 1 (1),
and a'x² + 2h'xy + b'y² = 1 . (2).
The straight lines
Ax² +2Hxy + By² = 0 ..... (3),
are conjugate diameters of both (1 ) and (2) if
Ab - 2Hh + Ba = 0,
and Ab' - 2Hh' + Ba' = 0.
Solving these two equations we have
A -2H - B
=
ha' - h'a ab' - a'b bh' — b'h '
Substituting these values in (3) , we see that the straight lines
x² (ha' -
— h'a) — xy (ab' — a′b) + y² (bh′ – b′h) = 0 ………………….. (4)
are always conjugate diameters of both (1) and (2).
Hence there is always a pair of conjugate diameters , real, coinci-
dent, or imaginary, which are common to any two concentric conic
sections.

EXAMPLES. XLII.
1. How many other conditions can a conic section satisfy when
we are given (1) its centre, (2) its focus, (3) its eccentricity, (4) its
axes, (5) a tangent, (6) a tangent and its point of contact, (7) the
position of one of its asymptotes ?
2. Find the condition that the straight line lx +my = 1 may
touch the parabola (ax - by)2-2 (a² + b²) (ax + by) + (a² + b²)² = 0, and
shew that if this straight line meet the axes in P and Q, then PQ
will, when it is a tangent, subtend a right angle at the point (a, b).
3. Two parabolas have a common focus ; prove that the perpen-
dicular from it upon the common tangent passes through the
intersection of the directrices.
[Exs. XLII.] INTERSECTIONS OF TWO CONICS. 355

x2 2xy
4. Shew that the conic + cos a + y2 = sin² a is inscribed in
a² ab b2
the rectangle, the equations to whose sides are x² =a2 and y² = b², and
that the quadrilateral formed by joining the points of contact is of
constant perimeter 4 √a² + b², whatever be the value of a.
5. A variable tangent to a conic meets two fixed tangents in two
points, P and Q ; prove that the locus of the middle point of PQ is a
conic which becomes a straight line when the given conic is a parabola.
6. Prove that the chord of contact of tangents , drawn from an
external point to the conic ax² + 2hxy + by² = 1, subtends a right angle
at the centre if the point lie on the conic
x² (a² + h²) + 2h (a + b) xy + y² (h² + b²) = a + b.
7. Given the focus and directrix of a conic, prove that the polar
of a given point with respect to it passes through another fixed point.
8. Prove that the locus of the centres of conics which touch the
axes at distances a and b from the origin is the straight line ay = bx.
9. Prove that the locus of the poles of tangents to the conic
ax² +2hxy + by² = 1 with respect to the conic a'x² + 2h'xy + b'y² = 1 is
the conic
a (h'x + b'y)² - 2h (a'x + h'y) (h'x + b'y) + b (a'x + h'y) ² = ab - h².
10. Find the equations to the straight lines which are conjugate
to the coordinate axes with respect to the conic Ax² + 2Hxy + By² = 1.
Find the condition that they may coincide, and interpret the
result.
11. Find the equation to the common conjugate diameters of the
conics (1) x² + 4xy + 6y² = 1 and 2x² + 6xy + 9y² = 1,
and (2) 2x² -
– 5xy + 3y² = 1 and 2x² + 3xy - 9y² = 1 .
12. Prove that the points of intersection of the conics
ax² +2hxy + by² = 1 and a'x² + 2h'xy + b'y² = 1
are at the ends of conjugate diameters of the first conic, if
ab' +a'b - 2hh' = 2 (ab - h²).
13. Prove that the equation to the equi-conjugate diameters of
ax² +2hxy + by² __ 2 (x² + y²)
the conic ax² + 2hxy + by² = 1 is ab - h2 a+b

379. Two conics, in general, intersect in four points,

real or imaginary.
For the general equation to two conics can be written
in the form
ax² + 2x (hy + g) + by + 2fy + c = 0,
and a'x² + 2x (h'y + g') + b'y³ + 2ƒ'y + c' = 0.
23-2
356 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Eliminating x from these equations, we find that the

result is an equation of the fourth degree in y, giving
therefore four values, real or imaginary, for y. Also, by
eliminating from these two equations, we see that there
is only one value of x for each value of y. There are there-
fore only four points of intersection.

380. Equation to any conic passing through the inter-

section oftwo given conics.
Let Sax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...... (1),
and S' = a'x² + 2h'xy + b'y² + 2g'x + 2ƒ'y + c' = 0 ... (2)
be the equations to the two given conics.
Then SAS' = 0....... . (3)
is the equation to any conic passing through the inter-
sections of (1) and (2) .
For, since S and S ' are both of the second degree in x
and y, the equation (3) is of the second degree, and hence
represents a conic section.
Also, since (3) is satisfied when both S and S' are zero,
it is satisfied by the points (real or imaginary) which are
common to ( 1 ) and (2) .
Hence (3 ) is a conic which passes through the intersec-
tions of (1) and (2).

381. To find the equations to the straight lines passing

through the intersections of two conics given by the general
equations.
As in the last article, the equation
-
(a − λa') x² + 2 (h — Xh') xy + (b — λb′) x² + 2 (g -
— λg′) x
+2 (f- λƒ') y + (c - λc') = 0 ......(1 ),
represents some conic through the intersections of the given
conics.
Now, by Art. 116, ( 1 ) represents straight lines if
-
(a — λa') (b − λb') (c − λc′) + 2 (ƒ − \ƒ') (g — \g') (h — Xh')
-
-(a - λa') (ƒ- λƒ')² — (b − λb') (g — λg') ³ — (c - - Nh')
— λc') (h —
= 0......(2).
 INTERSECTIONS OF TWO CONICS. 357

Now (2) is a cubic equation. The three values of

found from it will, when substituted successively in ( 1) ,
give the three pairs of straight lines which can be drawn
through the (real or imaginary) intersections of the two
conics.
Also, since a cubic equation always has one real root,
one value of λ is real, and it could be shown that there can
always be drawn one pair of real straight lines through the
intersections of two conics.

382. All conics which pass through the intersections of

two rectangular hyperbolas are themselves rectangular hyper-
bolas.
In this case, if S = 0 and S′ = 0 be the two rectangular
hyperbolas, we have
a + b = 0, and a + b'0. (Art. 358. )
Hence, in the conic S - AS' = 0, the sum of the co-
efficients of x² and y²
= (a -
= — λa' ) + (b -
− λb' ) = (a + b) — λ (a' + b′) = 0 .
Hence, the conic S- AS' = 0 , i.e. any conic through the
intersections of the two rectangular hyperbolas, is itself a
rectangular hyperbola.
Cor. If two rectangular hyperbolas intersect in four points
A, B, C, and D, the two straight lines AD and BC, which are a conic
through the intersection of the two hyperbolas, must be a rectangular
hyperbola. Hence AD and BC must be at right angles. Similarly,
BD and CA, and CD and AB, must be at right angles. Hence D is
the orthocentre of the triangle ABC.
Therefore, if two rectangular hyperbolas intersect in four points,
each point is the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the other
three.

383. IfL = 0, M = 0, N = 0 , and R = 0 be the equations

to the four sides of a quadrilateral taken in order, the
equation to any conic passing through its angular points is
LN =λ. MR (1).
For L =0 passes through one pair of its angular points
and N= 0 passes through the other pair. Hence LN = 0 is
the equation to a conic (viz. a pair of straight lines) passing
through the four angular points.
358 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Similarly MR0 is the equation to another conic

passing through the four points.
Hence LNA. MR is the equation to any conic through
the four points.
Geometrical meaning. Since L is proportional to the perpen-
dicular from any point (x, y ) upon the straight line L=0, the
relation (1) states that the product of the perpendiculars from any
point of the curve upon the straight lines L= 0 and N = 0 is propor-
tional to the product of the perpendiculars from the same point upon
M =0 and R = 0.
Hence If a conic circumscribe a quadrilateral, the ratio of the
product of the perpendiculars from any point P of the conic upon two
opposite sides of the quadrilateral to the product of the perpendiculars
from P upon the other two sides is the same for all positions of P.

384. Equations to the conic sections passing through

the intersections of a conic and two
given straight lines.
Let S - 0 be the equation to the
2=0
given conic.
=
Let u O and v = 0 be the equa-
tions to the two given straight lines
where S=0
u = ax + by + C,
and v = ax + b'y + c'.
Let the straight line u = O meet the conic S - 0 in the
points P and R, and let v = 0 meet it in the points Q and T.
The equation to any conic which passes through the
points P, Q, R, and T will be of the form
S = λ.u.v (1).
For ( 1 ) is satisfied by the coordinates of any point
which lies both on S = 0 and on u = 0 ; for its coordinates
on being substituted in ( 1 ) make both its members zero.
But the points P and R arethe only points which lie
both on S = 0 and on u = 0.
The equation ( 1) therefore denotes a conic passing
through P and R.
Similarly it goes through the intersections of S = 0 and
v = 0, i.e. through the points Q and T.
 THE EQUATION S = λuv. 359

Thus (1) represents some conic going through the four

points P, Q, R, and T.
Also ( 1 ) represents any conic going through these four
points. For the quantity A may be so chosen that it shall
go through any fifth point, or to make it satisfy any fifth
condition; also five conditions completely determine a conic
section.

Ex. Find the equation to the conic which passes through the point
(1, 1) and also through the intersections of the conic
x² +2xy + 5y² -7x - 8y + 6 = 0
with the straight lines 2x - y - 5 = 0 and 3x + y - 11-0. Find also
the parabolas passing through the same points.
The equation to the required conic must by the last article be of
the form
x² +2xy + 5y² — 7x − 8y + 6 = λ ( 2x − y − 5) (3x + y - 11 ) (1).
This passes through the point (1, 1) if
1 + 2 + 5-7-8 + 6 = λ (2−1−5) (3 + 1-11 ) , i.e. if λ = −2's .
The required equation then becomes
28 (x² + 2xy + 5y² – 7x -
− 8y +6) + (2x − y − 5) (3x + y −11 ) = 0 ,
i.e. 34x² + 55xy + 139y² - 233x - 218y + 223 = 0.
The equation to the required parabola will also be of the form (1),
i.e.
x²(1 − 6λ) + xy (2 + λ) + y² (5 + λ ) − x (7 – 37λ) -- y (8 + 6x) + 6 − 55λ = 0.
This is a parabola (Art. 357) if (2 + X)² = 4 ( 1 − 6x) (5 + X),
i.e. if λ= } [- 12 ±4 /10].
Substituting these values in (1), we have the required equations.

385. Particular cases of the equation

S = λuv.
I. Let u = 0 and v = 0 intersect on the curve, i.e. in
the figure of Art. 384 let the
points P and Q coincide.
The conic Sλuv then goes S =0
through two coincident points
at P and therefore touches the R V=0
u= 0
original conic at P as in the
figure.
II. Let u = 0 and v = 0
coincide, so that v = u.
360 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

In this case the point T also moves up to coincidence

with R and the second conic
touches the original conic at both
the points P and R.
S=0
The equation to the second
conic now becomes S = Au². u= 0
When a conic touches a second
conic at each of two points, the
two conics are said to have double
contact with one another.
The two conics S = Au² and S = 0 therefore have double
contact with one another, the straight line u = 0 passing
through the two points of contact.
As a particular case we see that if u == 0, v = 0 , and
w = O be the equations to three straight lines then the
equation vw = Au² represents a conic touching the conic
vw ==0 where u = O meets it, i.e. it is a conic to which
v = 0 and w = 0 are tangents and u = 0 is the chord of
contact.

III. Let u = 0 be a tangent to the original conic.

In this case the two points P
and R coincide, and the conic
Suv touches S = 0 where u = 0
touches it, and v = O is the equa- S=0
tion to the straight line joining
the other points of intersection of u= 0
the two conics.
If, in addition, v = 0 goes
through the point of contact of u = 0, we have the equation
to a conic which goes through three coincident points at P,
the point of contact of u = 0 ; also the straight line
joining P to the other point of intersection of the two
conics is v == 0.

IV. Finally, let v = 0 and u = 0 coincide and be

tangents at P. The equation S = Au² now represents a
conic section passing through four coincident points at the
point where = 0 touches S = 0.
 LINE AT INFINITY. 361

386. Line at infinity. We have shewn, in Art.

60, that the straight line, whose equation is
0.x + 0.y + C = 0,
is altogether at an infinite distance. This straight line is
called The Line at Infinity. Its equation may for brevity
be written in the form C = 0.

We can shew that parallel lines meet on the line at

infinity.

For the equations to any two parallel straight lines

are
Ax + By + C = 0 (1),
and Ax + By + C ' = 0 ..... ...... (2).

Now (2) may be written in the form

C' - C
Ax + By + C +
C (0 . x + 0. y + C) = 0,
and hence, by Art. 97, we see that it passes through the
intersection of (1) and the straight line
0.x + 0.y + C = 0.
Hence ( 1 ), (2), and the line at infinity meet in a point.

387. Geometrical meaning of the equation

S = λu (1 ),
where X is a constant, and u = 0 is the equation of a straight
line .
The equation ( 1 ) can be written in the form
S = λu × (0.x +0 . y + 1 ) ,
and hence, by Art. 384, represents a conic passing through
the intersection of the conic S = 0 with the straight lines
u = 0 and 0.x +0 . y + 1 = 0 .
Hence (1 ) passes through the intersection of S = 0 with
the line at infinity.
= and Sλu
Since S0 = have the same intersections with
362 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

the line at infinity, it follows that these two conics have

their asymptotes in the same direction.
Particular Case. Let

S = x² + y² - a³,
so that S = 0 represents a circle.
Any other circle is
x² + y² - 2gx -
— 2fy + c = 0,
i.e. x² + y² — a² = 2gx + 2ƒy — a² — c,
so that its equation is of the form S = λu.
It therefore follows that any two circles must be looked
upon as intersecting the line at infinity in the same two
(imaginary) points. These imaginary points are called the
Circular Points at Infinity.

388. Geometrical meaning ofthe equation S = λ, where

A is a constant.
This equation can be written in the form
S = λ (0.x + 0.y + 1 )²,
and therefore, by Art. 385, has double contact with S = 0
where the straight line 0.x +0 . y + 1 = 0 meets it, i.e. the
tangents to the two conics at the points where they meet
the line at infinity are the same.
The conics S = 0 and Sλ therefore have the same
(real or imaginary) asymptotes.
Particular Case. Let S = 0 denote a circle. Then
S = λ (being an equation which differs from S = 0 only in
its constant term ) represents a concentric circle.
Two concentric circles must therefore be looked upon as
touching one another at the imaginary points where they
meet the Line at Infinity.
Two concentric circles thus have double contact at the
Circular Points at Infinity.
 EXAMPLES. 363

EXAMPLES. XLIII.

1. What is the geometrical meaning of the equations S = X . T,

and Su² + ku, where S = 0 is the equation of a conic, T = 0 is the
equation of a tangent to it, and u = 0 is the equation of any straight
line ?
2. If the major axes of two conics be parallel, prove that the
four points in which they meet are concyclic.
3. Prove that in general two parabolas can be drawn to pass
through the intersections of the conics
ax² +2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
and a'x² + 2h'xy + b'y² + 2g'x + 2ƒ'y + c′ = 0,
and that their axes are at right angles if h (a' - b') = h' (a - b).
4. Through the extremities of two focal chords of an ellipse a
conic is described ; if this conic pass through the centre of the ellipse,
prove that it will cut the major axis in another fixed point.
5. Through the extremities of a normal chord of an ellipse a
circle is drawn such that its other common chord passes through the
centre of the ellipse. Prove that the locus of the intersection of
these common chords is an ellipse similar to the given ellipse. If the
eccentricity of the given ellipse be √2 (√2−1), prove that the two
ellipses are equal.
6. If two rectangular hyperbolas intersect in four points A, B, C,
and D, prove that the circles described on AB and CD as diameters
cut one another orthogonally.
7. A circle is drawn through the centre of the rectangular
hyperbola xy =c2 to touch the curve and meet it again in two points ;
prove that the locus of the feet of the perpendicular let fall from the
centre upon the common chord is the hyperbola 4xy = c².
8. If a circle touch an ellipse and pass through its centre, prove
that the rectangle contained by the perpendiculars from the centre of
the ellipse upon the common tangent and the common chord is
constant for all points of contact.
9. From a point T whose coordinates are (x', y') a pair of
tangents TP and TQ are drawn to the parabola y2 = 4ax ; prove that
the line joining the other pair of points in which the circumcircle of
the triangle TPQ meets the parabola is the polar of the point
(2a - x , y), and hence that, if the circle touch the parabola, the line
PQ touches an equal parabola.
10. Prove that the equation to the circle, having double contact
x2
with the ellipse + y2 ==1 at the ends of a latus rectum, is
a2 b2
x² +y² - 2αe³ x = a² (1 -
− e² — e¹).
364 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XLIII.]

