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Recognition of debris flow, debris flood and flood hazard through watershed
morphometrics

Article in Landslides · March 2004

DOI: 10.1007/s10346-003-0002-0

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 Original Paper

Landslides (2004) 1:61–66 D. J. Wilford · M. E. Sakals · J. L. Innes · R. C. Sidle · W. A. Bergerud

DOI 10.1007/s10346-003-0002-0
Received: 14 August 2003
Accepted: 26 October 2003 Recognition of debris flow, debris flood and flood hazard
Published online: 5 March 2004

Springer-Verlag 2004 through watershed morphometrics

Abstract Debris flows, debris floods and floods in mountainous the coastal mountains of southwest British Columbia. It is possible
areas are responsible for loss of life and damage to infrastructure, that the lower Melton ratio value identified by Jackson et al. (1987)
making it important to recognize these hazards in the early stage is due in part to the combining debris floods and debris flows.
of planning land developments. Detailed terrain information is This study outlines the use of watershed morphometrics to
seldom available and basic watershed morphometrics must be differentiate hydrogeomorphic processes and tests this model on
used for hazard identification. An existing model uses watershed a series of alluvial and colluvial fans that were examined in the
area and relief (the Melton ratio) to differentiate watersheds field in west central British Columbia. With adaptation for dif-
prone to flooding from those subject to debris flows and debris ferent regional conditions, the use of basic watershed morpho-
floods. However, the hazards related to debris flows and debris metrics could assist land managers, scientists, and engineers with
floods are not the same, requiring further differentiation. Here, the identification of hydrogeomorphic hazards on fans elsewhere.
we demonstrate that a model using watershed length combined
with the Melton ratio can be used to differentiate debris-flow and Study area
debris-flood prone watersheds. This model was tested on 65 al- The study area is in west central British Columbia, Canada, with
luvial and colluvial fans in west central British Columbia, Canada, study fans lying across a broad geographic area, between 53
460
that were examined in the field. The model correctly identified and 55
430 north latitude and 126
000 and 129
100 west longitude
92% of the debris-flow, 83% of the debris-flood, and 88% of the (Fig. 1). The study area lies within the Western and Interior
flood watersheds. With adaptation for different regional condi- Systems of the Canadian Cordillera (Holland 1964). The Kitimat
tions, the use of basic watershed morphometrics could assist land Ranges are within the Coast Mountains of the Western System,
managers, scientists, and engineers with the identification of and consist of granitic mountains, characteristically round-top-
hydrogeomorphic hazards on fans elsewhere. ped and domed because they were overridden by large Pleis-
tocene ice sheets. The Interior System includes the Skeena
Keywords Debris flows · Debris floods · Floods · Melton ratio · Mountains, Nass Basin, Hazelton Mountains and the Nechako
Hydrogeomorphic processes · British Columbia · Canada Plateau. This system is underlain chiefly by volcanic and sedi-
mentary rocks and overall is less rocky and rugged than the
Introduction Western System.
Fans are formed by and can be subject to floods, debris floods
and debris flows (hydrogeomorphic processes) with resulting
damage to infrastructure and loss of life (VanDine 1985). As a
result, there is a need to identify hydrogeomorphic hazards early
in the planning stages of land development. In cases where this
has not been done, it is frequently necessary to design control
structures which require identification of specific hazards. Cen-
tral to hazard recognition is the need to identify the specific
hydrogeomorphic process because each process has different as-
sociated hazard characteristics. For example, debris flows can
have peak discharges 5 to 40 times greater than floods, while
debris floods have relative peak discharges of only up to twice
those of flood discharges (Hungr et al. 2001).
In the early stages of development planning, hazards from hy-
drogeomorphic processes can be identified through simple models
that use existing data rather than field-derived data. The identifi-
cation scheme presented here uses topographic information to
predict the hydrogeomorphic processes influencing alluvial and
colluvial fans. Previously, Jackson et al. (1987) used the Melton
ratio (watershed relief divided by the square root of watershed
area) (Melton 1957) to differentiate flood and debris flow water-
sheds in the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains. They found that
watersheds prone to flooding had ratios <0.3 while watersheds
prone to debris flows had ratios >0.3. Bovis and Jakob (1999)
determined that debris flow watersheds had Melton ratios >0.53 in Fig. 1 Location map of the study area

