ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Methodology- addresses the questions. “How does the researcher answer
the questions stated in Chapter 1?”
Research Design - This refers to the overall strategy that you choose in order to
integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby
ensuring you will effectively address the research problem.
- It is very important aspect of research methodology which describes the research
mode (whether it is qualitative research or quantitative research, or if the
researcher will use a specific research type e.g. descriptive, survey, historical,
case or experimental)
Respondents of the Study. This describes the target population and the sample
frame.
Instrument of the Study. It describes the specific type of research instrument that will
be used such as questionnaire, checklist, Questionnaire-checklist, interview schedule,
teacher-made tests, and the like.
Establishing and validating reliability. The instrument must pass the validity and
reliability tests before it is utilized.
Statistical Treatment. One of the many ways of establishing the objectivity of research
findings is by subjecting the data to different but appropriate statistical formulas and
processes.
THE DEFINING FEATURES OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
The Experimental Designs

Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where one or more

independent variables are manipulated and applied to one or more dependent variables
to measure their effect on the latter. The effect of the independent variables on the
dependent variables is usually observed and recorded over some time, to aid
researchers in drawing a reasonable conclusion regarding the relationship between
these 2 variable types.

The experimental research method is widely used in physical and social sciences,
psychology, and education. It is based on the comparison between two or more groups
with a straightforward logic, which may, however, be difficult to execute.

Mostly related to a laboratory test procedure, experimental research designs involve

collecting quantitative data and performing statistical analysis on them during research.
Types of Experimental Research Design

Pre-experimental Research Design

In pre-experimental research design, either a group or various dependent groups are

observed for the effect of the application of an independent variable which is presumed
to cause change. It is the simplest form of experimental research design and is treated
with no control group.

Although very practical, experimental research is lacking in several areas of the true-
experimental criteria. The pre-experimental research design is further divided into three
types

 One-shot Case Study Research Design

In this type of experimental study, only one dependent group or variable is considered.
The study is carried out after some treatment which was presumed to cause change,
making it a posttest study.

 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design:

This research design combines both posttest and pretest study by carrying out a test on
a single group before the treatment is administered and after the treatment is
administered. With the former being administered at the beginning of treatment and
later at the end.

 Static-group Comparison:

In a static-group comparison study, 2 or more groups are placed under observation,

where only one of the groups is subjected to some treatment while the other groups are
held static. All the groups are post-tested, and the observed differences between the
groups are assumed to be a result of the treatment.

Quasi-experimental Research Design

The word "quasi" means partial, half, or pseudo. Therefore, the quasi-experimental
research bearing a resemblance to the true experimental research, but not the same. In
quasi-experiments, the participants are not randomly assigned, and as such, they are
used in settings where randomization is difficult or impossible.

This is very common in educational research, where administrators are unwilling to

allow the random selection of students for experimental samples.

Some examples of quasi-experimental research design include; the time series, no

equivalent control group design, and the counterbalanced design.
True Experimental Research Design

The true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to approve or

disprove a hypothesis. It is the most accurate type of experimental design and may be
carried out with or without a pretest on at least 2 randomly assigned dependent
subjects.

The true experimental research design must contain a control group, a variable that can
be manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution must be random. The
classification of true experimental design include:

 The posttest-only Control Group Design: In this design, subjects are randomly
selected and assigned to the 2 groups (control and experimental), and only the
experimental group is treated. After close observation, both groups are post-
tested, and a conclusion is drawn from the difference between these groups.
 The pretest-posttest Control Group Design: For this control group design,
subjects are randomly assigned to the 2 groups, both are presented, but only the
experimental group is treated. After close observation, both groups are post-
tested to measure the degree of change in each group.
 Solomon four-group Design: This is the combination of the pretest-only and
the pretest-posttest control groups. In this case, the randomly selected subjects
are placed into 4 groups.

The first two of these groups are tested using the posttest-only method, while the other
two are tested using the pretest-posttest method.

Characteristics of Experimental Research

 Variables

Experimental research contains dependent, independent and extraneous variables. The

dependent variables are the variables being treated or manipulated and are sometimes
called the subject of the research.

The independent variables are the experimental treatment being exerted on the
dependent variables. Extraneous variables, on the other hand, are other factors
affecting the experiment that may also contribute to the change.

 Setting

The setting is where the experiment is carried out. Many experiments are carried out in
the laboratory, where control can be exerted on the extraneous variables, thereby
eliminating them.

Other experiments are carried out in a less controllable setting. The choice of setting
used in research depends on the nature of the experiment being carried out.
  Multivariable

Experimental research may include multiple independent variables, e.g. time, skills, test
scores, etc.