11. Two circles have double contact with a conic, their chords of
contact being parallel. Prove that the radical axis of the two circles
is midway between the two chords of contact.
12. If a circle and an ellipse have double contact with one another,
prove that the length of the tangent drawn from any point of the
ellipse to the circle varies as the distance of that point from the
chord of contact.
13. Two conics , A and B, have double contact with a third conic
C. Prove that two of the common chords of A and B, and their
chords of contact with C, meet in a point.
14. Prove that the general equation to the ellipse, having double
contact with the circle x² + y² = a² and touching the axis of x at the
origin, is c²x² + (a² + c²) y² – 2a²cy = 0.
15. A rectangular hyperbola has double contact with a fixed
central conic. If the chord of contact always passes through a fixed
point, prove that the locus of the centre of the hyperbola is a circle
passing through the centre of the fixed conic.
16. A rectangular hyperbola has double contact with a parabola ;
prove that the centre of the hyperbola and the pole of the chord of
contact are equidistant from the directrix of the parabola.

389. To find the equation of the pair of tangents that

can be drawn from any point (x', y') to the general conic
= 0.
(x, y) = ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2ƒy + c =
Let T be the given point (x', y'), and let P and R be the
points where the tangents from
T touch the conic.
The equation to PR is there-
fore u = 0,
where u = (ax' + hy' + g) x u= 0
+ (hx + by +f) y + gx' +fy
' + c. S= 0
The equation to any conic
which touches S - 0 at both of
the points P and R is
S = λu³, (Art. 385),
i.e. ax² + 2hxy + by³ + 2gx + 2fy + c
= λ [(ax + hy + g) x + (hx + by +f) y + gx' +fy' + c]²
.. (Ï).
Now the pair of straight lines TP and TR is a conic
 DIRECTOR CIRCLE. 365

section which touches the given conic at P and R and

which also goes through the point T.
Also we can only draw one conic to go through five
points, viz. T, two points at P, and two points at R.
If then we find λ so that ( 1 ) goes through the point 7',
it must represent the two tangents TP and TR.
The equation (1 ) is satisfied by x' and y' if
ax² + 2hx'y' + by'² + 2gx' + 2ƒy' +c
= λ [ax² + 2hx'y' + by'² + 2gx' + 2ƒy' + c]²,
1
i.e. if λ=
(x', y')'
The required equation (1 ) then becomes
Þ (x', y') [ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c]
-
= [ (ax' + hy' + g ) x + (hx' + by' + ƒ) y + gx' + ƒy' + c]²,
i.e. Ø (x, y) × ☀ (x' , y') = u²,
where u = 0 is the equation to the chord of contact.

390. Director circle of a conic given by the general

equation of the second degree.
The equation to the two tangents from (x , y) to the
conic are, by the last article,
x² [a¢ (x', y') – (ax' + hy' + g)²]
+ 2xy [ho (x', y') − (ax' + hy' + g) (hx' + by' +ƒ)]
', y') – (hx' + by' + ƒ)² ] + other terms = 0 ... ( 1 ) .
+ y² [bø (x
If (x , y) be a point on the director circle of the conic,
the two tangents from it to the conic are at right angles.
Now (1 ) represents two straight lines at right angles if
the sum of the coefficients of x² and y² in it be zero,
i.e. if (a + b) (x , y ) -− (ax' + hy' + g)² — (hx′ + by' + ƒ)² = 0.
Hence the locus of the point (x , y) is
(a + b) (ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c)
- (ax + hy + g)² - (hx + by + f)² = 0,
¿.e. the circle whose equation is
(x² + y²) (ab - h²) + 2x (bg − fh) + 2y (af— gh)
+c (a + b) -g² — ƒ² = 0.
366 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

Cor. If the given conic be a parabola, then ab = h²,

and the locus becomes a straight line, viz. the directrix of
the parabola. (Art. 211.)
391. The equation to the director circle may also be obtained in
another manner. For it is a circle, whose centre is at the centre of
the conic, and the square of whose radius is equal to the sum of the
squares of the semi-axes of the conic.
[hf- bg gh- af`
The centre is, Art. 352 , the point ab - h2'
ab— h²
Also, if the equation to the conic be reduced to the form
ax² +2hxy + by² + c' = 0,
and if a and ẞ be its semi-axes, we have, (Art. 364,)
1 1 a+ b 1 ab - h2
=
a² +82 = -d' and a282 C'2
- (a + b) c'
so that, by division , a²+ß² = ab -h2
The equation to the required circle is therefore
2
x -hf- bg\2 + Y gh - af = - (a + b) c'
ab - h2 ab - h2 ab -h²
= (a + b) (abc + 2fgh - af² - bg² - ch²)
(Art. 352).
(ab - h2)2

392. The equation to the (imaginary) tangents drawn

from the focus of a conic to touch the conic satisfies the
analytical condition for being a circle.
Take the focus of the conic as origin, and let the axis of
x be perpendicular to its directrix, so that the equation to
the latter may be written in the form x + k = 0.
The equation to the conic, e being its eccentricity, is
therefore x² + y² = e² (x + k)²,
i.e. x² (1 - e ) + y² - 2e³kx - e²² = 0.
The equation to the pair of tangents drawn from the
origin is therefore, by Art. 389,
[x² (1 − e²) + y² — 2e²kx — e³k²] [ — e³k²] = [− e²kx — e²k²]²,
-
i.e. x² (1 -
− e²) + y² — 2e²kx — e²² =-= − e² [ x + k]²,
i.e. x² + y² = 0 ..... . (1).
Here the coefficients of 22 and y² are equal and the
coefficient of xy is zero.
 FOCI OF THE GENERAL CONIC. 367

However the axes and origin of coordinates be changed,

it follows, on making the substitutions of Art. 129, that in
(1) the coefficients of x and y² will still be equal and the
coefficient of xy zero.
Hence, whatever be the conic and however its equation
may be written, the equation to the tangents from the focus
always satisfies the analytical conditions for being a circle.

393. To find the foci ofthe conic given by the general

equation ofthe second degree
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c == 0.
Let (x , y) be a focus. By the last article the equation
to the pair of tangents drawn from it satisfies the conditions
for being a circle.
The equation to the pair of tangents is
☀ (x', y') [ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c]
== [ x (ax' + hy' + g ) + y (hx' + by' +ƒ) + (gx' +ƒy
' + c)]².
In this equation the coefficients of x² and y² must be
equal and the coefficient of xy must be zero.
We therefore have
ap (x', y') — (ax' + hy' + g)² = b¢ (x' , y') — (hx' + by' +ƒ)²,
and hp (x', y') = (ax' + hy′ + g) (hx′ + by' +ƒ),
i.e.
(ax' + hy
' + g)² — (hx' + by' +ƒ)² _ (ax' + hy' + g) (hx' + by' +ƒ)
α b h
= (x', y') (4).
These equations, on being solved, give the foci.
Cor. Since the directrices are the polars of the foci,
we easily obtain their equations.
394. The equations (4) of the previous article give, in general,
four values for x' and four corresponding values for y'. Two of these
would be found to be real and two imaginary.
In the case of the ellipse the two imaginary foci lie on the minor
axis. That these imaginary foci exist follows from Art. 247, by
writing the standard equation in the form
b2 -- a2 b2 2
x² + {y - √b² - a²}² = b2
√b²- a²
368 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

This shews that the imaginary point { 0 , √√b² — a²} is a focus, the
b2
imaginary line y - -= 0 is a directrix, and that the correspond-
√b²-a²
b2 - a2
ing eccentricity is the imaginary quantity b2
Similarly for the hyperbola, except that, in this case, the eccen-
tricity is real.
In the case of the parabola, two of the foci are at infinity and are
imaginary, whilst a third is at infinity and is real.

395. Ex. 1. Find the focus of the parabola

16x2-24xy + 9y² - 80x - 140y + 100 = 0.
The focus is given by the equations
(16x - 12y' - 40)2- ( -12x + 9y' - 70)2

−-12x′ + 9y' -
= (16x - 12y' - 40)-( 12 – 70)
-
= 16x^2-24x'y' + 9y'2-80x′ - 140y' + 100 .......……….. (1).
The first pair of equation (1) give
12 (16x' - 12y' - 40) ² +7 (16x′ – 12y' - 40) ( -12x' + 9y' -
— 70)
-12 (-12x +9y' - 70)2 = 0,
i.e. {4 (16x - 12y' - 40) -3 ( -12x' + 9y' - 70)}
x { 3 (16x - 12y' - 40) +4 ( -12x + 9y' - 70)} = 0,
i.e. (100x75y' +50) x (-400) = 0,
4x²+ 2
so that y' = 3
We then have 16x' -12y' - 40 = −48,
and - 12x' + 9y' - 70 = -64.
The second pair of equation (1) then gives
48 × 64
12 = x′ (16x′ – 12y′ – 40) + y′ ( − 12x′ + 9y' - 70) — 40x′ – 70y' +100
= -48x′ – 64y' – 40x′ – 70y′ + 100
= -88x' - 134y' +100,
536x' +268
i.e. -256-88x' +100,
3
so that x' = 1 , and then y' = 2.
The focus is therefore the point (1, 2).
 AXES OF THE GENERAL CONIC. 369

In the case of a parabola, we may also find the equation to the

directrix, by Art. 390 , and then find the coordinates of the focus,
which is the pole of the directrix.
Ex. 2. Find the foci of the conic
55x² - 30xy + 39y² - 40x - 24y - 464 = 0.
The foci are given by the equation
(55x' - 15y' -20)2- ( -15x + 39y' - 12)2
16
(55x′ – 15y' -– 20) ( −- 15x′ + 39y' – 12)
- 15
= 55x'² - 30x'y' + 39y'² - 40x′ - – 24y' - 464 .......... (1 ).
The first pair of equations (1) gives
15 (55x′ – 15y' – 20)² + 16 (55x′ – 15y' – 20 ) ( − 15x′ + 39y ′ – 12 )
-15 ( -15x + 39y' — 12) ² = 0,
i.e. {5 (55x′ -
– 15y′ – 20) − 3 ( − 15x′ + 39y' –- 12) }
{3 (55x' - 15y' - 20) +5 ( -− 15x′ + 39y' - 12) } = 0,
i.e. (5x′ – 3y' - 1) (3x′ + 5y ' -
— 4) = 0.
52x − 1
:. y' = 3 . (2),
or 3x' - 4
y' 5 (3).
Substituting this first value of y in the second pair of equation (1) ,
we obtain
- 340x2-340x' - 1355
– 25 (2x′ -
— 1)² =' 3
giving x - 2 or 1. Hence from (2) y' = 3 or -2.
On substituting the second value of y' in the same pair of equation
(1 ), we finally have
2x2-2x + 13 = 0,
the roots of which are imaginary.
We should thus obtain two imaginary foci which would be found
to lie on the minor axis of the conic section. The real foci are
therefore the points (2, 3) and ( − 1, − 2).

396. Equation to the axes of the general

conic .
By Art. 393, the equation
----
(ax + hy + g)² — (hx + by +f)² _ (ax + hy + g) (hx + by +f)
a b h
...(1)
represents some conic passing through the foci.
J. 24
370 COORDINATE GEOMETRY,

But, since it could be solved as a quadratic equation to

give ax + hy + 9 , it represents two straight lines .
hx + by + f'
The equation ( 1 ) therefore represents the axes of the
general conic.

397. To find the length of the straight lines drawn

through a given point in a given direction to meet a given
conic.
Let the equation to the conic be
(x, y) = ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2ƒy + c = 0 ... ( 1 ).
Let P be any point (x', y'), and through it let there be
drawn a straight line at an angle
with the axis of x to meet the
curve in and Q'.
The coordinates of any point
on this line distant r from P
are
RQ
x +rcos and y' + r sin 0.
(Art. 86. )
If this point be on (1) , we X
have
a (x² + r cos 0)² + 2h (x' + r cos 0) (y' + r sin 0) + b (y' + r sin 0)²
+ 2g (x² + r cos 0) + 2ƒ (y' + r sin 0) + c = 0,
i.e.
r² [a cos² 0 + 2h cos ◊ sin ◊ + b sin² 0]
+ 2r [(ax' + hy' + g) cos 0 + (hx′ + by
' + ƒ) sin 0] + $ (x', y') = 0
............(2).
For any given value of this is a quadratic equation in
r, and therefore for any straight line drawn at an inclina-
tion it gives the values of PQ and PQ'.
If the two values of r given by equation (2) be of
opposite sign, the points Q and Q' lie on opposite sides
of P.
If P be on the curve, then (x', y') is zero and one value
of r obtained from (2) is zero.
 INTERCEPTS ON LINES. 371

398. If two chords PQQ' and PRR' be drawn in given

directions through any point P to meet the curve in Q, Q' and
R, R' respectively, the ratio of the rectangle PQ . PQ' to the
rectangle PR . PR' is the same for all points, and is therefore
equal to the ratio ofthe squares of the diameters of the conic
which are drawn in the given directions.
The values of PQ and PQ' are given by the equation of
the last article, and therefore
PQ . PQ' = product of the roots
(x' , y')
a cos² + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin² 0 .(1).

So, if PRR
' be drawn at an angle e' to the axis, we have
PR . PR' == (x', y')
a cos20' + 2h cos 0'sin ' + b sin² O'....(2).
On dividing (1 ) by (2), we have
PQ.PQ = a cos² ' + 2h cos 0' sin 0' + b sin² 0′
PR.PR a cos² 0 + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin² 0
The right-hand member of this equation does not contain
xor y', i.e. it does not depend on the position of P but only
on the directions 0 and '.
PQ. PQ '
The quantity is therefore the same for all
PR. PR '
positions of P.
In the particular case when P is at the centre of the
CQ"2
conic this ratio becomes where C is the centre and CQ
CR29
and CR" are parallel to the two given directions.
Cor. If Q and Q' coincide, and also R and R', the two
lines PQQ' and PRR′ become the tangents from P, and the
above relation then gives
PQ CQ2 PQ = CQ"
i.e.
PR CR PR CR
Hence, If two tangents be drawn from a point to a conic,
their lengths are to one another in the ratio of the parallel
semi-diameters ofthe conic.
24-2
372 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

399. If PQQ' and P₁Q₁Qí be two chords drawn in

parallel directions from two points P and P, to meet a conic
in Q and Q', and Q, and Q , respectively, then the ratio of
the rectangles PQ . PQ' and P₁Q1 . P₁Q1' is independent ofthe
direction ofthe chords.
For, if P and P, be respectively the points (x , y ) and
(x", y" ), and be the angle that each chord makes with
the axis, we have, as in the last article,
(x', y')
PQ . PQ' = a cos² + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin² 0 '
( , )
and P₁Q₁ . P₁Qi = a cos² + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin² 0 '

so that PQ .PQ
' = ☀ (x', y')
P1Q1 . P1Q1 (x" , y″ ) `

400. If a circle and a conic section cut one another in four points,
the straight line joining one pair of points of intersection and the
straight line joining the other pair are equally inclined to the axis of
the conic.
For (Fig. Art. 397) let the circle and conic intersect in the four
points Q, Q' and R, R' and let QQ' and RR' meet in P.
Then PQ . PQ' = CQ"2
PR.PR' CR"2 (Art. 398).
But, since Q, Q', R, and R' are four points on a circle, we have
PQ.PQ = PR . PR'. [ Euc. III. 36 , Cor.]
.. CQ" CR".
Also in any conic equal radii from the centre are equally inclined
to the axis of the conic.
Hence CQ" and CR", and therefore PQQ' and PRR', are equally
inclined to the axis of the conic.

401. To shew that any chord of a conic is cut har-

monically by the curve, any point on
the chord, and the polar of this point Y
with respect to the conic.
Take the point as origin, and let
the equation to the conic be
ax² + 2hxy + by + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
...... (1 ), X
 HARMONIC PROPERTY OF THE POLAR. 373

or, in polar coordinates,

r²(a cos²0 + 2h cos✪ sin ✪ + b sin² 0) + 2r (g cos 0 +ƒsin0) + c = 0,
i.e.

c . 1 + 2 . 1. (g cos 0 + ƒsin 0)
+ a cos² 0 + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin²0 = 0.
Hence, if the chord OPP' be drawn at an angle ✪ to OX,
we have
1 1 1
roots of this equation in
OP OP = sum of the r
==2 . g cos 0 +ƒsin
с
Let R be a point on this chord such that
2 1 1
+
OR OP OP'
Then, if OR = p, we have
cos 0 + ƒsin ✪
2= 2g 2
ρ с
so that the locus of R is
9. p cos 0 + f.p sin 0 + c = 0,
or, in Cartesian coordinates,
gx + fy + c = 0. (2).
But (2) is the polar of the origin with respect to the
conic (1 ), so that the locus of R is the polar of O.
The straight line PP' is therefore cut harmonically by O
and the point in which it cuts the polar of 0.