Landslides 1 · 2004 61
 Original Paper
The study area was last glaciated during the Fraser glaciation long-axis (A-axis) orientation of clasts is dominantly parallel to
with ice retreat completed between 10,700 and 9,300 years b.p. flow.
(Alley and Young 1978; Clague 1984). The legacy of the glaciation Flood and debris flood deposits included bars, fans, sheets,
is extensive morainal and glaciofluvial deposits that dominate the and splays, and the stream channels have a large width-to-depth
landscape, masking much of the underlying bedrock (Runka ratio. The differentiation of floods and debris floods involved
1972). Fans are a post-glacial feature in the study area reflecting assessing the volume of sediment deposits relative to the size of
paraglacial (Ryder 1971a, 1971b) and contemporary conditions. stream channel, and determining the orientation of clasts. Debris
We stratified the study area into three broad forest types of floods have sediment concentrations of 20 to 47% by volume and
similar climate and vegetation using British Columbias ecologic characteristically have significant sediment deposits beyond the
classification system: coastal rainforests, northern temperate, and channel on the fan (e.g., where the sediment load overwhelms the
sub-boreal forests (Pojar et al. 1987; Banner et al. 1993; Mah et al. channel on the fan) (Fig. 3). Floods have sediment concentrations
1996). The three zones reflect a gradient from maritime to con- of less than 20% by volume and commonly have limited or lo-
tinental climates. All study fans were forested, although some calized sediment deposits beyond the channel on the fan (the
have been logged to varying degrees. Logging operations have not channel can generally contain the sediment load). The A-axes of
been conducted in most watersheds, and where present are very all clasts in flood deposits are oriented perpendicular to flow.
limited in extent. Sediments in flood deposits are well sorted (Fig. 4) and the clasts
Twenty-five stream gauging stations are operated by the Water are usually well imbricated. Clast orientation in debris-flood de-
Survey of Canada in the study area. Most gauged watersheds are posits are mixed, with the A-axes of large cobble to boulder clasts
very large compared to the study watersheds, making unit runoff usually perpendicular to the flow and pebbles to small cobbles
calculations and event dating of particular events problematic. usually parallel to flow. Debris-flood deposits commonly have
However, the hydrometric data are useful in describing the weak imbrication and collapse packing.
principal runoff regimes. Characteristically, the western and
central portions of the study area experience biannual peakflows.
Spring snowmelt provides the largest runoff volume and, in some
years, the highest peakflows. Autumn rain or rain-on-snow events
can produce significant peakflows as well as initiating mass
movements (debris avalanches and debris flows). The same
biannual peakflows occur in the eastern portion of the study area,
although in general, the spring snowmelt peaks are significantly
larger than the fall peakflows.

Methods
The approach taken in this study was to classify hydrogeomor-
phic processes in a watershed based on the sediment deposit
signatures present on the fan at the mouth of the watershed
(Costa 1988; Wells and Harvey 1987; Hungr et al. 2001). The
dominant process was determined based on the following order:
debris flows, debris floods, and floods.
Debris-flow fans characteristically have marginal leves or
terminal lobes (Fig. 2). Debris-flow deposits can have reverse
grading, although grading can range from absent to normal. The Fig. 3 A debris flood deposit that overwhelmed a channel

Fig. 2 A steep-sided, 1-m-high lev
e on a debris flow fan. Post-event activity has Fig. 4 A profile of sediments on an alluvial (flood) fan showing well sorted
created a small terrace between the lev
e and an incised stream channel layering