Example:

The effect of positive reinforcement on one’s attitude to excel in school

Cream formulation of an effective mosquito repellent: a topical product from lemongrass

oil (Cymbopogon citratus) Stapf. (Adeniran, Oluremi & Fabiyi, E.. (2012). Cream
formulation of an effective mosquito repellent: a topical product from lemongrass oil
(Cymbopogon citratus) Stapf.. J. Nat. Prod. Plant Resour.. 2. 322-327.Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284079450_Cream_formulation_of_an_effecti
ve_mosquito_repellent_a_topical_product_from_lemongrass_oil_Cymbopogon_citratus
_Stapf)

ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EXTRACT OF LEMON GRASS LEAVES IN

REPELLING MOSQUITO (Elizabeth, Ojewumi & Banjo, M & Oresegun, M & Ogunbiyi,
Ajibola & Ayoola, Ayodeji & Awolu, Olugbenga & Ojewumi, Emmanuel. (2017).
ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EXTRACT OF LEMON GRASS LEAVES IN
REPELLING MOSQUITO. 8. 1000-1009. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315575384_ANALYTICAL_INVESTIGATION_
OF_THE_EXTRACT_OF_LEMON_GRASS_LEAVES_IN_REPELLING_MOSQUITO/cit
ation/download

DETERMINATION OF MOSQUITO REPELLENT PROPERTY OF THE

CRUDEETHANOLIC EXTRACT FROM THE LEAVES OF (FAMILY BASELLACEAE)
AGAINST AEDES AEGYPTI
(https://www.academia.edu/8415695/DETERMINATION_OF_MOSQUITO_REPELLEN
T_PROPERTY_OF_THE_CRUDE_ETHANOLIC_EXTRACT_FROM_THE_LEAVES_O
F_BASELLA_ALBA_FAMILY_BASELLACEAE_AGAINST_AEDES_AEGYPTI)

Factors Jeopardizing Internal and External Validity

Please note that validity discussed here is in the context of experimental design, not in
the context of measurement.

 Internal validity refers specifically to whether an experimental

treatment/condition makes a difference or not, and whether there is
sufficient evidence to support the claim.
 External validity refers to the generalizibility of the treatment/condition
outcomes.
Factors which jeopardize internal validity

 History--the specific events which occur between the first and second
measurement.
 Maturation--the processes within subjects which act as a function of the
passage of time. i.e. if the project lasts a few years, most participants may
improve their performance regardless of treatment.
 Testing--the effects of taking a test on the outcomes of taking a second
test.
 Instrumentation--the changes in the instrument, observers, or scorers
which may produce changes in outcomes.
 Statistical regression--It is also known as regression to the mean. This
threat is caused by the selection of subjects on the basis of extreme
scores or characteristics. Give me forty worst students and I guarantee
that they will show immediate improvement right after my treatment.
 Selection of subjects--the biases which may result in selection of
comparison groups. Randomization (Random assignment) of group
membership is a counter-attack against this threat. However, when the
sample size is small, randomization may lead to Simpson Paradox,
which has been discussed in an earlier lesson.
 Experimental mortality--the loss of subjects. For example, in a Web-
based instruction project entitled Eruditio, it started with 161 subjects and
only 95 of them completed the entire module. Those who stayed in the
project all the way to end may be more motivated to learn and thus
achieved higher performance.
 Selection-maturation interaction--the selection of comparison groups
and maturation interacting which may lead to confounding outcomes, and
erroneous interpretation that the treatment caused the effect.
 John Henry effect--John Henry was a worker who outperformed a
machine under an experimental setting because he was aware that his
performance was compared with that of a machine.

Threats to external validity

Sampling bias
The sample is not representative of the population
History
An unrelated event influences the outcomes
Experimenter effect
The characteristics or behaviors of the experimenter(s) unintentionally influence the
outcomes
Hawthorne effect
The tendency for participants to change their behaviors simply because they know they
are being studied.
Testing effect. The administration of a pre- or post-test affects the outcomes.
Aptitude-treatment. Interactions between characteristics of the group and individual
variables together influence the dependent variable
Situation effect. Factors like the setting, time of day, location, researchers’
characteristics, etc. limit generalizability of the findings.

Differences between Experimental and Non-Experimental Research

1. In experimental research, the researcher can control and manipulate the environment
of the research, including the predictor variable which can be changed. On the other
hand, non-experimental research cannot be controlled or manipulated by the researcher
at will.