Ex. Through any point O is drawn a straight line to cut a conic

in P and P' and on it is taken a point R such that OR is (1) the
arithmetic mean, and (2) the geometric mean, between OP and OP'.
Find in each case the locus of R.
Using the same notation as in the last article, we have
OP + OP' - 2 g cos 0 +ƒsin
a cos20 + 2h cos 0 sin + b sin²
с
and OP.OP'=
a cos20 + 2h cos 0 sin 0 +b sin20 "
374 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

(1) If R be the point (p, 0) we have

g cos 0 +fsin
p= (OP + OP') =
a cos20 + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sinº 0 '
i.e. apcos² 0 +2hp cos 0 sin 0 +bp sin² 0 +g cos 0 +ƒsin 0 = 0,
i.e., in Cartesian coordinates,
ax² +2hxy + by² +gx +fy = 0.
The locus is therefore a conic passing through O and the inter-
section of the conic and the polar of O, i.e. through the points T
and T', and having its asymptotes parallel to those of the given
conic.
(2) If R be the point (p, 0), we have in this case
с
p²= OP . OP' =
acos20 +2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sinº 0 '
i.e. ap² cos20 + 2hp² cos ◊ sin + bp² sin² 0 = c,
i.e. ax² +2hxy + by² = c.
The locus is therefore a conic, having its centre at O and passing
through T and T' , and having its asymptotes parallel to those of the
given conic.
402. To find the locus of the middle points of parallel chords ofa
conic. [Cf. Art. 376. ]
The lengths of the segments of the chord drawn through the point
(x', y') at an angle ✪ to the axis of x is given by equation (2) of Art.
397.
If (x , y ) be the middle point of the chord the roots of this
equation are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, so that their
algebraic sum is zero.
The coefficient of r in this equation is therefore zero , so that
(ax +hy + g) cos 0 + (hx' + by' +ƒ) sin 0 = 0.
The locus of the middle point of chords inclined at an angle to
the axis of x is therefore the straight line
(ax + hy + g) + (hx + by +f) tan 0 = 0.
Hence the locus of the middle points of chords parallel to the line
y =mx is
(ax + hy +g) + (hx + by +f) m = 0,
i.e. x(a + hm) + (h + bm) y + g +fm= 0.
This is parallel to the line y = m'x if
a + hm
=-
m' =
h+ bm '
i.e. if a + h (m + m') + bmm' = 0.
This is therefore the condition that y = mx and y = m'x should be
parallel to conjugate diameters.
 EXAMPLES. 375

403. Equation to the pair of tangents drawn from a given point

(x , y) to a given conic. [ Cf. Art. 389. ]
If a straight line be drawn through (x', y'), the point P, to meet
the conic in Q and Q' , the lengths of PQ and PQ' are given by the
equation
r² (a cos² 0 +2h cos ◊ sin 0 + b sin² §)
+2r [(ax' +hy' +g) cos 0+ (hx' + by +f) sin 0] + (x' , y') = 0.
The roots of this equation are equal, i.e. the corresponding lines
touch the conic, if
(a cos² 0 + 2h cos 0 sin 0 + b sin² 0) × 4 (x' , y')
= [(ax' + hy + g) cos 0+ (hx' + by' +ƒ) sin 0]²,
i.e. if (a + 2htan 0 + b tan² 0) × p (x', y')
= [(ax' +hy' + g) + (hx' + by' +f) tan 0]² ... (1).
The roots of this equation give the corresponding directions of the
tangents through P.
Also the equation to the line through P inclined at an angle ◊ to
the axis of x is
y -y' = tan 0
x- x . (2).
If we substitute for tan @ in (1) from (2) we shall get the equation
to the pair of tangents from P.
On substitution we have
{a(x - x')² + 2h (x −- x') (y - y ') + b (y - y ') } p (x', y')
= [(ax' + hy' + g) (x -− x') + (hx' + by' +ƒ) (y − y')]².
This equation reduces to the form of Art. 389.

EXAMPLES. XLIV.

1. Two tangents are drawn to an ellipse from a point P; if the

points in which these tangents meet the axes of the ellipse be
concyclic, prove that the locus of P is a rectangular hyperbola.
2. A pair of tangents to the conic Ax² +By2 =1 intercept a
constant distance 2k on the axis of x ; prove that the locus of their
point of intersection is the curve
By2 (4x² +By2-1 ) = Ak² (By² – 1)².
3. Pairs of tangents are drawn to the conic ax² +ẞy² = 1 so as to
be always parallel to conjugate diameters of the conic
ax² + hxy + by² = 1 ;
shew that the locus of their point of intersection is the conic
a b
ax² +2hxy + by² ==
αβ
376 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs.

4. Prove that the director circles of all conics which touch two
given straight lines at given points have a common radical axis.
5. A parabola circumscribes a right-angled triangle. Taking its
sides as the axes of coordinates, prove that the locus of the foot of the
perpendicular from the right angle upon the directrix is the curve
whose equation is
2xy (x² +y²) (hy + kx) + h²yª + k²x¹ = 0,
and that the axis is one of the family of straight lines
m³h - k
y = mx 1+ m² 9
where m is an arbitrary parameter and 2h and 2k are the sides of the
triangle.
Find the foci of the curves
6. 300x² + 320xy + 144y² – 1220x - − 768y + 199 = 0.
7. 16x² - 24xy + 9y² + 28x + 14y + 21 = 0.
8. 144x² - 120xy + 25y² + 67x - 42y + 13 = 0.
9. x² - 6xy + y² – 10x – 10y – 19 = 0 and also its directrices.
10. Prove that the foci of the conic
ax² +2hxy + by² = 1
are given by the equations
x²- y2 = xy = 1
a- b h a² - b2'
11. Prove that the locus of the foci of all conics which touch the
four lines x = ± a and y = ± b is the hyperbola x² — y² = a² — b².
12. Given the centre of a conic and two tangents ; prove that the
locus of the foci is a hyperbola.
[ Take the two tangents as axes, their inclination being w ; let
(x1 , y₁) and (x , y ) be the foci, and (h, k) the given centre. Then
x1 +x = 2h and y₁ +y2 = 2k ; also, by Art. 270 (8), we have
Y₁y2 sin² = xx sin² w = (semi-minor axis)².
From these equations, eliminating x, and y₂, we have
x² -y₁2 = 2hx - 2ky₁ . ]
13. A given ellipse, of semi-axes a and b, slides between two
perpendicular lines ; prove that the locus of its focus is the curve
(x² +y²) (x²y² + 64) = 4a²x²y².
14. Conics are drawn touching both the axes, supposed oblique, at
the same given distance a from the origin. Prove that the foci lie
either on the straight line x = y, or on the circle
x² +y² + 2xy cos w = a (x + y).
15. Find the locus of the foci of conics which have a common point
and a common director circle.
 XLIV. ] TANGENT AND NORMAL AS AXES. 377

16. Find the locus of the focus of a rectangular hyperbola a

diameter of which is given in magnitude and position.
17. Through a fixed point O chords POP' and QOQ' are drawn at
right angles to one another to meet a given conic in P, P' , Q, and Qʻ.
1 1
Prove that + is constant.
PO.OP Q0.0Q'
18. A point is taken on the major axis of an ellipse whose abscissa
is ae ÷ √2- e2 ; prove that the sum of the squares of the reciprocals
of the segments of any chord through it is constant.
19. Through a fixed point O is drawn a line OPP' to meet a conic
in P and P' ; prove that the locus of a point Q on OPP', such that
1 1 1
= + is another conic whose centre is 0.
OQ2 OP² OP'2
20. Prove Carnot's theorem , viz .: If a conic section cut the side
BC of a triangle ABC in the points A' and A", and, similarly, the
side CA in B' and B'' , and AB in C and C", then
BA' . BA" . CB' . CB" . AC' . AC" = CA' . CA" . AB' . AB" . BC' . BC" .
[Use Art. 398.]
21. Obtain the equations giving the foci of the general conic by
making use of the fact that, if S be a focus and PSP' any chord of
1 1
the conic passing through it, then + is the same for all direc-
SP SP'
tions of the chord.
22. Obtain the equations for the foci also from the fact that the
product of the perpendiculars drawn from them upon any tangent is
the same for all tangents .

404. To find the equation to a conic, the axes of co-

ordinates being a tangent and normal to the conic.
Since the origin is on the curve, the equation to the
curve must be satisfied by the coordinates (0, 0) so that the
equation has no constant term and therefore is of the form
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy = 0.
If this curve touch the axis of x at the origin , then ,
when y = 0, we must have a perfect square and therefore
g = 0.
The required equation is therefore
........ (1).
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2fy = 0 ..........
EX. O is any point on a conic and PQ a chord ; prove that
(1) if PQ subtend a right angle at O , it passes through a fixed
point on the normal at O, and
378 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

(2) if OP and OQ be equally inclined to the normal at O, then

PQpasses through a fixed point on the tangent at 0.
Take the tangent and normal at O as axes, so that the equation to
the conic is (1).
Let the equation to PQ be y = mx + c . (2).
Then, by Art. 122, the equation to the lines OP and OQ is
c (ax² + 2hxy + by²) + 2ƒy (y − mx) = 0 ........ ..(3).
(1 ) If the lines OP and OQ be at right angles then (Art. 66) , we
have ac + bc + 2f= 0,
i.e. C= 2f
a+b
= a constant for all positions of PQ.
But c is the intercept of PQ on the axis of y, i.e. on the normal
at 0.
The straight line PQ therefore passes through a fixed point on the
normal at O which is distant -2f from 0.
a+ b
This point is often called the Frégier Point.
(2) If again OP and OQ be equally inclined to the axis of y then,
in equation (3), the coefficient of xy must be zero, and hence
2hc - 2fm = 0,
C-
i.e. = constant.
m h
But
m is the intercept on the axis of x of the line PQ.
Hence, in this case, PQ passes through a fixed point on the tangent
at O.
405. General equation to conics passing through four
given points.
Let A, B, C, and D be the four points, and let BA and
CD meet in 0. Take OAB
and ODC as the axes, and
let OA = X, OB = X', OD = μ,
and OC = μ'.
Let any conic passing
through the four points be B X
ax² +2h'xy + by²
+2gx + 2fy+ c = 0 ... (1).
If we put y = 0 in this
equation the roots of the
resulting equation must be λ and X'.
 CONICS THROUGH FOUR POINTS. 379

Hence 2g =- a (λ + λ') and c =- αλλ',

i.e. с λ +λ
α=
=√ , and 2g = с αλλ'
с
Similarly b= 79 and 2f с μ + μ'
μμ μμ'
On substituting in ( 1 ) we have
μμα + 2hy + λλ'ψ - μμ' (λ + λ') κ
- λλ' (μ + μ ) y + λλ'μμ' = 0 ...... (1 ),
αλ μμ
where h = h' λ' '
с
This is the required equation, h being a constant as yet
undetermined and depending on which of the conics through
A, B, C, and D we are considering.

406. Aliter. We have proved in Art. 383 that the

equation kLN = MR, k being any constant, represents any
conic circumscribing the quadrilateral formed by the four
straight lines L = 0, M = 0, N = 0, and R = 0 taken in this
order.
With the notation of the previous article the equations
to the four lines AB, BC, CD, and DA are
х y
+ - 1 = 0, x = 0,
y = 0, ľ
Χι μ'
x У
and 1 = 0.
λ μ
The equation to any conic circumscribing the quadri-
lateral ABCD is therefore
x y y
kxy = (~ + 2 - 1) (~ + 2 - 1 )..... (1) ,
μ
i.e.
μμα + ay (λμ' + λ'μ -Ελλ'μμ) + λλ'
- μμ' (λ + 2 ) α - λλ' (μ + μ' y + λλ'μμ' = 0.
On putting λμ' + λ'μ - Ελλ'μμ' equal to another constant
2h we have the equation ( 1 ) of the previous article.
380 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

407. Only one conic can be drawn through any five

points.
For the general equation to a conic through four points
is (1 ) of Art. 405.
If we wish it to pass through a fifth point, we substitute
the coordinates of this fifth point in this equation, and thus
obtain the corresponding value of h . Except when three of
the five points lie on a straight line a value of h will always
be found, and only one.
Ex. Find the equation to the conic section which passes through
the five points A , B, C, D, and E, whose coordinates are (1, 2), (3, −4),
( − 1 , 3) , ( − 2 , −- 3), and (5, 6).
The equations to AB, BC, CD, and DA are easily found to be
y + 3x - 5 = 0, 4y + 7x - 5 = 0, 6x - y + 9 = 0, and 5x - 3y + 1 = 0.
The equation to any conic through the four points A, B, C, and D
is therefore
(y + 3x - 5) (6x −y + 9) = λ (4y + 7x -
− 5) (5x − 3y + 1) ......(1).
If this conic pass through the point E, the equation (1) must be
satisfied by the values x = 5 and y = 6.
We thus have λ = 1 and, on substitution in (1), the required
equation is
223x² - 38xy - 123y² – 171x + 83y + 350 = 0 ,
which represents a hyperbola,
408 . To find the general equation to a conic section
which touches four given straight lines, i.e. which is inscribed
in a given quadrilateral.

X
 THE CONIC LM = R². 381

Let the four straight lines form the sides of the quadri-
lateral ABCD. Let BA and CD meet in O, and take OAB
and ODC as the axes of x and y, and let the equations to
the other two sides BC and DA be

bx + m₁y -
− 1 = 0, and lx + my − 1 = 0 .

Let the equation to the straight line joining the points

of contact of any conic touching the axes at P and Q be
ax + by − 1 = 0.
By Art. 385 , II, the equation to the conic is then
2λxy = (ax + by - 1 ) ...... ..(1).
The condition that the straight line BC should touch
this conic is, as in Art. 374, found to be
λ = 2 (a - 1 ) (b - m₁) .. (2).
Similarly, it will be touched by AD if
λ = 2 (a - b) (bm ) .(3).
The required conic has therefore ( 1 ) as its equation, the
values of a and b being given in terms of the quantity λ by
means of (2 ) and (3).
Also A is any quantity we may choose. Hence we have
the system of conics touching the four given lines.
If we solve (2) and (3), we obtain
2b − (m₁ + m²) - 2a - (1₁ + 12) == 21
my -m2 4-12 √1-(4-1) (mm )

409. The conic LMR , where L = 0, M = 0, and

R = 0 are the equations of straight lines.
The equation LM= 0 represents a conic, viz. two straight
lines.

Hence, by Art. 385, II, the equation

LM = R². .. ( 1 ) ,
represents a conic touching the straight lines L = 0, and
M = 0, where R = 0 meets them.
382 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Thus L = 0 and M = 0 are a pair of tangents and R = 0

the corresponding chord of contact.

Every point which satisfies the equations M= µ³L and

R = μL clearly lies on (1 ).
Hence the point of intersection of the straight lines
M = µ³L and R = μL lies on the conic ( 1 ) for all values of
μ. This point may be called the point " μ."

410. To find the equation to the straight line joining

66
two points "µ " and "µ " and the equation to the tangent at
the point " ."
Consider the equation
aL + bM + R = 0 ........ ..( 1).
Since it is of the first degree and contains two constants
a and b, at our disposal, it can be made to represent any
straight line.
If it pass through the point " u " it must be satisfied by
the substitutions M = µ³L and R = µL.
Hence a + bµ³ + µ = 0...... .(2).
Similarly, if it pass through the point " "" we have
12
a + bµ²² + µ' = 0 ........ (3).
Solving (2) and (3), we have
α -- 1
=b =
-
μμ μ +μ
On substitution in (1), the equation to the joining line is
-
Ľμμ' + M − (μ + µ') R = 0.
By putting up we have, as the equation to the
tangent at the point "u,'
Lμ² + M − 2µR = 0.
 EXAMPLES. 383

EXAMPLES. XLV.

1. Prove that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular let fall
from the origin upon tangents to the conic ax² + 2hxy + by² = 2x is the
curve (h²- ab) (x² + y²) ² +2 (x² + y²) (bx — hy) + y² = 0.
2. In the conic ax2 +2hxy + by2 = 2y, prove that the rectangle
1
contained by the focal distances of the origin is ab - h2'

3. Tangents are drawn to the conic ax2 + 2hxy + by² = 2x from

two points on the axis of x equidistant from the origin; prove that
their four points of intersection lie on the conic by² + hxy = x.
If the tangents be drawn from two points on the axis of y equi-
distant from the origin, prove that the points of intersection are on a
straight line.
4. A system of conics is drawn to pass through four fixed points ;
prove that
(1) the polars of a given point all pass through a fixed point,
and (2) the locus of the pole of a given line is a conic section.
5. Find the equation to the conic passing through the origin and
the points (1, 1), ( −1 , 1), (2, 0) , and (3, -2). Determine its species.
6. Prove that the locus of the centre of all conics circumscribing
the quadrilateral formed by the straight lines y = 0 , x = 0, x + y = 1 ,
and y - x= 2 is the conic 2x² - 2y² + 4xy + 5y − 2 =0.
7. Prove that the locus of the centres of all conics, which pass
through the centres of the inscribed and escribed circles of a triangle,
is the circumscribing circle of the triangle.
8. Prove that the locus of the extremities of the principal axes of
all conics, which can be described through the four points ( ± a, 0) and
(0, + b), is the curve
(x2 y2\
62 (x² + y²) = x² — y².
9. A, B, C, and D are four fixed points and AB and CD meet in
O; any straight line passing through O meets AD and BC in R and
R' respectively, and any conic passing through the four given points
in S and S' ; prove that
1 1 1 1
+ =
OR OR' OS + OS'
10. Prove that, in general, two parabolas can be drawn through
four points, and that either two, or none, can be drawn.
[For a parabola we have h ± √XX'µµ'.]
384 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. [Exs. XLV .