62 Landslides 1 · 2004
Table 1 Watershed attributes used in the analysis
Process Attribute Description Units
Peak flow Area Topographically defined area of the watershed. (Murphey et. al1977) km2
generation Watershed length The planimetric straight-line length from the fan apex to the most distant km
point on the watershed boundary
Shape Watershed area (km2) divided by the square of watershed length (km2) km2/km2
Length of channels The total length of stream channels identified on TRIM maps. km
(Carlston1963; Patton and Baker1976)
Drainage density The total length of stream channels (km) divided by watershed area (km2) km/km2
Hypsometric integral The hypsometric curve is a plot of the percent watershed area above a relative %/%
elevation (100% being the maximum elevation and 0% being the minimum elevation).
The hypsometric integral is the area under the curve. (Strahler1952)
Sediment Relief The elevation difference between the highest and lowest points in a watershed. km
production (Patton1988)
Environmentally sensitive ESAs are forest cover map attributes that are identified by forest classifiers %
areas for soil stability or terrain specialists. ESAs are map polygons that contain the initiation sites
for natural mass wasting. ESAs are expressed as a percent of the total watershed
area. (Anonymous1992)
Environmentally sensitive ESASxs are forest cover map attributes that are identified by forest classifiers %
areas for soil stability or terrain specialists. These map polygons contain initiation sites for natural mass
and other factors wasting and other factors that are sensitive to forestry activities (e.g., wildlife
habitat, reforestation issues such as high moisture levels, visual or landscape
retention objectives). ESASxs are expressed as a percent of the total watershed area
and for the purpose of this study include the extent of ESAs. (Anonymous1992)
Commercial forest cover The percent of watershed area with commercial forest cover, defined as areas %
of mature and immature forest, and areas that are not satisfactorily restocked as
a result of logging or natural disturbances (e.g., wildfire)
Extent of terrain greater The percent of watershed area that has slopes greater than 30, 35, or 40 %
than 30, 35, or 40
Extent of terrain The percent of watershed area that has slopes between 30and 40 %
between 30and 40
Ratios Melton ratio Watershed relief (km) divided by the square root of watershed area (km). km/km
(Melton1957; Patton and Baker1976; Jackson et al.1987)
Relief ratio Watershed relief (km) divided by watershed length (km). (Strahler1958; Costa1988) km/km

The selection of fans involved several criteria. Fans were se- point in a watershed was the apex of the fan (i.e., fans were not
lected to provide a reasonable cross section of hydrogeomorphic included in the watersheds). Overlays were made using water
processes and geographic distribution across the study area. To features (stream channels), forest cover, and digital elevation
gain an understanding of natural processes, it was essential that models. From these overlays, the 16 watershed attributes were
the hydrogeomorphic processes not be influenced by human land derived.
use, thus only watersheds with no, or very limited, human land The first step in the statistical analysis was to group water-
use activities were included (e.g., logging, mining, road building). sheds by hydrogeomorphic process based on field identification
Fans with human use were included only if the use did not ob- of deposits on the fans. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
scure identification of the hydrogeomorphic processes. was used to identify if watershed attribute means were signifi-
Sixteen basic biophysical watershed attributes were selected cantly different. If differences were detected, Bonferroni multiple
based on their influence on peak flow generation and the pro- comparisons were conducted to determine which groups had
duction of sediment (Table 1). Six of these attributes are related to different means (Milliken and Johnson 1992). Differences were
peak flow generation, eight are related to sediment production, considered to have been detected if the P-values were less than
and two are ratios that integrate watershed area and relief were 0.05. Data from combinations of the attributes were then plotted
used as watershed attributes. Slope stability mapping (Anony- with linear scales and, given the limited sample size for floods
mous 1999) was not available for the study watersheds so alter- (16) and debris flows (13), the maximum number of differentiating
nate watershed attributes were selected as surrogates: four slope attributes was set at two.
gradient classes, and environmentally sensitive areas (ESAs) an Class limits or boundaries were first determined visually from
attribute used on forest cover maps in British Columbia (Anon- the plots. Logistic regression was then used to estimate the class
ymous 1992). The percentage of a watershed with commercial boundary values for some of the plots. This was done by fitting
forest cover (i.e., excluding alpine forests) was selected due to the the probability that a particular watershed belonged in one of two
role of forests in moderating runoff and enhancing slope stability groups. The probability for the boundary between floods and
(Sidle et al. 1985; Hetherington 1987). debris floods was chosen to be 0.5/0.5 so that a watershed on that
Watershed boundaries were established using a digital eleva- boundary would have an equal chance of belonging to either
tion model (DEM) and GIS (Geographic Information Systems). group. The probability for the boundary between debris flows
The DEM has a cell size of 2525 m and 90% of the vertical data and debris floods was chosen to be 0.75/0.25 to ensure a high level
are accurate to within 10 m of their true elevation. The lowest of capture of debris flow watersheds. Since debris flows are