This is because it takes place in a real-life setting, where extraneous variables cannot
be eliminated. Therefore, it is more difficult to conclude non-experimental studies, even
though they are much more flexible and allow for a greater range of study fields.

2. The relationship between cause and effect cannot be established in non-experimental

research, while it can be established in experimental research. This may be because
many extraneous variables also influence the changes in the research subject, making it
difficult to point at a particular variable as the cause of a particular change

3. Independent variables are not introduced, withdrawn, or manipulated in non-

experimental designs, but the same may not be said about experimental research.

Non experimental designs are research designs that examine social phenomena
without direct manipulation of the conditions that the subjects experience. There is also
no random assignment of subjects to different groups. As such, evidence that supports
the cause-and-effect relationships is largely limited.

There are two main types of non experimental designs: comparative design and
correlational design.

In comparative research, the researcher examines the differences between two or

more groups on the phenomenon that is being studied. For example, studying gender
difference in learning mathematics is a comparative research.

The correlational design is a study of relationships between two or more constructs. A

positive correlation means that high values of a variable are associated with high values
of another variable. For instance, academic performance of students is positively related
to their self-esteem. On the contrary, a negative correlation means that high values of a
variable are associated with low values of the other variable. For example, teacher–
student conflicts are negatively related to the students’ sense of belonging to the school.
(Frey, B. (2018). The SAGE encyclopedia of educational research, measurement, and
evaluation (Vols. 1-4). Thousand Oaks,, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:
10.4135/9781506326139)

In Survey Research. A survey is intended to acquire information from people

concerning the predominance, distribution, and interrelations of variables within the
identified group of people. In simple terms, surveys are done to gather evidence on
people’s knowledge, opinions, attitudes and values on various issues and concerns.

In Descriptive Research. It aims to define the existing condition of a classifies

variable. This type of research is intended to offer methodical data or systematic
information about a phenomenon. It does not usually start with hypothesis but rather
after systematic data gathering since the test of hypothesis comes from data analysis.
Gathering of data necessitates thorough selection not only of the units studies but the
measurement of each variable as well.

Example:

Yaşar, H., & Sağsan, M. (2020). The Mediating Effect of Organizational Stress on
Organizational Culture and Time Management: A Comparative Study With Two
Universities.SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020919507

Adams, R. V., & Blair, E. (2019). Impact of Time Management Behaviors on

Undergraduate Engineering Students’ Performance. SAGE Open.
https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018824506
Kalogeropoulos, A., Negredo, S., Picone, I., & Nielsen, R. K. (2017). Who Shares
and Comments on News?: A Cross-National Comparative Analysis of Online and
Social Media Participation. Social Media + Society.
https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117735754
Nathan, N., Zeitzer, J. A survey study of the association between mobile phone use and
daytime sleepiness in California high school students. BMC Public Health 13, 840
(2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-840
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-13-840#citeas
Olutola, Adekunle & Thomas, & Olatoye, Rafiu & Ademola, Olatoye. (2016).
Assessment of Social Media Utilization and Study Habit of Students of Tertiary
Institutions in Katsina State. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND PRACTICE. 7. 178-188.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309310376_Assessment_of_Social_Media_Ut
ilization_and_Study_Habit_of_Students_of_Tertiary_Institutions_in_Katsina_State
 Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

Research Design
This specifies, describes, and justifies the appropriateness of the research design
used in the study.

Sources of Data
This describes the locale of the study (place where the study was conducted) and
the rationale of its choice. It should likewise describe the research population and the
sampling methods or techniques used in determining the respondents or subjects of the
study.

Locale of the study

Population Sampling

Instrumentation and Data Collection

This part should describe the instrument, what it measured, how it was interpreted,
to whom it was administered, and if it is necessary, how it was administered. A description
of the instrument or parts of the instrument used is included.
Further, it mentions the type of instruments used in the study, such as the rating
scales, interview schedules, tally sheet, performance checklist, documents and others. If
the instrument used to gather data is made by the researcher, the test conducted to
ensure the instruments’ (usually the questionnaires) validity and reliability should be
stated. The level of reliability (probability) should be stated. At least five (5) experts on the
field being studied should have evaluated the instrument.
Describe the specific data gathering procedures employed.

Instrumentation
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
Data Gathering Procedure

Tools for Data Analysis

This presents the statistical tools or treatment employed in the analysis and
interpretation of the collected data. The tools used for data analysis for each of the
problems should be described.

The numerical and descriptive values, if any, to interpret data should be

determined and justified. Depending on the statistical treatment used, the student-
researchers may consult a statistician for a more precise result.