11. Prove that the locus of the centres of the conics circumscrib-
ing a quadrilateral ABCD (Fig. Art. 405) is a conic passing through
the vertices O, L, and M of the quadrilateral and through the middle
points of AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, and CD.
Prove also that its asymptotes are parallel to the axes of the
parabolas through the four points.
[ The required locus is obtained by eliminating h from the equa-
tions 2µµ'x + 2hy — µµ' (X + X ′) = 0, and 2hx + 2\\'y − XX' (µ + µ') = 0 . ]
12. By taking the case when XX'= -μμ' and when AB and CD
are perpendicular (in which case ABC is a triangle having D as its
orthocentre and AL, BM, and CO are the perpendiculars on its
sides), prove that all conics passing through the vertices of a triangle
and its orthocentre are rectangular hyperbolas.
From Ex. 11 prove also that the locus of its centre is the nine
point circle of the triangle.
13. Prove that the triangle OML ( Fig. Art. 405 ) is such that each
angular point is the pole of the opposite side with respect to any
conic passing through the angular points A, B, C, and D of the
quadrilateral.
[Such a triangle is called a Self Conjugate Triangle.]
14. Prove that only one rectangular hyperbola can be drawn
through four given points. Prove also that the nine point circles of
the four triangles that can be formed by four given points meet in a
point, viz. , the centre of the rectangular hyperbola passing through
the four points .
15. By using the result of Art. 374, prove that in general, two
conics can be drawn through four points to touch a given straight
line.
A system of conics is inscribed in the same quadrilateral ; prove
that
16. the locus of the pole of a given straight line with respect to
this system is a straight line.
17. the locus of their centres is a straight line passing through the
middle points of the diagonals of the quadrilateral.
18. Prove that the triangle formed by the three diagonals OL,
AC, and BD (Fig. Art. 408) is such that each of its angular points is
the pole of the opposite side with respect to any conic inscribed in the
quadrilateral.
19. Prove that only one parabola can be drawn to touch any four
given lines.
Hence prove that, if the four triangles that can be made by four
lines be drawn, the orthocentres of these four straight lines lie on a
straight line, and their circumcircles meet in a point.
 CHAPTER XVII.

MISCELLANEOUS PROPOSITIONS.

On the four normals that can be drawn from any point in

the plane of a central conic to the conic .

411. LET the equation to the conic be

Ax² + By² = 1 ....... (1).
[ If A and B be both positive, it is an ellipse ; if one be
positive and the other negative, it is a hyperbola. ]
The equation to the normal at any point (x', y') of the
curve is
x -
- y - y' •
Ax' By'
If this normal pass through the given point (h, k), we
have
h - x' - k - y
Ax' By "
i.e. (A - B) x'y' + Bhy' - Akx' = 0 ..... (2).
This is an equation to determine the point (x', y') such
that the normal at it goes through the point (h, k). It
shews that the point (x', y') lies on the rectangular hyper-
bola
(A – B) xy + Bhy – Akx = 0 …………………. (3).
The point (x', y') is therefore both on the curve (3) and
on the curve ( 1 ). Also these two conics intersect in four
points, real or imaginary. There are therefore four points,
L. 25
386 COORDINATE GEOMETRY,

in general, lying on ( 1), such that the normals at them pass

through the given point (h, k).
Also the hyperbola (3) passes through the origin and
the point (h, k) and its asymptotes are parallel to the axes.
Hence From a given point four normals can in general
be drawn to a given central conic, and their feet all lie on a
certain rectangular hyperbola, which passes through the
given point and the centre of the conic, and has its asymptotes
parallel to the axes ofthe given conic.

412. To find the conditions that the normals at the

points where two given straight lines meet a central conic
may meet in a point.
Let the conic be
Ax² + By² = 1 (1 ),
and let the normals to it at the points where it is met by
the straight lines
l₁₂x + m₁y = 1 (2) ,
and 12x + may - 1 (3)
meet in the point (h, k).
By Art. 384, the equation to any conic passing through
the intersection of ( 1 ) with (2) and (3 ) is
Ax² + By² - 1 + λ ( x + my — 1 ) ( x + m₂y − 1 ) = 0 ... (4).
Since these intersections are the feet of the four
normals drawn from (h, k), then, by the last article, the
conic
(A - B) xy + Bhy - Akx = 0 0 ........
.... (5)
passes through the same four points.
For some value of λ it therefore follows that (4) and (5)
are the same.
Comparing these equations, we have, since the co-
efficients of x and y² and the constant term in (5) are all
zero,
A + №₁₂ = 0, B + λmm₂ = 0, and -· 1 + λ = 0.
Therefore λ = 1, and hence
l₁₂ = — A , and mm² -- .. (6).
 CONCURRENT NORMALS. 387

The relations (6) are the required conditions.

Also, comparing the remaining coefficients in (4) and (5),
we have

λ (1₁m² + l₂m ) = -λ (1₂ + b ) - -λ (m₂ + m₂)

A- B -- Ak Bh
A - B m₁ + m²
so that h (7),
B lm + lm
A - B b + bq
and k= .(8) .
A lm + lm
Cor. 1. If the given conic be an ellipse, we have

1 1
Α= and B =
b2.

The relations (6) then give

a²l₁₂ = b²mm₁ = 1 .............. . (9) ,
and the coordinates of the point of concurrence are
a² - b² m₁ + m² 1- b²m²2
h= - 27
l₁ (a² — b²) . a²² + b²m²'
a² lm + lym₂
a² - b2 4 + b2 1 - a²²
and k = - m₁ (a² — b²) .
b2 1₁m2 + l₂m₁ a²l2 + b²m²

Cor. 2. If the equations to the straight lines be given

in the form y = mx + c_ and y = mx + c', we have
4 1 la and c' 1
m =- 9 C= m' = "
my In1 M2 ՊՈՆՋ
The relations (9) then give
b2
mm' = 2 and cc' =- b2.
a²

413. If the normals at four points P, Q, R, and S of an ellipse

meet in a point, the sum of their eccentric angles is equal to an odd
multiple oftwo right angles.
25-2
388 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

If a, ẞ, y, and 8 be the eccentric angles of the four points, the

equations to PQ and RS are
α-
b cos
b a +ß 2
y =--X.- cot +
a sin a+ß
2

b cos γ
b γ+ δ 2
and y = -x . - cot + [Art. 259. ]
a
sin γ + δ

Since the normals at these points meet in a point, we have, by

Art. 412, Cor. 2,
b2 b2 a +ß γ+ δ
=mm':= cot a+Bcot
a² a2 જ.
π γ+ δ
.. tan a +ß = cot 2 + 8 = tan
2 2 2 — x+³)
(— 2 .
π γ+δ
.. a +ß = NT + -
2 2 2
i.e. a +B + y + d= (2n + 1) π .

414. Ex. 1. If the normals at the points A, B, C, and D of an

ellipse meet in a point O, prove that SA . SB.SC. SD = X² . SO2, where
S is one ofthe foci and X is a constant.
Let the equation to the ellipse be
x2 y2
=1 (1) ,
a2 + b2
and let O be the point (h, k).
As in Art. 411, the feet of the normals drawn from O lie on the
hyperbola
hy kx
b2 xy b2 a2
( -1) + 2 =0
i.e. a²e²xy = a²hy - b²kx . (2).
The coordinates of the points A, B, C, and D are therefore found
by solving (1) and (2).
b2kx
From (2) we have y=
a² (h - e²x)*
Substituting in (1) and simplifying, we obtain
xa²e¹- 2ha²e²x³ + x² (a²h² + b²k2 — a¹e4) + 2he²aªx - a¹h² =0...(3).
 CONCURRENT NORMALS . EXAMPLES. 389

If X1, X2 , X3, and X4 be the roots of this equation, we have (Art. 2),
2h a²h² + b²k² - a¹e¹
2x₁ = 21, 2x₁₁ = a2e4
2ha2 a2h2
ΣX1X2x3 = and xxx34
e4
If S be the point ( -ae, 0) we have, by Art. 251 ,
SA = a + ex1 .
.. SA.SB.SC. SD = (a + ex₁ ) (a + ex₂) ( a + ex¸) (a + ex₁)
= a* +a³eΣx₁ + a²e²Σ¤¸¤¸ + ae³Σ¤¸¤qXz + e¹X1XqXyX↓
b2
= = { (h + ae)² + k²} , on substitution and simplification,
b2
= • SO2.

Aliter. If stand for one of the quantities SA, SB, SC, or SD

we have p= a + ex,
i.e. x = - (p - a).
e
Substituting this value in (3) we obtain an equation in the fourth
degree, and easily have
b2
P1P2P3P4 = [ (h + ae) ² + k²], as before.

Ex. 2. If the normals at four points P, Q, R, and S of a central

conic meet in a point, and if PQ pass through a fixed point, find the
locus ofthe middle point of RS.
Let the equation to PQ be
y = mx + c₁ .(1),
and that to RS y = mx + C2 . (2).
If the equation to the given conic be Ax² + By2 = 1 , we then have
(by Art. 412, Cor. 2)
mym₂= B (3) ,
1
and C1C2= B ..(4).
If (f, g) be the fixed point through which PQ passes, we have
g = m₁f + c₁ ......... .(5) .
Now the middle point of RS lies on the diameter conjugate to it,
i.e. by Art. 376, on the diameter
A
y = - Bm x,
2
i.e. , by (3), y= -m₁x . (6) .
390 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Now, from (4) and (5),

1
Bg-fm '
so that, by (3), the equation to RS is
A 1
y= Bm1x - .(7).
B (g-fm )
Eliminating m, between (6) and (7) , we easily have, as the equation
to the required locus,
(Ax² + By²) (gx +fy) + xy = 0.
Cor. From equation (6) it follows that the diameter conjugate to
RS is equally inclined with PQ to the axis, and hence that the points
P and Q and the ends of the diameter conjugate to RS are concyclic
(Art. 400).

EXAMPLES. XLVI.

1. If the sum of the squares of the four normals drawn from a

point O to an ellipse be constant, prove that the locus of O is a conic.
2. If the sum of the reciprocals of the distances from a focus of
the feet of the four normals drawn from a point O to an ellipse be
4
lat. rect. , prove that the locus of O is a parabola passing through that
focus.
3. If four normals be drawn from a point O to an ellipse and if
the sum of the squares of the reciprocals of perpendiculars from the
centre upon the tangents drawn at their feet be constant, prove that
the locus of O is a hyperbola.
4. The normals at four points of an ellipse are concurrent and
they meet the major axis in G1 , G2 , G3 , and G₁ ; prove that
1 1 1 1 4
+ + + =
CG CG CG CG CG₁ + CGq + CGq + CGs *
5. If the normals to a central conic at four points L, M, N, and
P be concurrent, and if the circle through L, M, and N meet the curve
again in P', prove that PP' is a diameter.
6. Shew that the locus of the foci of the rectangular hyperbolas
which pass through the four points in which the normals drawn from
any point on a given straight line meet an ellipse is a pair of conics.
7. If the normals at points of an ellipse, whose eccentric angles
are a, ß, and y, meet in a point, prove that
sin (8+y) + sin (y + a) + sin (a +B) = 0.
Hence, by page 235, Ex. 15, shew that if PQR be a maximum
triangle inscribed in an ellipse, the normals at P, Q, and R are
concurrent.
[Exs. XLVI.] CONCURRENT NORMALS. EXAMPLES. 391

8. Prove that the normals at the points where the straight line
X y x2 y2
a cos a + b sin a = 1 meets the ellipse aa + b2 = 1 meet at the point
a2e2
( -de¹cos ' a, ain' ).
9. Prove that the loci of the point of intersection of normals at
the ends of focal chords of an ellipse are the two ellipses
a²y³ (1 + e²)² +b² (x ± ae) (x = ae³) = 0.
ya
10. Tangents to the ellipse + b2 = 1 are drawn from any point
x2 y2
on the ellipse a2 + 62 - 4 ; prove that the normals at the points of
contact meet on the ellipse a²x² + b²y² = 1 (a² — b²)2.
11. Any tangent to the rectangular hyperbola 4xy = ab meets the
x2 y2
ellipse a2 + b2 = 1 in the points P and Q ; prove that the normals at P
and Q meet on a fixed diameter.
12. Chords of an ellipse meet the major axis in the point whose
a-b
distance from the centre is a ; prove that the normals at its
a+b'
ends meet on a circle.
13. From any point on the normal to the ellipse at the point
whose eccentric angle is a two other normals are drawn to it ; prove
that the locus of the point of intersection of the corresponding
tangents is the curve
xy +bx sina + ay cos a = 0.
14. Shew that the locus of the intersection of two perpendicular
normals to an ellipse is the curve
(a² + b²)(x² + y²) (a²y² + b²x²)² = (a² - b²)² (a²y² - b²x²)².
x2 y2
15. ABC is a triangle inscribed in the ellipse a² +b² = 1 having
each side parallel to the tangent at the opposite angular point ; prove
that the normals at A, B, and C meet at a point which lies on the
ellipse a²x² + b²y² = { (a² — b²)².
16. The normals at four points of an ellipse meet in a point (h, k).
Find the equations of the axes of the two parabolas which pass
through the four points. Prove that the angle between them is
b
2tan-1- and that they are parallel to one or other of the equi-con-
jugates of the ellipse.
392 COORDINATE GEOMETRY . [Exs. XLVI.]

17. Prove that the centre of mean position of the four points on
x2 y2
the ellipse + = 1, the normals at which pass through the point
(a, ẞ), is the point
αλα b28
a²- b² , -a²- b² ·
18. Prove that the product of the three normals drawn from any
point to a parabola, divided by the product of the two tangents from
the same point, is equal to one quarter of the latus rectum.
19. Prove that the conic 2aky = (2a - − h) y² +4ax2 intersects the
parabola y² =4ax at the feet of the normals drawn to it fromthe point
(h, k).
20. From a point ( h, k) four normals are drawn to the rectangular
hyperbola xy = c² ; prove that the centre of mean position of their feet
k
is the point (1,4), and that the four feet are such that each is the
orthocentre of the triangle formed by the other three.

Confocal Conics.

415. Def. Two conics are said to be confocal when

they have both foci common.
To find the equation to conics which are confocal with
the ellipse
x² + y³ = 1
a² b2 (1 ).

All conics having the same foci have the same centre
and axes .
The equation to any conic having the same centre and
axes as the given conic is
x² y³
+ =1 (2).
A B
The foci of ( 1 ) are at the points (±√a² -
— b², 0).
The foci of (2 ) are at the points (± √A -– B, 0).
These foci are the same if
A - B = a² - b²,
i.e. if A − a² = B -— b² = λ (say).
.. A = a² + λ, and B = b² + λ.
 CONFOCAL CONICS. 393

The equation (2) then becomes

x2 y³
= 1,
a² + λ 62 + λ
which is therefore the required equation, the quantity
determining the particular confocal.

416. For different values of λ to trace the conic given

by the equation
x² y² 1 (1).
a² + λ b2 +λ
First, let be very great ; then a² + λ and b² + λ are
both very great and, the greater that A is, the more nearly
do these quantities approach to equality. A circle of
infinitely great radius is therefore a confocal of the
system.
Let A gradually decrease from infinity to zero ; the
semi-major axis √a² + λ gradually decreases from infinity
to a, and the semi-minor axis from infinity to b. When A
is positive, the equation ( 1 ) therefore represents an ellipse
gradually decreasing in size from an infinite circle to
the standard ellipse
х2 + , уг 1.
a² b2
This latter ellipse is marked I in the figure.
Next, let gradually decrease from 0 to b². The
semi-major axis decreases from a to √a² - b , and the semi-
minor axis from 6 to 0.
For these values of the confocal is still an ellipse,
which always lies within the ellipse I ; it gradually
decreases in size until, when A is a quantity very slightly
greater than -b62, it is an extremely narrow ellipse very
nearly coinciding with the line SH, which joins the two
foci of all curves of the system .
Next, let λ be less than -b² ; the semi- minor axis
√2 + λ now becomes imaginary and the curve is a hyper-
bola ; when A is very slightly less than -b² the curve is a
394 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

hyperbola very nearly coinciding with the straight lines

SX and HX'.

I
iB
H
!

Χ Α A
D

ΩΣ

[As λA passes through the value - 62 it will be noted that

the confocal instantaneously changes from the line-ellipse
SH to the line-hyperbola SX and HX'. ]
As A gets less and less, the semi-transverse axis √a² + λ
becomes less and less, so that the ends of the transverse
axis of the hyperbola gradually approach to C, and the
hyperbola widens out as in the figure.
When a², the transverse axis of the hyperbola
vanishes, and the hyperbola degenerates into the infinite
double line YOY'.
When A is less than —- a², both semi-axes of the conic
become imaginary, and therefore the confocal becomes
wholly imaginary.