Landslides 1 · 2004 63
 Original Paper
Table 2 Selected watershed attributes by hydrogeomorphic process Table 3 Differentiating watershed attributes for floods, debris floods, and debris
flows, and their associated P-values from the results of the Bonferroni multiple
Watershed Hydrogeomorphic process
attribute comparison tests
Flood Debris flood Debris flow
Melton ratio Debris floods Debris flows
Mean 0.23 0.57 0.95 Floods Area<0.0001 Area <0.0001
Length<0.0001 Length <0.0001
Standard deviation 0.1 0.26 0.19 Channels<0.0001 Channels <0.0001
Range 0.08–0.49 0.26–1.21 0.66–1.21 Melton<0.0001 Melton <0.0001
Length Relief ratio<0.0001 Relief ratio<0.0001
Mean 8.90 km 4.40 km 2.06 km B3040 0.0020 Drain den 0.0037
Standard deviation 4.83 km 1.92 km 1.00 km Comm forest 0.035 G30 <0.0001
G35 0.0001
Range 2.27–18.46 km 1.68–10.73 km 0.28–4.68 km G40 <0.0001
Relief ratio B3040 <0.0001
Mean 0.12 0.30 0.49 Esasx 0.0279
Standard deviation 0.06 0.11 0.11 Debris floods Length 0.0375
Range 0.04–0.25 0.13–0.52 0.3–0.49 Melton <0.0001
B3040 Relief ratio <0.0001
Drain den 0.0036
Mean 10% 24% 35% G30 0.0005
Standard deviation 13% 14% 8% G35<0.0001
Range 0–35% 1–60% 20–45% G40<0.0001
Area B3040 0.0238
Mean 34.3 km2 7.0 km2 1.3 km2
Standard deviation 31.4 km2 6.7 km2 1.1 km2
Range 1.4–99.3 km2 0.7–31.4 km2 0.2–4.1 km2 differentiate debris-flow from debris-flood watersheds as debris
Relief flows can have a peak discharge of up to 20 times greater than
Mean 1.1 km 1.2 km 1.0 km debris floods. Three attribute combinations misidentified only
Standard deviation 0.6 km 0.3 km 0.4 km one debris-flow watershed: Melton ratio—length, relief ratio—
Range 0.4–2.1 km 0.5–1.7 km 0.6–1.4 km length, and B3040—length.
Melton ratio and watershed length were selected as the most
appropriate pair of differentiating attributes because: (1) they
generally more hazardous than debris floods, logical application correctly identified the largest number of watersheds; (2) were in
of the precautionary principle leads us to over-estimate the debris the group with the highest number of correctly identified debris
flow hazard during the planning phase. Selection of the best pair flow watersheds; (3) are relatively simple to determine: and (4) the
of attributes was based on two key criteria: least number of in- Melton ratio was used in the past as a differentiating attribute.
correctly classified watersheds and the least number of incorrectly The class limits correctly identified 14 (88%) of the field classified
classified debris flow watersheds. Details of misclassified water- flood fans. The two misidentified flood watersheds could have
sheds and their fans were explored. been the result of misclassification in the field. One was the
smallest “flood” watershed (1.4 km2). The watershed and stream
Results and discussion channel appeared to be very stable aside from a mid-fan reach
Fieldwork and GIS analysis was undertaken on 65 fans: 16 flood that had a recent, large accumulation of bedload. No other evi-
fans, 36 debris flood fans and 13 debris flow fans. Since debris dence of hydrogeomorphic activity was found in the channel or
food watersheds have not been described in the literature, sam- on the fan surface. On the other misidentified fan, deposits were
pling was biased in favour of debris floods to ensure adequate very challenging to classify (i.e., flood versus debris flood de-
representation to define boundaries between the other two other posits). Field classification of hydrogeomorphic processes on
processes. The ANOVA determined that four attributes had sta- forested fans can be difficult because of the influence of forests:
tistically different means for the three hydrogeomorphic pro- clast orientation can be influenced by turbulence around stems
cesses: watershed length, the Melton ratio, relief ratio, and the and downed woody debris, and characteristic signatures can be
proportion of a watershed between 30 and 40
(B3040) (Table 2). obscured or enhanced by woody debris and trees. Also, as with
Results from the Bonferroni multiple comparisons test are pre- fans lacking forest cover, post-event fluvial reworking of sedi-
sented in Table 3. The class boundaries as determined through ments can alter characteristic signatures of sediment. While this
logistic regression are presented in Table 4. The Melton ratio and reworking also occurs on fans without forest cover, the direction
watershed length provided the best differentiation of the hydro- of water flow for the reworking can be significantly modified by
geomorphic processes, with a low of 9 misclassified watersheds the presence of trees and woody debris. To achieve better results,
(Fig. 5). The class limits fit well with previously reported values; extensive field investigations would be required (e.g., detailed
flood watersheds have Melton ratios <0.3 (Jackson et al. 1987) and sedimentological descriptions). While such detailed investiga-
debris flows watersheds have Melton ratios >0.6 (slightly higher tions were beyond the scope of this study, the field identification
than the lowest value of 0.53 observed by Bovis and Jakob 1999). of hydrogeomorphic processes is considered to be reasonably
The addition of watershed length effectively differentiated debris accurate. The class limits correctly identified 12 (92%) of the 13
flow and debris flood watersheds. The other attribute combina- field classified debris flow fans. The limits placed one as a debris
tions were reasonably close in the number of misclassified wa- flood; this could have resulted from misclassification in the field.
tersheds. However, from a hazard perspective, it is important to The class limits correctly identified 30 (83%) of the 36 field

