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PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
S KHUSHAL
15S12
CLASS 12
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the PHYSICS project titled

each on " To study the variations, in current
flowing in a circuit containing an LDR." has been
successfully completed by S KHUSHAL of class
12th, Soundarya Central School, Bangalore, in the
partial fulfilment by Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE) leading to the award of the
annual examination of the 2022-2023.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my

Physics teacher Mr. Rajesh for his vital support,
guidance and encouragement, without which this
project would not have come forth.
CONTENTS
Sl no. TOPIC
1. Objective
2. Apparatus Required
3. Introduction
4. Theory
5. Circuit diagram
6. Observation
7. Results
8. Application
9. Bibliography
OBJECTIVE
To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit containing an
LDR, because of a variation: -
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to ‘illuminate’ the
LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of an incandescent lamp, (of fixed power), used to
‘illuminate’ the LDR
APPARATUS
 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

 Connecting Wires
 Source of different power rating (bulbs)
 Bulb Holder
 Metre scale
 Multi Meter
 Battery
INTRODUCTION
A photoresistor or light dependent resistor is a component that is
sensitive to light. When light falls upon it then the resistance
changes. Values of the resistance of the LDR may change over many
orders of magnitude the value of the resistance falling as the level of
light increases.
It is not uncommon for the values of resistance of an LDR or
photoresistor to be several megohms in darkness and then to fall to a
few hundred ohms in bright light. With such a wide variation in
resistance, LDRs are easy to use and there are many LDR circuits
available. The sensitivity of light dependent resistors or
photoresistors also varies with the wavelength of the incident light.
LDRs are made from semiconductor materials to enable them to have
their light sensitive properties. Many materials can be used, but one
popular material for these photoresistors is cadmium sulphide, CdS.
Types of photoresistor
Light dependent resistors, LDRs or photoresistors fall into one of two
types or categories:
 Intrinsic photoresistors: Intrinsic photoresistors use un-doped
semiconductor materials including silicon or germanium. Photons fall
on the LDR excite electrons moving them from the valence band to
the conduction band. As a result, these electrons are free to conduct
electricity. The more light that falls on the device, the more electrons
are liberated and the greater the level of conductivity, and this results
in a lower level of resistance.
 Extrinsic photoresistors: Extrinsic photoresistors are manufactured
from semiconductor of materials doped with impurities. These
impurities or dopants create a new energy band above the existing
valence band. As a result, electrons need less energy to transfer to
the conduction band because of the smaller energy gap.
Regardless of the type of light dependent resistor or photoresistor,
both types exhibit an increase in conductivity or fall in resistance
with increasing levels of incident light
LDR symbol
The LDR symbol used in circuits is based around the resistor circuit
symbol, but shows the light, in the form of arrows shining on it. In
this way it follows the same convention used for photodiode and
phototransistor circuit symbols where arrows are used to show the
light falling on these components.
Circuit symbols used for the light dependent resistor / photoresistor
The light dependent resistor / photoresistor circuit symbols are
shown for both the newer style resistor symbol, i.e. a rectagular box
and the older zig-zag line resistor circuit symbols
THEORY
1.LDR and its characteristics :
When light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it
excites an electron from valence band into conduction band. Due to
such new electrons coming up in conduction band area, the electrical
resistance of the device decreases. Thus the LDR or photo-conductive
transducer has the resistance which is the inverse function of
radiation intensity.
λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters

e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs
Eω = work function of the metal used, in Eω
Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength greater than
the value obtained in above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change
in the resistance of this device.
The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV and for
Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV. Due to such large energy gaps, both
the materials have extremely high resistivity at room temperature
such large energy gaps, both the materials have extremely high
resistivity at room temperature.
2.Characteristics of photoconductive cells :
Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance is called as
dark resistance. This resistance is typically of the order of 1013 ohms.
When light falls on it, its resistance decreases up to several kilo ohms
or even hundreds of ohms, depending on the intensity of light, falling
on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells were
compared in our laboratory. And we found that there is almost no
response to the radiation of a wavelength which was shorter than
300nm. It was very interesting to note that the Cadmium Sulphide
cell has a peak response nearer or within the green colour of the
spectrum within a range of 520nm. Thus, it can be used nearer to the
infra-red region up to 750nm. It was found that the maximum
response of Cadmium Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range
at 615nm and also it can be used in the infra-red region up to about
970nm.
3.Sensitivity :
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship between the
light falling on the device and the resulting output signal. In the case
of a photocell, one is dealing with the relationship between the
incident light and the corresponding resistance of the cell.
4. Spectral Response :
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a photoconductive cell
is dependent on the wavelength (colour) of the incident light. Each
photoconductor material type has its own unique spectral response
curve or plot of the relative response of the photocell versus
wavelength of light.
OBSERVATION
The experiment has been conducted by using various sources with
different power ratings. Voltage of the battery = 6 V.
1. 15 watts (yellow) (wavelength = 570nm)
2. 15 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)
3. 40 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)

4. 20 watts (CFL) (white light)
RESULT
o The LDR resistance decreases with increase in intensity of
light and hence there is an increase in the flow of current.
o There is an increase in the current as the distance from the
source decreases.
o The intensity decreases as the distance from the source
increases.
SOURCES OF ERROR
o The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.
o Connections may be faulty.
o The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
o Measurements should be taken accurately.
APPLICATIONS
Lead sulphide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs are used for
the mid infrared spectral region. GeCu photoconductors are among
the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared
astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
Analog Applications:
· Camera Exposure Control
· Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
· Photocopy Machines - density of toner
· Colorimetric Test Equipment
· Densitometer
· Electronic Scales - dual cell
· Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source
· Automated Rear View Mirror
Digital Applications:
· Automatic Headlight Dimmer
· Night Light Control
· Oil Burner Flame Out
· Street Light Control
· Position Sensor
BIBLOGRAPHY
NCERT Physics
technologystudent.com
notes.com
YouTube.com

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PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

This is to certify that the PHYSICS project titled

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my

 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters

2. 15 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)

3. 40 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)

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