417. Through any point in the plane of a given conic

there can be drawn two conics confocal with it ; also one of
these is an ellipse and the other a hyperbola .
Let the equation to the given conic be
x² y²
a² + =1,
and let the given point be (f, g).
 CONFOCAL CONICS. 395

Any conic confocal with the given conic is

x² y² =
1 (1).
a² + λ b²+ λ
If this go through the point (ƒ, g), we have

+ = (2).
24- 入1
a²+λ b²+λ
This is a quadratic equation to determine A and there-
fore gives two values of X.
Put b² + λ = µ, and hence
a² + λ = µ + a² -- b² = µ + a³e².
The equation (2) then becomes
ƒ2 g³
+ 1,
μ + a²e² μ
i.e. µ² + µ (a²è² -
— ƒ² — g³) — g²a²e² = 0 ......... (3).
On applying the criterion of Art. 1 we at once see that
the roots of this equation are both real.
Also, since its last term is negative, the product of
these roots is negative, and therefore one value of μ is
positive and the other is negative.
The two values of b² + λ are therefore one positive and
the other negative. Similarly, the two values of a² + λ can
be shown to be both positive.
On substituting in (2) we thus obtain an ellipse and a
hyperbola.

418. Confocal conics cut at right angles.

Let the confocals be
x² y2 - x² y³
1, and + 1,
a² + λ₁ = b²+ λ₁ a² + λ₂ b² + λ₂
and let them meet at the point (x', y') .
The equations to the tangents at this point are
xx' yy xx
+ 1, and + yy' 1.
α + λι b³ + λ1 a² + λ₂ 62 + 2
396 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

These cut at right angles if (Art 69)

X'2 y's
+ 0 ...... (1).
(a² + d₁) (α² + d₂) ' (b² + d₁) (b² + d₂)
But, since (x , y) is a common point of the two confocals,
we have
12
x'2 x'2
y' = 1 , and y'²
+ + = 1.
α + λ ' 6 + λι a² + λ² 62 + 2
By subtraction, we have
1 1 1 1
2 y²² -
x²² ( +x
= λι α +x λ) + (b + xλ b² +x) = 0 ,
x'2 y'2
i.e.
2
(a² + λ₁) (a³ + λ₂) * (b² + λ₁) (b² + λ₁) = 0 ······ ( 2).
The condition ( 1 ) is therefore satisfied and hence the
two confocals cut at right angles .

Cor. From equation ( 2) it is clear that the quantities

b² + λ and b² + λ have opposite signs ; for otherwise we
should have the sum of two positive quantities equal to
zero. Two confocals, therefore, which intersect, are one an
ellipse and the other a hyperbola.

419. One conic and only one conic, confocal with the conic
y2
+ b2 = 1, can be drawn to touch a given straight line.

Let the equation to the given straight line be

x cos a + y sin a = p...... . (1).
Any confocal of the system is
x2 y2
=1
a² +λ + b²+λ . (2).

The straight line (1 ) touches (2) if

p²= (a² +λ) cos² a + (b² + λ) sin² a (Art. 264),
i.e. if λ= p² - a² cos² a - b² sin2 a.
This only gives one value for λ and therefore there is only one
conic of the form (2) which touches the straight line (1).
Also λ + a² =p2 + (a² – b²) sin² a = a real quantity. The conic is
therefore real.
 CONFOCAL CONICS. EXAMPLES. 397

EXAMPLES. XLVII

1. Prove that the difference of the squares of the perpendiculars

drawn from the centre upon parallel tangents to two given confocal
conics is constant.

2. Prove that the equation to the hyperbola drawn through the

point of the ellipse, whose eccentric angle is a, and which is confocal
with the ellipse, is
x2 y2 = a2 - b².
cos2 a sin² a

3. Prove that the locus of the points lying on a system of confocal

ellipses, which have the same eccentric angle a, is a confocal hyperbola
whose asymptotes are inclined at an angle 2a.
4. Shew that the locus of the point of contact of tangents drawn
from a given point to a system of confocal conics is a cubic curve,
which passes through the given point and the foci.
If the given point be on the major axis , prove that the cubic
reduces to a circle.
5. Prove that the locus of the feet of the normals drawn from a
fixed point to a series of confocals is a cubic curve which passes
through the given point and the foci of the confocals.
6. A point P is taken on the conic whose equation is
x2 y2 =
+ =1,
a² +λ 62 +λ
such that the normal at it passes through a fixed point (h, k) ; prove
that P lies on the curve
x y = a² - b2
+
y - k x - h hy - kx
7. Two tangents at right angles to one another are drawn from
a point P, one to each of two confocal ellipses ; prove that P lies on
a fixed circle. Shew also that the line joining the points of contact is
bisected by the line joining P to the common centre.
8. From a given point a pair of tangents is drawn to each of a
given system of confocals ; prove that the normals at the points of
contact meet on a straight line.
9. Tangents are drawn to the parabola y² = 4x√a² - – b², and on
each is taken the point at which it touches one of the confocals
x2 y2 -
+ 1;
a²+λ b + እ
prove that the locus of such points is a straight line.
398 COORDINATE GEOMETRY . [Exs. XLVII .]

10. Normals are drawn from a given point to each of a system of

confocal conics, and tangents at the feet of these normals ; prove that
the locus of the middle points of the portions of these tangents
intercepted between the axes of the confocals is a straight line.
11. Prove that the locus of the pole of a given straight line with
respect to a series of confocals is a straight line which is the normal
to that confocal which the straight line touches.
12. A series of parallel tangents is drawn to a system of confocal
conics ; prove that the locus of the points of contact is a rectangular
hyperbola.
Shew also that the locus of the vertices of these rectangular
hyperbolas, for different directions of the tangents, is the curve
r2c² cos 20, where 2c is the distance between the foci of the
confocals.
13. The locus of the pole of any tangent to a confocal with respect
to any circle, whose centre is one of the foci, is obtained and found to
be a circle; prove that, if the circle corresponding to each confocal be
taken, they are all coaxal.
14. Prove that the two conics
ax² +2hxy + by² = 1 and a'x² + 2h'xy + b'y² = 1
can be placed so as to be confocal, if
__ (a' –- b')² +4h'²
(a - b)² +4h² =
(ab - h²)2 (a'b' -– h'²)²

Curvature .

420. Circle of Curvature. Def. If P, Q, and R

be any three points on a conic section, one circle and only
one circle can be drawn to pass through them. Also this
circle is completely determined by the three points.
Let now the points Q and R move up to, and ultimately
coincide with, the point P ; then the limiting position of
the above circle is called the circle of curvature at P ; also
the radius of this circle is called the radius of curvature at
P, and its centre is called the centre of curvature at P.
421. Since the circle of curvature at P meets the
conic in three coincident points at P, it will cut the curve
in one other point P '. The line PP' which is the line
joining P to the other point of intersection of the conic and
the circle of curvature is called the common chord of
curvature.
 CIRCLES OF CURVATURE. 399

We shewed, in Art. 400, that, if a circle and a conic

intersect in four points, the line joining one pair of points
of intersection and the line joining the other pair are
equally inclined to the axis. In our case, one pair of
points is two of the coincident points at P, and the line
joining them therefore the tangent at P ; the other pair of
points is the third point at P and the point P', and the
line joining them the chord of curvature PP'. Hence the
tangent at P and the chord of curvature PP' are, in any
conic, equally inclined to the axis.

422. Tofind the equation to the circle ofcurvature and

the length of the radius of curvature at any point (ať², 2at)
ofthe parabola y² = 4ax.
If S - 0 be the equation to a conic, T = 0 the equation
to the tangent at the point P, whose coordinates are at² and
2at, and L = 0 the equation to any straight line passing
through P, we know, by Art. 384, that S + λ . L. T = 0 is
the equation to the conic section passing through three
coincident points at P and through the other point in which
L = 0 meets S = 0.
If λ and L be so chosen that this conic is a circle, it will
be the circle of curvature at P, and, by the last article, we
know that L = 0 will be equally inclined to the axis with
T = 0.
In the case of a parabola

Sy² -4ax, and T = ty - x - at³. (Art. 229.)

Also the equation to a line through (ať , 2at) equally
inclined with T = 0 to the axis is

t (y - 2at) + x- ať² = 0,
so that L = ty + x- 3at2.

The equation to the circle of curvature is therefore

— 4ax + λ (ty -
y² - — x-− at³) (ty + x -
− 3ať²) = 0,
1
where 1 + λt² = − λ, i.e.d
1 + ť² °
400 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

On substituting this value of A, we have, as the required

equation,
x² + y² — 2ax ( 3ť² + 2) + 4ayt³ — 3a²t¹ = 0,
i.e. [x - a (2 + 3 )] + [y + 2at³] = 4a² (1 + t²)³.
The circle of curvature has therefore its centre at
the point (2a + 3ať², — 2at³) and its radius equal to
2a (1 + t³)³.
Cor. If S be the focus, we have SP equal to a + ať³, so
2.SP
that the radius of curvature is equal to
Na
423. To find the equation to the circle of curvature at
x² y² -
the point P(a cos o, b sin ø) of the ellipse + 1.
b2
The tangent at the point P is
х y
cos & + % sin 4 = 1.
a b
The straight line passing through P and equally inclined
with this line to the axis is
cos sin
α (x - a cos ) - b (y - b sin ) = 0,
x
i.e. -y
a cos – b sin – cos 2$ = 0.
The equation to the circle of curvature is therefore of
the form
y² OC
1+ λ -
b2 a cos 4 + 2 sin 1]

/ sin
cos 4 -23 - cos =0 (1).
[ co 24] =
Since it is a circle, the coefficients of x² and y² must be
equal, so that
cos² + 1 sin2 $
+λ = λ
b2 b2
a²-b2
and therefore X=
b2 cos² + a² sin² *
 CIRCLES OF CURVATURE. 401

On substitution in ( 1 ) , the equation to the circle of

curvature is

(b² cos² + + a² sin² 4) (

(~2 +/- 1)
x cos
cos2 - y² sin (1 + cos 24)
+ (a² –b³) [a b2 a
y sin o
+
b (1 - cos 24) + cos 24] = 0,

i.e. -2x cos³ 2y sin³ &

x² + y² − (a² — b²) [ a b 104]
-
+ a² (cos² + − 2 sin² ) - – b² (2 cos² p − sin² 4) = 0 .
The equation to the circle of curvature is then
a² -b² 2 a² - b² 2
Cos³ +
{x- a $}² + {~ b "sin³ 4}*
(cos sinⓇ
= (a² - b²)2 — a² {cos - 2 sin² }
a² inº4
b2 }
+ b²{2 cos² - sin³ }
(a² sin² + b² cos² )³ after some reduction .
,
a2b2
The centre is therefore the point whose coordinates are
a² - b2 a²- b²
cos³ , sin³
sin³ + ) and whose radius is
a b 4))
(a² sin² + + b² cos² $)³¸
ab
Cor . 1. If CD be the semi-diameter which is conju-
gate to CP, then D is the point (90° + $), so that its
coordinates are -- a sin and b cos 4. (Art. 285. )
Hence CD2 = a² sin² + b² cos² ,
CD3
and therefore the radius of curvature p : ab

Cor. 2. If the point P have as coordinates x' and y'

then, since x' = a cos & and y' = b sin p, the equation to the
circle of curvature is
2 2 12
a² -b²
- a¹ a² -b³ b² -- x²² — yºy°
y'²)3 ·
х—
(x - ¿' y ' ) " =
13) ² + (y + ª¹² 34
—- ¹³" w³)" — (a ° + ¿ * — zª — ¸
a2b2
L. 26
402 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Cor. 3. In a similar manner it may be shewn that the

equation to the circle of curvature at any point (x', y') of
x² y²
the hyperbola = 1 is
a³ b2
2 2 12
x- х 3 = (a² - b²x² - y's)3
(x − a² a4 b4 y
'
+ b² x'³) ² + (y + a² + b² ¹³)* = - a²b²

(x² + y²² — a³ + b²)³

a2b2

424. If a circle and an ellipse intersect in four points,

the sum of their eccentric angles is equal to an even
multiple of . [ Page 235, Ex. 18.]
If then the circle of curvature at a point P, whose
eccentric angle is 0, meet the curve again in Q, whose
eccentric angle is o, three of these four points coincide at
P, so that three of these eccentric angles are equal to 0,
whilst the fourth is equal to . We therefore have
30+ - an even multiple of π = 2ηπ.
Hence, if be supposed given, i. e. if Q be given, we
2nπ- $
have 0=
3

Giving n in succession the values 1 , 2, and 3, we see

2п - ф 4п - ф or 6п - ф
that equals 9
3 3 3
Hence the circles of curvature at the points, whose
2п - ф 4п - ф 6π-
eccentric angles are
3 3
> and " all
3
pass through the point whose eccentric angle is .
Also since
2π- 4π ---- $ 6п - ф
+ + + 8 = 4π = an even multiple of π,
3 3 3
2π- ф 4п - - ф 6п - ф an
we see that the points " d o
3 3 " 3
all lie on a circle.
 EVOLUTE OF A CURVE. 403

Hence through any point Q on an ellipse can be drawn

three circles which are the circles of curvature at three
points P1 , P2, and P. Also the four points P1 , P2 , P3, and
Qall lie on another circle.

425. Evolute of a Curve. The locus of the

centres of curvature at different points of a curve is called
the evolute of the curve.

426. Evolute of the parabola y² = 4ax.

Let (x, y) be the centre of curvature at the point (ať², 2at)
of this curve.

Then = a (2 + 3ť³) and y = − 2at³. (Art. 422. )

-
.. (x - 2α)³ 27a³t = 27 ay³,
i.e. the locus of the centre of curvature is the curve
27ay2 = 4 (x - 2a)³.
This curve meets the axis of x in the point (2a, 0) .
It also meets the parabola
where
27a²x = (x -− 2a)³, R
i.e. where X = 8a,
and therefore
y = 4√2a. A
SB X
Hence it meets the parabola at
the points
(8a, ± 4√2a).
The curve is called a semi-
cubical parabola and could be shewn
to be of the shape of the dotted curve in the figure.

y³ 1.
427. Evolute of the ellipse a² +
b2
If (x, y) be the centre of curvature corresponding to the
point (a cos p, b sin ø) of the ellipse, we have
a³ -b² a² -ba
x cos and ý: - sin³ 4.
α b
26-2
404 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Hence

(ax)³ + (bî)³ = (a² — b³)³ {cos² + + sin² 4} = (a² — b²)³.

Hence the locus of the point (x, y) is the curve
(ax)³ + (by)³ = (a² -
— b³)³. M
This curve could be shewn to
be of the shape shewn in the figure
where
a² - b²
CL = CL' =
a
A
a² -b²
and CM = CM':=
b
The equation to the evolute of
the hyperbola would be found to
be
(ax)³ — (by)³ = (a² + bº)³.

428. Contact of different orders. If two conics,

or curves, touch, i.e. have two coincident points in common
they are said to have contact of the first order. The
tangent to a conic therefore has contact of the first order
with it.
If two conics have three coincident points in common,
they are said to have contact of the second order . The
circle of curvature of a conic therefore has contact of the
second order with it.
If two conics have four coincident points in common,
they are said to have contact of the third order. Νο
conics, which are not coincident, can have more than four
coincident points ; for a conic is completely determined if
five points on it be given. Contact of the third order is
therefore all that two conics can have, and then they are
said to osculate one another.
Since a circle is completely determined when three
points on it are given we cannot, in general, obtain a circle
to have contact of a higher order than the second with a
given conic. The circle of curvature is therefore often called
the osculating circle.
 CONTACT OF DIFFERENT ORDERS . 405

In general, one curve osculates another when it has the

highest possible order of contact with the second curve.

429. Equation to a conic osculating another conic.

If S = 0 be the equation to a conic and T = 0 the
tangent at any point of it, the conic S = XT2 passes through
four coincident points of S = 0 at the point where T = 0
touches it. (Art. 385 , IV .)
=
Hence SAT is the equation to the required osculating
conic.

Ex. The equation of any conic osculating the conic

ax² +2hxy + by²- 2fy = 0 ........... .. (1)
at the origin is
ax² + 2hxy + by² - 2fy + λy² = 0 . (2).
For the tangent to (1) at the origin is y =0.
If (2) be a parabola, we have h² = a (b + X) , so that its equation is
(ax +hy)² = 2afy.
If (2) be a rectangular hyperbola, we have a + b + λ = 0, and the
equation to the osculating rectangular hyperbola is
a(x² - y²) + 2hxy - 2fy= 0.

EXAMPLES. XLVIII.

1. If the normal at a point P of a parabola meet the directrix in

L, prove that the radius of curvature at P is equal to 2PL.
2. If P1 and P2 be the radii of curvature at the ends of a focal
chord of the parabola , prove that
P1 -³ +P₂¯³ = (2a) − }.
3. PQ is the common chord of the parabola and its centre of
curvature at P; prove that the ordinate of Q is three times that of P,
and that the locus of the middle point of PQ is another parabola.
4. If p and p' be the radii of curvature at the ends, P and D, of
conjugate diameters of the ellipse, prove that
p²+p'³_a²+b²
(ab)s
and that the locus of the middle point of the line joining the centres
of curvature at P and D is
- by)ŝ = (a² — b²)¾¸
(ax + by)³ + (ax −
406 COORDINATE GEOMETRY. (Exs.