64 Landslides 1 · 2004
Table 4 Class boundaries for the hydrogeomorphic processes and the number of incorrectly classified watersheds
Variables Class boundaries Number incorrect and details
Floods Debris floods Debris flows
Melton Melton <0.3 Melton 0.3 to 0.6 Melton >0.6 9
and length Melton >0.6 and length >2.7 km and length <2.7 km 2 floods as D. floods
2 D. floods as floods
4 D. floods as D. flows
1 D. flow as D. flood
Melton Melton <0.3 Melton 0.3 to 0.77 Melton >0.77 10
and relief ratio Melton >0.77 and relief ratio <0.42 and relief ratio >0.42 2 floods as D. floods
2 D. floods as floods
3 D. floods as D. flows
3 D. flows as D. floods
B3040 Length >9 km or if B3040 4.5% to 18% and length <9 km B3040>18% 10
and length length <9 km then B3040>18% and length >2.7 km and <9 km and length <2.7 km 1 flood as D. flood
B3040<4.5% 5 D. floods as floods
3 D. floods as D. flows
1 D. flow as D. flood
Relief ratio Relief ratio <0.15 Relief ratio 0.15 to 0.35 Relief ratio >0.35 11
and length relief ratio >0.35 then length >2.7 km and length <2.7 km 4 floods as D. floods
2 D. floods as floods
4 D. floods as D. flows
1 D. flow as D. flood
Melton Melton <0.3 Melton 0.3 to 0.64 Melton >0.64 13
and B3040 Melton >0.64 then B3040<31.5% and B3040>31.5% 2 floods as D. floods
3 D. floods as floods
5 D. floods as D. flows
3 D. flows as D. floods
Relief ratio Relief ratio <0.15 Relief ratio 0.15 to 0.35 Relief ratio >0.35 14
and B3040 relief ratio >0.35 then B3040<34% and B3040>34% 4 floods as D. floods
2 D. floods as floods
4 D. floods as D. flows
4 D. flows as D. floods

“debris flow” watershed may have been misclassified in the field,

although this is unlikely as there were no sediment signatures of
debris flows.

Conclusions
Hydrogeomorphic hazards must be identified in order to develop
appropriate management strategies and design protective works.
Field identification of hydrogeomorphic processes is necessary,
although for site or regional planning purposes, it is often con-
venient to forecast processes based on elementary topographic
map measurements. This study explored the use of such ele-
mentary measurements for predicting hydrogeomorphic pro-
cesses. The utility of the Melton ratio (watershed relief divided by
the square root of watershed area) was confirmed for the iden-
tification of watersheds prone to flooding. In addition, this study
has demonstrated that the Melton ratio, in combination with
watershed length, can be used to differentiate between watersheds
Fig. 5 Scattergram using Melton ratio and watershed length with class limits for
the hydrogeomorphic processes. Symbols without fill colour are watersheds that do
prone to debris flows and debris floods. GIS analysis of topo-
not fall within the appropriate process class limits graphic data sets can readily generate these simple watershed
morphometric properties. The predictive capability of these
properties for the 65 study watersheds was very good: 92% of the
classified debris flood fans. Two were identified as flood fans, and debris flow watersheds, 88% of the flood watersheds, and 82% of
could have resulted from misclassification in the field. Four were the debris flood watersheds were correctly identified based on
identified as debris flow fans. Three of these watersheds have field classification of sediment deposits. With adaptation for
snow avalanches that influence a major portion of the stream different regional conditions, the use of basic watershed mor-
channel directly above the fans. It is possible that the snow phometrics could assist land managers, scientists, and engineers
avalanches in these watersheds are distributing sediments more with the identification of hydrogeomorphic hazards.
uniformly along the channels, reducing the potential for debris
flows and enhancing the potential for debris floods. The fourth

Landslides 1 · 2004 65
 Original Paper
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66 Landslides 1 · 2004

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