5. O is the centre of curvature at any point of an ellipse, and Q

and R are the feet of the other normals drawn from 0 ; prove that the
a² b2
locus of the intersection of tangents at Q and R is + = 1, and
y³
that the line QR is a normal to the ellipse
x² , y2 a2b2
a² + b² = (a² — b²)2 °
6. If four normals be drawn to an ellipse from any point on the
evolute, prove that the locus of the centre of the rectangular hyperbola
through their feet is the curve
3
=1.
(1)² + (?) ²=
7. In general, prove that there are six points on an ellipse the
circles of curvature at which pass through a given point O, not on the
ellipse. If O be on the ellipse, why is the number of circles of
curvature passing through it only four ?
8. The circles of curvature at three points of an ellipse meet in a
point P on the curve. Prove that (1 ) the normals at these three
points meet on the normal drawn at the other end of the diameter
through P, and (2) the locus of these points of intersection for
different positions of P is the ellipse
4 (a²x² + b²y²) = (a² — b²)².
9. Prove that the equation to the circle of curvature at any point
(x', y') of the rectangular hyperbola x² - y² = a² is
a² (x² + y²) -
— 4xx′³ + 4yy'³ + 3a² ( x²² +y′²) = 0.
10. Shew that the equation to the chord of curvature of the
rectangular hyperbola xy = c² at the point " t " is ty + t³x= c (1 + t ),
and that the centre of curvature is the point
1+ 3t4 3 +14
с
2t3 " 2t
Prove also that the locus of the pole of the chord of curvature is
the curve r2 = 2c2 sin 20.
11. PQ is the normal at any point of a rectangular hyperbola and
meets the curve again in Q ; the diameter through Q meets the curve
again in R ; shew that PR is the chord of curvature at P, and that
PQ is equal to the diameter of curvature at P.
12. Prove that the equation to the circle of curvature of the conic
ax² +2hxy + by² = 2y at the origin is
a (x² + y²)= 2y.
13. If two confocal conics intersect, prove that the centre of
curvature of either curve at a point of intersection is the pole of the
tangent at that point with regard to the other curve.
XLVIII.] ENVELOPES. 407

14. Shew that the equation to the parabola, having contact of the
third order with the rectangular hyperbola xy = c² at the point

(et, ),
is (x − yt²)² - 4ct (x + yt²) + 8c²t² = 0.
Prove also that its directrix bisects, and is perpendicular to, the
radius vector of the hyperbola from the centre to the point of contact.
15. Prove that the equation to the parabola , which passes through
the origin and has contact of the second order with the parabola
y2 =4ax at the point (at², 2at) , is
(4x - 3ty)² +4at² (3x -– 2ty) = 0.
16. Prove that the equation to the rectangular hyperbola, having
contact of the third order with the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point
(at2, 2at), is
x² - 2txy - y² +2ax (2 + 3ť²) − 2at³y + a²tª = 0.
Prove also that the locus of the centres of these hyperbolas is an
equal parabola having the same axis and directrix as the original
parabola.
17. Through every point of a circle is drawn the rectangular
hyperbola of closest contact ; prove that the centres of all these
hyperbolas lie on a concentric circle of twice its radius.
18. A rectangular hyperbola is drawn to have contact of the third
x2 y2
order with the ellipse + = 1 ; find its equation and prove that the
a2 b2
locus of its centre is the curve
x2 +3212 = x2
a² +b2

Envelopes.

430. Consider any point P on a circle whose centre

is O and whose radius is a. The straight line through P
at right angles to OP is a tangent to the circle at P.
Conversely, if through O we draw any straight line OP of
length a, and if through the end P we draw a straight
line perpendicular to OP, this latter straight line touches,
or envelopes, a circle of radius a and centre O, and this
circle is said to be the envelope of the straight lines drawn
in this manner .
Again, if S be the focus of a parabola, and PY be the
tangent at any point P of it meeting the tangent at the
408 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

vertex in the point Y, then we know (Art. 211 , 8) that

SYP is a right angle. Conversely, if S be joined to any
point Y on a given line, and a straight line be drawn
through Y perpendicular to SY, this line, so drawn, always
touches, or envelopes, a parabola whose focus is S and such
that the given line is the tangent at its vertex.

431. Envelope. Def. The curve which is touched

by each of a series of lines, which are all drawn to satisfy
some given condition, is called the Envelope of these
lines.
As an example, consider the series of straight lines.
which are drawn so that each of them cuts off from a pair
of fixed straight lines a triangle of constant area.
We know (Art. 330) that any tangent to a hyperbola
always cuts off a triangle of constant area from its asymp-
totes.
Conversely, we conclude that, if a variable straight line
cut off a constant area from two given straight lines, it
always touches a hyperbola whose asymptotes are the two
given straight lines, i. e. that its envelope is a hyperbola.

432. Ifthe equation to any curve involve a variable

parameter, in the first degree only, the curve always passes
through a fixed point or points.
For if be the variable parameter, the equation to the
curve can be written in the form S + AS' = 0, and this
equation is always satisfied by the points which satisfy
S= 0 and S' = 0, i.e. the curve always passes through the
point, or points, of intersection of S = 0 and S' = 0 [compare
Art. 97].

433. Curve touched by a variable straight line whose

equation involves, in the second degree, a variable parameter.
As an example, let us find the envelope of the straight
lines given by the equation
m³x -
− my + a = 0 ......... (1),
where m is a quantity which, by its variation, gives the
series of straight lines.
 ENVELOPES. 409

If (1) pass through the fixed point (h, k), we have

m²h — mk + a == 0 (2) .
This is an equation giving the values of m correspond-
ing to the straight lines of the series which pass through
the point (h, k). There can therefore be drawn two
straight lines from (h, k) to touch the required envelope.
As (h, k) moves nearer and nearer to the required
envelope these two tangents approach more and more
nearly to coincidence, until, when (h, k) is taken on the
envelope, the two tangents coincide.
Conversely, if the two tangents given by (2) coincide,
the point (h, k) lies on the envelope.
Now the roots of (2) are equal if k² = 4ah,
so that the locus of (h, k), i. e. the required envelope, is the
parabola y² = 4ax.
Hence, more simply, the envelope of the straight line (1 )
is the curve whose equation is obtained by writing down
the condition that the equation (1 ), considered as a quad-
ratic equation in m, may have equal roots.
By writing (1 ) in the form
a
= 1mx +
y= m
it is clear that it always touches the parabola y² = 4ax.
In the next article we shall apply this method to the
general case.

434. To find the envelope of a straight line whose

equation involves, in the second degree, a variable parameter.
The equation to the straight line is of the form
X²P + λQ + R = 0 (1),
where is a variable parameter and P, Q, and R are
expressions of the first degree in x and y.
Equation (1 ) may be looked upon as an equation
giving the two values of corresponding to any given
point T.
410 COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

Through this given point two straight lines to touch the

required envelope may therefore be drawn.
If the point T be taken on the required envelope, the
two tangents that can be drawn from it coalesce into the
' to the envelope.
one tangent at 7
Conversely, if the two straight lines given by (1)
coincide, the resulting condition will give us the equation
to the envelope.
But the condition that (1 ) shall have equal roots is
Q² = 4PR...... . (2). ·
This is theref ore the equation to the required envelope .
Since P, Q, and R are all expressions of the first degree,
the equation (2) is, in general , an equation of the second
degree, and hence , in general , represents a conic section .
The envelope of any straight line, whose equation
contains an arbitrary parameter and squarethereof, is
therefore always a conic.
435. The method of the previous article holds even if
P, Q, and R be not necessarily linear expressions. It
follows that the envelope of any family of curves, whose
equation contains a variable parameter A, in the second
degree, is found by writing down the condition that the
equation, considered as an equation in A, may have equal
roots.

436. Ex. 1. Find the envelope of the straight line which cuts off
from two given straight lines a triangle of constant area.
Let the given straight lines be taken as the axes of coordinates and
let them be inclined at an angle w.
The equation to a straight line cutting off intercepts ƒ and g from
the axes is
x y
+ 1 ....(1).
f g
If the area of the triangle cut off be constant, we have
f.g.sin w=const.,
i.e. fg =const. K².. .(2).
On substitution for g in (1), the equation to the straight line
becomes f2y -ƒK²+ K2x = 0.
 ENVELOPES. EXAMPLES. 411

By the last article, the envelope of this line, for different values of
f, is given by the equation
(-K²)2 =4 . K³xy,
K2
i.e. xy= 4
The result is therefore a hyperbola whose asymptotes coincide with
the axes of coordinates.
Ex. 2. Find the envelope of the straight line which is such that
the product of the perpendiculars drawn to it from two fixed points is
constant.
Take the middle point of the line joining the two fixed points as
the origin, the line joining them as the axis of x, and let the two
points be (d, 0) and ( -d, 0).
Let the variable straight line have as equation
y = mx + c.
The condition then gives
md + c md + c
X constant = 42,
√1+ m² ~ √1 + m²
so that c² - m²d² = A² (1 +m²).
The equation to the variable straight line is then
y− mx = c = √√ (A² + d²) m² + A².
Or, on squaring,
m² (x² — ▲² — d²) — 2mxy + (y² − A²) = 0 .
By Art. 435, the envelope of this is
(2xy)2 = 4 (x² - 4² — d²) (y² — A²),
x2 y2
i.e. 2
42+ d2 + 4 =1.
This is an ellipse whose axes are the axes of coordinates and whose
foci are the two given points.

Ex. 8. Find the envelope of chords of an ellipse the tangents at the

end ofwhich intersect at right angles.
x2 y2
Let the ellipse be = 1.
a2
If the tangents intersect at right angles, their point of intersection
P must lie on the director circle, and hence its coordinates must be of
the form (c cos 0, c sin 0) , where c =,
=√√√a²+b².
The chord is then the polar of P with respect to the ellipse, and
hence its equation is
x.c cose y.c sin o
+ =1.
a2 b2
412 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

Let t= tan . Then since

0
1- tan²
2 1 - t2 2t
cos @= = and sin 0 =
=
1 +12, 1 + 12 '
1 + tan²
2
the equation to the line is
cx 1 - t2 cy 2t
=
a² 1 + t2 b21 +t2 =1 ,
cy сх
i.e. 1º
[1 + - + (1-5) -0.
The envelope of this is (Art. 434),
2cy 2 сх
b2 * = 4 (1 + 0 ) (1-0
( - 200) a2),
x2c2 y2c2
i.e.
as b =1,
x2 y2 = 1.
i.e.
a4 64
a² + b² a²+ b²
64
Since
a²+b² a²+b² = a²- b², this equation represents a conic
confocal with the given one.

Ex. 4. The normals at four points of an ellipse meet in a point ;

ifthe line joining one pair of these points pass through a fixed point,
prove that the line joining the other pair envelopes a parabola which
touches the axes.
Let the equation to the ellipse be
x2 + y2= 1
a2 b2 . (1),
and let the equation to the two pairs of lines through the points be
lx +my = 1 .. . (2),
and 4x + m₂y = 1 . (3).
By Art. 412, Cor. (1) , we then have
1 1
==
11₁₂= and mm = . (4).
a2 b2
If the straight line (3) pass through the fixed point (ƒ, g), we have
l₁f+ m₁g = 1 ,
- ƒ - g
so that, by (4), a2l b2m-= 1,
and therefore 1= - ƒ mb2
a² mb² +g
 ENVELOPES. EXAMPLES. 413

If this value of l be substituted in (2), it becomes

m²a²b²y+ m (a²gy - b²ƒx - a²b²) - a²g = 0,
the envelope of which is
(a³gy - b³fx - a²b²)² = -4a³g.a²b³y,
i.e. (a³gy - b²ƒx)² +2a³b³ (b²ƒx + a²gy) + a¹b¹0 ......... (5).
This is a parabola since the terms of the second degree form a
perfect square. Also, putting in succession x and y equal to zero, we
get perfect squares, so that the parabola touches both axes.

437. Tofind the envelope of the straight line

lx + my + n = 0.………………………………. .... (1),
where the quantities l, m, and n are connected by the
relation
al² + bm² + cn² + 2fmn + 2gnl + 2hlm = 0 ………….. ( 2) .

[ Equation (1 ) contains two independent parameters n

m
and " whilst (2 ) is an equation connecting them. We
n
m
could therefore solve (2) to give - in terms of ; on sub-
n n
stituting in (1 ) we should then have an equation containing
one independent parameter and its envelope could then be
found .
It is easier, however, to proceed as follows. ]
Eliminating n between ( 1 ) and (2), we see that the
equation to the straight line may be written in the form
al² + bm² + c (lx + my)² — 2 (fm + gl) ( lx + my) + 2hlm = 0,
2 7
i.e. -
(a — 2gx + cx³) (—) ² + 2 (cxy — gy −fx + h ) m
- 2fy + cy²) = 0 .
+ (b −
The envelope of this is, by Art. 435,
(cxy - gy -fx + h)² = (a−- 2gx + cx²) (b -
− 2fy + cy²),
i.e., on reduction,
-
x² (bc −ƒ²) + y² (ca — g²) + 2xy (ƒg 1
— ch)
+ 2x (fh - bg) + 2y (gh - af) + ab - h² = 0.
414 COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

The envelope is therefore a conic section.

Cor. The envelope is a parabola if
(fg - ch) = (bc -ƒ³) (ca - g³),
i.e. if c0, or if abc + 2fgh - af - bg² - ch² = 0.

438. Ex. Find the envelope of all chords of the parabola y² = 4ax
which subtend a given angle a at the vertex.
Any straight line is
lx + my + n = 0......... . (1) .
The lines joining the origin to its intersections with the parabola
are, (by Art. 122), ny² = -
− 4ax (lx + my),
i.e. ny² +4a mxy + 4alx² = 0.
If a be the angle between these lines, we have

tan a= 2.√4a²m² – 4aln

n+4al
i.e. 16a²² - 16a² cot² am² + n² + 8aln (1 + 2 cot² a) = 0.
With this condition the envelope of (1) is, by the last article,
x²(-16a²cot² a) + y² [16a² − (4a + 8a cot² a)²]
+ 2x . 16a² cot² a (4a + 8a cot² a) - 256a¹ cot² a = 0,
i.e. the ellipse
[x - 4a (1 + 2 cot² a) ]² + 4 cosec² a . y2 = 64 cot² a . cosec² a.

EXAMPLES. XLIX.
Xx
Find the envelope of the straight line α = 1 when
β
1. aa + b8= c. 2. a + ẞ + √√a² + ß² = c.
b2 a2 =
3. =1.
a2 82
Find the envelope of a straight line which moves so that
4. the sum of the intercepts made by it on two given straight
lines is constant.
5. the sum of the squares of the perpendiculars drawn to it from
two given points is constant.
6. the difference of these squares is constant.
7. Find the envelope of the straight line whose equation is
ax cos +by sin 0 =c².
[Exs. XLIX.] ENVELOPES. EXAMPLES. 415

8. Circles are described touching each of two given straight lines ;

prove that the polars of a given point with respect to these circles all
touch a parabola.
9. From any point P on a parabola perpendiculars PM and PN
are drawn to the axis and tangent at the vertex ; prove that the
envelope of MN is another parabola.
10. Shew that the envelope of the chord which is common to the
parabola y² = 4ax and its circle of curvature is the parabola
y² +12ax = 0.
11. Perpendiculars are drawn to the tangents to the parabola
y2 =4ax at the points where they meet the straight line x = b ; prove
that they envelope another parabola having the same focus.
12. A variable tangent to a given parabola cuts a fixed tangent in
the point A ; prove that the envelope of the straight line through A
perpendicular to the variable tangent is another parabola.
13. Shew that the envelope of chords of a parabola the tangents
at the ends of which meet at a constant angle is, in general an ellipse.
14. A given parabola slides between two axes at right angles ;
prove that the envelope of its latus rectum is a fixed circle.
15. Prove that the envelope of chords of an ellipse which subtend
a right angle at its centre is a concentric circle.
16. If the lines joining any point P on an ellipse to the foci meet
the curve again in Q and R, prove that the envelope of the line QR is
the concentric and coaxal ellipse
x2 y2 -=1.
23 + 1²
a2 b2 (1+2)²
e2
17. Prove that the envelope of chords of the rectangular hyperbola
xy =a2, which subtend a constant angle a at the point (x' , y') on the
curve, is the hyperbola
x²x²² + y²y'² = 2a²xy (1 + 2 cot² a) -
— 4aª cosec² a.
18. Chords of a conic are drawn subtending a right angle at a
fixed point O. Prove that their envelope is a conic whose focus is o
and whose directrix is the polar of O with respect to the original conic.
19. Shew that the envelope of the polars of a fixed point O with
respect to a system of confocal conics, whose centre is C, is a parabola
having CO as directrix.
20. A given straight line meets one of a system of confocal conics
in P and Q, and RS is the line joining the feet of the other two
normals drawn from the point of intersection of the normals at P and
Q; prove that the envelope of RS is a parabola touching the axes.
416 COORDINATE GEOMETRY . [Exs. XLIX .]

21. ABCD is a rectangular sheet of paper, and it is folded over so

that C lies on the side AB ; prove that the envelope of the crease so
formed is a parabola, whose focus is the initial position of C.
22. A circle, whose centre is A, is traced on a sheet of paper and
any point B is taken on the paper. If the paper be folded so that the
circumference of the circle passes through B, prove that the envelope
of the crease so formed is a conic whose foci are A and B.

23. In the conic =1 - ecos e find the envelope of chords which

r
subtend a constant angle 2a at the focus.
24. Circles are described on chords of the parabola y² = 4ax, which
are parallel to the straight line lx + my = 0 , as diameters ; prove that
they envelope the parabola
(ly + 2ma)² = 4a ( l² + m²) (x + a).
25. Prove that the envelope of the polar of any point on the circle
(x+ a)² + (y + b)2 = k2 with respect to the circle x² +y2 =c2 is the conic
k² (x² +y²) = (ax +by + c²)².
ι
26. Chords of the conic - r 1 - e cose are drawn passing through
the origin and on these circles as diameters circles are described.
Shew that the envelope of these circles is the two circles

= 1 ± e.
ecose =
( +00000) -16.
 ANSWERS .

I. (Pages 14, 15.)

1. 5. 2. 13. 3. 3/7. 4. √a²+b².
5. √a² +2b² + c² – 2ab – 2bc. 6. 2a sina-B.
2
7. a (m − m²) √(m₁ + m²)² + 4. 9. 3 ± 2 /15.
15 . (1,0,3,8). 16. ( -2 , -9). 17. ( 1, - ) ; ( − 11 , 16) .
18. ( -511, 212) ; ( - − 201 , 341) . 19. ( -1 , 0) ; ( - § , 2) .
20. ( − § , %) ; (1 , 1 ) ; (½ , −§).
21 . a² +b2 a2 +2ab - — b2\ a2-2ab - b2 a² + b²\
a+ b a+ b ; a-- b a- b
kx₁1 + lx₂ + mx3 ky₁ + ly₂ + my3
22. (k k + l + m k+ l + m

II. (Pages 18, 19.)

1. 10. 2. 1. 3. 29. 4. 2ac.
5. a². 6. 2ab sin 2-3 sin Φ3 - Φι sin P1-92.
2
7. a² (m₂- m³) (m3 — m1) (m1 — m²).
8. a² (m2m3) (m - − m¸) (m¸ -
— m₂).
9. a² (mm ) (m3 - — m¹) (m1 -
— M²) ÷ mmm¸ •
13. 201. 14. 96.

III. (Pages 22, 23.)

12. 25. 13. √79. 14. √7a. 16. (8-3 /3) .
17. 7./8
2 18. a2√3. 25. r²= a². 26. 0=a.
27. r=2a cos 0. 28. r cos 20 = 2a sin 0. 29. r cos 0 = 2a sin² 0.
30. r²= a2 cos 20. 31. x² +y² = a². 32. y = mx.
33. x² + y² = ax. 34. (x2 +y ) = 4a²x²y2.
35. (x2 +y ) = a² (x² - y²). 36. xy = a². 37. x² - y² = a².
38. y² + 4ax = 4a². 39. y² =4ax +4a².
40. x³ - 3x² + 3x²y — y³ = 5kxy.
L. 27
ii COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

IV. (Page 30.)

8. 2ax + k²= 0. 9. (n² −1 ) (x² + y² + a²) + 2ax (n² + 1) = 0.
10. 4x2 (c² - 4a²) + 4c²y² = c² (c² – 4a²). 11. (6a - 2c) x = a² – c².
12. y² - 4y - 2x + 5 = 0 . 13. 4y + 2x + 3 = 0. 14. x + y = 7.
15. y = x. 16. y = 3x. 17. 15x² - y² +2ax = a².
18. x² +y2 = 3. 19. x² + y² = 4y.
20. 8x² + 8y² + 6x - 36x + 27 = 0. 21. x² = 3y².
22. x² +2ay = a².
23. ( 1 ) 4x² + 3y² + 2ay = a² ; (2 ) x² - 3y² + 8ay = 4a².

V. (Pages 41 , 42.)
1. y = x + 1. 2. x - y - 5 = 0. 3. x-y√3-2 N /3 = 0.
4. 5y - 3x + 9 = 0. 5. 2x + 3y = 6. 6. 6x - 5y + 30 = 0.
7. (1) x + y = 11 ; (2) y − x = 1. 8. x + y + 1 = 0 ; x − y = 3.
9. xy' +x'y = 2x'y'. 10. 20y - 9x = 96. 15. x + y = 0.
16. y - x= 1. 17. 7y + 10x = 11 .
18. ax - by = ab. 19. (a - 2b) x - − by + b² + 2ab - a² = 0.
20. y (t₁ + t2) - 2x = 2at₁të. 21. t₁ty + x = a (t₁ + t₂).
22 .x cos ( 1 + 2) + y sin 1 (01 +42) = a cos † (P1 − P2).
X 91+ 2 Y sin Φι + Φα = COS Φι -Φε
23. -a COS 2 +122 b 2 2
24. bx cos ( 1 - − 2) -– ay sin § ( 1 + 42) = ab cos } (P1 + 82).
25. x + 3y + 7 = 0 ; y - 3x = 1 ; y + 7x = 11 .
26. 2x - 3y = 4 ; y - 3x = 1 ; x + 2y = 2.
27. y (aa) - x (b' - b) = a'b- ab' ; y (a' − a) + x (b' — b) = a'b' - — ab.
28. 2ay - 2b'x = ab — a'b'. 29. y = 6x ; 2y = 3x.

VI. (Pages 48, 49.)

1. 90°. 2. tan-128. 3. tan-¹ . 4. 60°.
4m2n2 a² - b2
5. tan-1 6. tan-1 7. tan-¹ (2).
mn4 2ab
8. 4y +3x = 18. 9. 7y - 8x = 118. 10. 4y + 11x = 10.
11. x + 4y + 16 = 0. 12. ax +by = a².
13. 2x (a - a') + 2y (b -
− b′ ) = a² — a'² + b² — b′².
15. yx'xy' = 0 ; a²xy' - b²x'y = (a² - b²) x'y' ; xx' - — yy' = x²² — y'².
16. 121y - 88x = 371 ; 33y - 24x = 1043.
17. x = 3 ; y = 4 ; 41. 19. x = 0 ; y + √/3x = 0.
20. y = k ; (1— m²) (y − k) = 2m (x - − h).
21. tan ; 9x - 7y = 1 ; 7x + 9y = 73.
 ANSWERS. iii

VII. (Pages 53, 54.)

a² +ab - b2
1. 4 . 2. 23. 3. 51 . 4.
√a² +b²
c-d
5. acos (a - ẞ). 8.
√1+ m²
(b ± a2 11. (2 + 3).
9. { (b ± √ a² + v³ ), 아
0} ·.

VIII. (Pages 61-65.)

11 41 ab ab
1. 29 " 29 2.
a+ b' a+b
a 1
a +
3. {mm " m2
--
4. { a cos ( 1 + 42) sec † (P1 − P2), a sin } (41 +42) sec § (†1 -− Þ½) } •
(b - b') 2bb' 130
5. (a(2-1), 263'). 6.
b+ b' b+b ' 17/29
8. y = a ; 3y = 4x + 3a. 9. (1, 1 ) ; 45°.
10. ( , ) ; tan- ¹ 60. 11. ( -1, -3) ; (3 , 1 ) ; (5 , 3).
12. (2, 1) ; tan-177. 13. 45°; ( -5, 3) ; x - 3y = 9 ; 2x - y = 8.
14. 3 and -3. 19. m (aa ) + m₂ (α3 − α1) + m² (α1 - − a₂) = 0.
20. (--4, -3 ) . 21. (1 , - ). 23. 43x - 29y = 71 .
24. x - y = 11. 25. y = 3x. 26. y = x.
27. a²y - b2x = ab (a− b). 28. 3x +4y = 5a. 29. x + y + 2 = 0.
30. 23x + 23y = 11. 31. 13x - 23y = 64,
33. Ax +By + C + λ ( A'x + B'y + C') = 0 where X is
C B - Ba + C - Ax' + By + C
(1 ) - ,, (2) , (3) B'a + C' and (4) A'x'+B'y +C' •
37. y = 2 ; x = 6. 38. 99x +77y + 71 = 0 ; 7x - 9y - 37 = 0.
39. x - 2y + 1 = 0 ; 2x + y = 3.
40. (2 /2-3) + y ( 2-1) = 4 /2-5;
x(2√√2 + 3) + y (√2 + 1) = 4√√2 +5.
41. (y - b) (m + m') + (x - − a) (1 - mm') = 0 ;
(y - b) (1 - mm') - (x - a) (m + m') = 0.
42. 33x + 9y = 31 ; 112x - 64y + 141 = 0 ; 7y - x = 18.
43. (3 + 17) + y (5 + /17) = 15 + 4 /17;
x(4 +/10) +y (2 + 10) =4 /10 + 12 ;
x(2√34-3 /5) +y ( √√34-5√√5) = 6 /34-5 /5.
44. A (y - k) -
– B (x − h) = ± (Ax + By + C).
45. At an angle of 15° or 75° to the axis of x.
27-2
iv COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

IX. (Pages 72, 73.)

30/3
1. (1) tan-1 ; (2) 15° . 2. tan-1
37
'm² + 1
3. tan-1 tan w
m² - 1 w).
7. y = 0, y = x - a, x = 2a, y = 2a , y = x + a , x = 0, y = x, x = a, and
y= a, where a is the length of a side.
10. y (6-3) + x (3√3 − 2 ) = 22-9 /3. 11. .
12. 10y - 11x + 1 = 0 ; 37 √111.
X. (Pages 78—80.)
4. ( -7, 3). 5. ( -1 , 1 ) ; 147 .
+6

-85 +7 /5 7 /5-27 35-7 /5

6. 120 24 120 7. (3 , 14) ; 1 .
(
8. 1101 :
16 + 2/10 , 2+ 2√/10) ; ( 6-10
2 2-10) ; ( 8-10
6 16 + √10) .
9. (2 , 2), (2, 12), ( 12 , 2) , and ( − 3, −3) ; §√2, 4 , √2, 4√√2, and 6√2.
10. (-131, 191). 11. 4. 12. 7 . 13.
17a2 -
14. 26 15. (b - c) (c− a) (a - b).
- --
16. a² (mm ) (mg − M₁) (m1 − M²) ÷ 2m¸³m³m².
17. }( − c ) : m ( −m ,). 18. 1 ((C2 -- C3)² + (C3 -C1)² + (C1 – C2)³)
My - Mi m₁ - m₂f
23. ( , ).
24. 10y + 32x + 43 = 0 ; 25x + 29y + 5 = 0 ; y = 5x + 2 ; 52x + 80y = 47.
26. (4 + √3, + √3) ; (4+ } √3, } + } √3).
135

XI. (Pages 85-87.)

1. x²+2xy cot a - y² = a². 2. y² + λx² = λa².
3. (m + 1) x = (m −1) a. 4. (m + n) (x² + y² + a²) -
− 2ax (m -- n) = c².
3 W
5. x +y = c sec² 2 ' 6. x- y = dcosec² •
2
7. x +y =2c cosec w. 8. y - x =2c cosec w.
9. x² +2xy cos w + y2 = 4c2 cosec² w.
10. (x² + y²) cos w + xy (1 + cos² w) = x (a cos w + b) + y (b cos w + a).
11. x (m + cos w) + y (1 + m cos w) = 0.
12. (i) ay² + bx² + (a + b) xy -− ay (a + 2b) −- bx (2a + b) + ab (a + b) = 0 ;
(ii) y = x. 19. A straight line.
20. A circle, centre 0. 25. straight line.
27. If P be the point (h, k), the equation to the locus of S is
h k
= 1.
x y
 ANSWERS.

XII. ( Page 94.)

1. (x - 3y) (x - 4y) = 0 ; tan-¹ . 2. (2x - 11y) (2x − y) = 0 ; tan- ¹ }.
3. (11x+ 2y) (3x - 7y) = 0 ; tan-188. 4. x= 1 ; x = 2 ; x = 3.
5. y = ± 4. 6. (y + 4x) (y - 2x) (y -
– 3x) = 0 ; tan-¹ ( - ) ; tan-¹ (4).
1.
x (1 - sin 0) + y cos 0 = 0 ; x (1 +sin 0) + y cos 0 = 0 ; 0.
8. y sin0 +x cos 0 = x /cos 20 ; tan-1 (coseccos 20).
∞
oi

9. 12x² - 7xy — 12y² = 0 ; 71x² + 94xy - 71y² = 0 ; x² - y² = 0 ;

x² - y² =0.
XIII. (Pages 98, 99.)
1. (%, -
−¹²) ; 45º. 2. (2, 1) ; tan- 1 . 3. ( -- ) ; 90°.
4. ( -1 , 1) ; tan-¹3. 6. -15. 7. 2. 8. - 10 or - 171.
9. - 12. 10. 6. 11. 6. 12. 14. 13. - 3.
14. or 0. 16. (i) c (a + b) = 0 ; (ii) e = 0 , or ae = bd.
17. 5y + 6x = 56 ; 5y - 6x = 14.

XV. (Page 112.)

1. (1) y =4x' ; (2) 2x2 + y'2 = 6.
2. (1) x^2 + y^2 = 2cx' ; (2) x2 + y2 = 2cy'.
3. (a - b)² (x^2 + y^2) = a²b².
4. (1) 2x'y' + a² = 0 ; 9x²² + 25y^2 = 225 ; x'¹ + y = 1.
5. x²² + y'² = r² ; x²² - y'² = a² cos 2a. 6. x² - 4y² = a².
B
8. tan- 1 A; - C ÷ √¹²+ B².

XVI. (Page 117.)

1. 2x - √6y' + 1 = 0. 2. x'² + √√√3x'y' = 1 . 3. x² + y2 = 8.
4. y'2 = 4x' cosec² a.

XVII. (Pages 123-125. )

1. x² + y² + 2x - 4y = 4. 2. x² + y² + 10x + 12y = 39.
3. x² + y2-2ax + 2by = 2ab. 4. x² + y² + 2ax + 2by + 2b² = 0.
5. (2,4) ; 61. 6. ( , 1) ; 13. √5
2 ); 2 k.
7. (4.0
с mc
8. (g, f); ƒ²+g³. 9. ; c.
/1+ m² /1 + m²
13. 15x2 + 15y2-94x + 18y + 55 = 0.
14. b (x² +y2 - a2) = x (b² + h2 - a²). 15. x² + y² - ax - by = 0.
16. x² +y2-22x - 4y + 25 = 0. 17. x2 +y2-5x - y + 4 = 0.
18. 3x² + 3y2-29x - 19y + 56 = 0.
19. b (x² + y²) − (a² + b²) x + (a - b) (a² + b²) = 0.
21. x² + y2-3x - 4y = 0.
vi COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

a²+ b² a²+b²
22. x² + y²- a + b (x + y) = 0 ; a+b
23. x² + y² - hx – ky = 0. 24. x +y2-2ya² - b²= b².
25. x² + y2-10x - 10y + 25 = 0. 26. x² + y2-2ax −- 2ay + a² = 0.
27. x² + y² + 2 (5 ± √12) (x + y) + 37 ± 10 /12 = 0.
28. x² + y² - 6x + 4y + 9 = 0. 29. b (x² +y ) =x (b² + c²).
30. x² + y² + 6√2y −- 6x + 9 = 0.
31. x² + y² - 3x + 2 = 0 ; 2x² + 2y² − 5x − √√/3y + 3 = 0 ;
2x² + 2y² - 7x −√3y + 6 = 0.
33. (x +21 )² + (y + 13)2 = 652. 34. 8x² + 8y2-25x - 3y + 18 = 0.
36. x +y = a + b² ; x² + y² - 2 ( a + b) x + 2 (a - b) y + a² + b² = 0.

XVIII. (Pages 134, 135.)

1. 5x - 12y = 152. 2. 24x + 10y + 151 = 0.
3. x + 2y = ± 2√√√5. 4. x + 2y + g + 2ƒ= ± √√5 √√√g² +ƒ³ - c.
5. - с " с 6. c = a ; (0, b). 7. Yes.
( √2 2)
8. k =40 or - 10. 9. a cos² a + b sin² a ± √a² + b² sin² a.
10. Aa + Bb + C = ± c √ò + B².
11. (1 ) y = mx ± a √√1 + m² ; (2) my + x = ± a√1 +m² ;
(3) ax ± y √√b² — - a² = ab ; (4) x + y = a√2.
a2b2
12. 2 1.2 13. x² + y² ± √2ax = 0 ; x² + y² ± √2ay = 0.
a²+b²
14. c = b - am ; c = b - am ± √ (1 + m²) (a² + b²) .
15. x² + y² - 6x - 8y + 18 = 0.
16. x² + y² − 2cx −- 2cy + c² = 0 , where 2c = a + b ± √a² + b².
17. 5x² + 5y² - 10x + 30y + 49 = 0. 18. x² + y² - 2cx − 2cy + c² = 0.
19. (x - r)² + (y − h)² = r². 20. x² + y² - 2ax – 2ẞy = 0.

XIX. (Pages 144, 145.)

1. x + 2y = 7. 2. 8x - 2y = 11 . 3. x = 0.
4. 23x + 5y = 57. 5. by - ax = a². 6. (5, 10) .
7. (§ , -1%). 8. (1 , - 2). 9. ( 1 , −1).
10. (-2a, - 2b). 11. (6, -18).
12. 3y - 2x = 13 ; (-182 , 243). 13. (2, -1 ) . 14. x²² + y^2 = 2a³.
18.46. 19. 9. 20. √2a2 +2ab +b². 21. (33, 2) ; 1.
23. ( 1 ) 28x² + 33xy - 28y2 −715x - 195y + 4225 = 0 ;
(2) 123x² - 64xy + 3y² – 664x + 226y + 763 = 0.
 ANSWERS. vii

XX. (Pages 147, 148.)

1. ( ± /√ 4²+ B², tan-¹²) A .

2. r² - 2ra cosec a . cos (0 - a) + a² cot² a = 0, r = 2a sin 0.
6. r² - r [a cos (0 1
− a) + b cos (0 - ẞ) ] + ab cos (a — B) = 0.
8. b2c2 + 2ac = 1.
XXI. (Page 149.)

(¹g+ 2ƒ¸¹ƒ + 2g 2√3

1. 120° ; (4 3 45+2 0): 3 √ƒ³+g² +fg.
2№³

2.30° ; (8-6√3, 12-4√3) ; √47-24√3.

3. f- g cos √f² +g² - 2fg cos w
(3-si100s sin2 w
n2 w w , 1-1,008w) sin w
4. x² + √2xy + y² − x ( 4 + 3 √2) - − 2y (3 + √2) +3 (√2 − 1) = 0 .
5. x² + xy + y² + 11x + 13y + 13 = 0.
8. (x - x ) (x - x" ) + (y - y ') (y - y' ) + cos w [ (x - x ') (y - y")
+(x - x') (y - y') ] = 0.

XXII. ( Pages 156—159. )

4. A circle. 5. A circle. 6. A circle.
a² sin² w
9. x² + y² - 2xy cos w = 4 " the given radii being the axes.
11. A circle. 12. A circle.
16. (1 ) A circle ; (2) A circle ; (3) The polar of 0.
17. The curve r = a + a cos 0, the fixed point O being the origin and
the centre of the circle on the initial line.
24. The same circle in each case.
33. 2ab÷ /a2+b². 35. a ; x = 4a ; 63x + 16y + 100a = 0.
36. (i) x = 0, 3x + 4y = 10, y = 4, and 3y = 4x.
(ii) y = mx + c√1 + m², where
m= ± (b + c) or + (b- c)
√a² - (b + c)² ' √a2- (b - c)2

XXIII. (Pages 164, 165.)

3. 3x² + 3y2-8x + 29y = 0. 4. 15x - 11y = 144.
5. x + 10y = 2. 6. 6x - 7y + 12 = 0. 7. ( -3 , -3).
8. (2,13). 11. (\ +1 ) (x² + y²) + 2λ (x + 2y) = 4 + 6λ.
13. (y - x)² = 0.
viii COORDINATE GEOMETRY .

XXIV. (Pages 172, 173.)

8. x2 y2 + 2mxy = c. 12. k (x² + y²) + (a - c) y - ck = 0.
13. x² + y² - cx - by + a² = 0. 14. x² +y2-16x - 18y - 4 = 0.

XXV. (Pages 178, 179.)

1. (7x + 6y)2- 570x + 750y + 2100 = 0.
2. (ax - by)2-2a³x - 2b³y + a¹ + a²b² + b¹ = 0.
3. ( -1, 2) ; y = 2 ; 4 ; (0, 2). 4. (4, ) ; x = 4 ; 2 ; (4 , 4).

2);; x = a ; 2a ; (a, 0).

5. (a, 1 6. ( 1, 2) ; y = 2 ; 4 ; (0, 2).
8. (i) ; (ii) 4. 9. (2,6). 11. y = -- 2x ; y −12 = m (x − 24).
B2 - C B2 - A2 - C
12. -B); x= 15. 9y² = 4ax.
( 2A 2A
XXVI. (Pages 185-187.)
1. 4y = 3x + 12 ; 4x + 3y = 34. 2. 4y - x = 24 ; 4x + y = 108.
3. y - x = 3 ; y + x = 9 ; x + y + 3 = 0 ; x - y = 9.
4. y = x ; x + y = 4a ; y + x = 0 ; x - y = 4a.
a 2a
5. 4y = x + 28 ; (28 , 14) . 6.
3' 3
7. y + 2x + 1 = 0 ; ( † , −2) ; 2y = x + 8 ; ( 8, 8) .
a
8. (3a, 2√3a) ; (3 , -2№3a). 9. 4y =9x +4 ; 4y = x + 36.

13. ( √52+ ¹a, a √2√5 +2 ) ; (3a, 2√3a).

14. b³y + a*x + ab³ = 0. 15. x = 0.

XXVII. (Pages 197, 198. )

4. 4x + 3y + 1 = 0. 5. 56y = 25.

XXVIII. (Pages 203-205 .)

25. Take the general equation to the circle and introduce the
condition that the point (at2, 2at) lies on it ; the sum of the
roots of the resulting equation in t is then found to be zero.
28. It can be shewn that the normals at the points " t, " and " t₂”
meet on the parabola when t₁t = 2 ; then use the previous
example.
XXIX. (Pages 209-211.)
1. y = bx. 2. cx = a. 3. y = ad.
4. y =(x - a) tan 2a. 5. y2 - Xx2 = 2ax.
6. x² = µ² [(x- a)² + y²]. 19. y² = 2a (x−- a).
 ANSWERS. ix

20. y2 - ky = 2a (x - h). 21. y2 (y2-2ax + 4a²) + 8a¹ = 0.

22. (8a² + y² - 2ax)2 tan² a = 16a² (4ax -− y²).
23. y¹ +4ay2 (a -− x) − 16a³x + a²l² = 0.
24. The parabola y² = 2a (x + 2a).

XXX . (Pages 214-216.)

1. y² = a (x - a), 2. y2 = 4ax. 3. 27ay2 (2x − a) (x − 5a)².
4. A parabola. 5. A straight line.
6. 27ay2-4 (x - − 2a)³ = constant.
7. A straight line, itself a normal.
XXXII. (Pages 234, 235.)
1. (a) 3x² + 5y² = 32 ; (B) 3x² + 7y2 = 115.
2. 20x² + 36y2 = 45. 3. x² + 2y2 = 100. 4. 8x² + 9y2 = 1152.
2a
土a ; (2) ; √5; (0, ±√√√5) ;
5. (1) 23 ; ±√6 ; ( ± √6, 0)
(3) 10 ; ; (0 , 5) and (0 , 1).
6. №3 7. 7x2 +2xy + 7y² + 10x - 10y + 7 = 0. 8. Without.
9. x +4 /3y = 24√3 ; 11x - 4√
/3y = 24 /3 ; 7 and 13.
a+3b
11. (1) tan-1 tan-1 ; 45°.
3a +b
x2
12. + -

XXXIII. (Pages 245-248. )

1. x + 3y = 5 ; 9x - 3y - 5 = 0.
2. 25x + 6y = 137 ; 6x - 25y + 20 = 0.
3. x√7 + 4y = 16 ; + 4x + y√7= 1√7.
5. y = 3x + 1 /155 ; ( ± √65 , 3√195).
31. Use Arts. 145 and 260.

XXXIV. (Pages 262–264. )

1. x + 2y = 4. 2. 2x - 7y + 8 = 0 ; ( −1 , − 1) .
3. 3x + 8y = 9 ; 2x = 3y.
4. 9x2-24xy - 4y² + 30x + 40y - 55 = 0.
5. a²y + b²x = 0 ; a²y - b²x = 0 ; a³y + b³x = 0 ; ay + bx = 0.
XXXV. (Pages 268-270.)
1. x² - 2xy cot 2a - y² = a2 - b². 2. cx² - 2xy = ca².
3. d² (x² - a2)2 = 4 (b²x² + a²y2 - a²b²).
4. λ(x² - a2) = 2 (x²y² + b²x² + a²y² — a²b²).
X COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

5. (x² + y² - a² - b²)² = 4 cot² a (b²x² +a²y² — a²b²).

6. ay = bx tan a. 7. b²x² + a²y² = 4a²b².
8. b4x² + a¹y² = a²b² (a² + b²). 9. b²x² + a²y² = 2a²by.
10. (b²x² + a²y²)² = c² (b²x² + a+y²).
11. (a² + b²) (b²x² + a²y²) ² = a²b² (b²x² +a¹y²).
12. b²x (x -
− h) + a²y (y − k) = 0.
13. c²a²b² (b²x² + a²y²) + (b²x² + a²y² — 1 ) ( b²x² + a+y²) = 0.
14. (b²x² + a²y²)² = a²b¹ (x² +y²).
15. a¹b¹ (x² + y²) = (a² + b²) (b²x² + a²y²)².
29. If the chords be PK and PK', let the equation to KK' be
y = mx +c ; transform the origin to P and, by means of Art. 122,
find the condition that the angle KPK' is a right angle ; substi-
tute for c in the equation to KK', and find the point of inter-
section of KK' and the normal at P. See also Art. 404.

XXXVI. (Pages 282-284.)

1. 16x2-9y2 = 36. 2. 25x2-144y² = 900.
3. 65x² - 36y² = 441. 4. x² - y² = 32.
5. 6, 4, ( ± √√
/13, 0) , 2}. 6. 3x2 - y2 = 3a².
- - a )) ;; 12x - 9y + 29a = 0.
7. 7y² + 24xy – 24ax – bay + 15a² = 0; ( − g,, a
8. (5, -20). 9. 24y - 30x = ± /161 .
2
14. y = ± x± √a² -b² ; (a² + b²) a²²²·
- b2 '
15. 9y = 32x. 16. 125x - 48y = 481.
a2 - b2
29. (1) b²x² + a¹y² = a²b² (b² — a²) ; (2) x = a . a²+b²;
(3) x2 (a2 + 2b2) - a2y2-2a³ex + a² (a² - b²) = 0.

XXXVII. (Pages 295, 296.)

1. At the points (a, b√2).
8. (2x + y + 2) (x + 2y + 1 ) = 0, (2x + y + 2) (x + 2y + 1 ) = const.
9. 3x² + 10xy + 8y² + 14x + 22y + 7 = 0 ;
3x² + 10xy + 8y² + 14x + 22y - 1 = 0.

XXXVIII. (Pages 302-305.)

16. ( √6a, 1√6a) ; ( ± √6a, ± √6a).

XXXIX. (Pages 319-321.)

19. Transform the equation of the previous example to Cartesian
Coordinates.
 ANSWERS . xi

XL. (Pages 331, 332.)

1. A hyperbola ; (2 , 1) ; c' = -26 .
2. An ellipse ; ( −1 , −1 ) ; c' = −4. 3. A parabola.
4. A hyperbola ; ( -1 , -- ) ; c' = - 46.
5. Two straight lines ; ( −1 }, {}) ; c' = 0.
6. A hyperbola ; ( - , b) ; c' = - 133% .
7. (2x + 3y − 1) (4x − y + 1 ) = 0 ; 8x² + 10xy - 3y² – 2x + 4y = 0.
8. (y + x - 2) (y - 2x - 3) = 0 ; y² − xy – 2x² - 5y + x + 18 = 0.
9. (11x - 2y + 4) (5x - 10y + 4) = 0 ;
55x2-120xy + 20y² + 64x − 48y + 32 = 0.
10. 19x² + 24xy + y² − 22x − 6y + 4 = 0 ;
19x² + 24xy + y² –- 22x −- 6y + 8 = 0.
12. x² - y² = 4a². 13. (ax - by) = (a² - b²) (ay - bx).
14. (x -
− y)² -2 (x + y) + 4 = 0 . 15. (xy + ab) tan (a - ẞ) = bx - ay.
16. x2 y2 - 2 xy -
+ b2 ab cos (a - ẞ) = sin² (a – ẞ). 17. A point.
18. Two straight lines. 19. A straight line and a parabola.
20. A straight line and a rectangular hyperbola.
21. A circle and a rectangular hyperbola.
22. A straight line and a circle.
23. Two imaginary straight lines.
24. A circle and a straight line. 25. A parabola.
26. A circle. 27. A hyperbola. 28. An ellipse.

XLI. (Pages 346–348.)

1508 23
169 9. Two coincident straight lines.
7. ( 676
10. tan 0₁ = −1, tan 0, = ½, r₁ = √3, and r₂ = 4.
11. 0₁ = 45°, 02 = 135°, rı = √√2, and r½= 2.
12. tan 0, = 7 + 5 /2 ; tan 0, = 7-5 /2,

5
76 (2√2−2), 1₂ = √ (2√2 + 2).
1½= √√√ =
28. 2. 29.3. 30.ł -3.
2a 4a 2a
土
31. ( 2√√√1
3 0 +1, 3 120
3 √√10-1 ) ; √20 + 2√
/10 .
a a За α
32. ( ± √3, 3√3)
4 ; 1√5.
33. (-6, 1 ± √6) ; √3.
34. (-1 ± √6, 1 ± √6) ; 2.
xii COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

XLII. (Pages 354, 355. )

1. ( 1 ) 3 ; ( 2 ) 3 ; (3 ) 4 ; (4) 2 ; (5 ) 4 ; (6) 3 ; (7) 3.
10. Ax + Hy = 0 and Hx + By = 0 ; H2 = AB , so that the conic is a
pair of parallel straight lines.
11. x (x + 3y) = 0 ; ( 2x - 3y)² = 0.

XLIII. (Pages 363, 364.)

1. A conic touching S = 0 where T = 0 touches it and having its
asymptotes parallel to those of S = 0.
A conic such that the two parallel straight lines u = 0 and
u+k =0 pass through its intersections with S = 0.

XLIV. (Pages 375-377. )

- 59 66
6. ( -1 , 5) and (4, −- 3). 7. ( -1, - ). 8.
( 676 ' 1691).
9. ( -4, -4) and ( -1 , -1 ) ; x + y + 7 = 0 and x + y + 3 = 0.
15. If P be the given point, C the centre of the given director circle,
and PCP' a diameter, the focus S is such that PS . P'S is
constant.
16. If PP' be the given diameter and S a focus then PS.P'S is
constant.
XLV. (Pages 383, 384.)
5. 6x² + 12xy + 7y2-12x - 13y = 0 .
17. The narrowellipse (Art. 408) , which is very nearly coincident with
the straight line BD, is one of the conics inscribed in the quadri-
lateral, and its centre is the middle point of BD. This middle
point, and similarly the middle points of AC and OL, therefore
lie on the centre-locus.

XLVI. (Pages 390-392. )

7. Proceed as in Art. 413, and use, in addition, the second result
of Art. 412, Cor. 2. From the two results, thus obtained,
eliminate d.
9. Take 4x + m₁y −1 = 0 (Art. 412, Cor. 1) as a focal chord of the
ellipse.
14. If the normals are perpendicular, so also are the tangents ; the
line x +my - 1-0 is therefore the polar with respect to the
ellipse of a point (√a² + b² cose, √a² + b² sin 0) on the director
circle.
15. The triangle ABC is a maximum triangle (Page 235 , Ex. 15)
inscribed in the ellipse.
20. Use the notation of Art. 333.
 ANSWERS. xiii

XLVII. (Pages 397, 398.)

11. The locus can be shewn to be a straight line which is perpendi-
cular to the given straight line ; also the given straight line
touches one of the confocals and its pole with respect to that
confocal is its point of contact ; this point of contact therefore
lies on the locus, which is therefore the normal.
14. As in Art. 366 , use the Invariants of Art. 135.

XLVIII. (Pages 405-407.)

5. Two of the normals drawn from O coincide, since it is a centre of
curvature. The straight line lx + m₁y = 1 (Art. 412) is therefore
a tangent to the ellipse at some point and hence , by Art. 412,
the equation to QR can be found in terms of p.

XLIX. (Pages 414-416 . )

1. (by - ax - c) ² = 4acx. 2. x² + y² - c (x + y) + = 0.
x2 y2
3. b2 + ² 4. A parabola touching each of the two lines.
a =1.
5. A central conic. 6. A parabola. 7. a²x² + b²y² = c4.
19. The line joining the foci is a particular case of the confocals and
the polar of O with respect to it is the major axis ; the minor
axis is another particular case, so that two of the polars are lines
through C at right angles ; also the tangents at O to the con-
focals through it are two of the polars, and these are at right
angles. Thus both C and O are on the directrix.
21. The crease is clearly the line bisecting at right angles the line
joining the initial position of C to the position which C occupies
when the paper is folded.
l cos a
23. =1-- e cos a cos 0.
2°
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