inference, with the final step showing that q must also be true.

A direct proof shows

Discrete Structures I that a conditional statement p −→ q is true by showing that if p is true, then q must
Proofs also be true, so that the combination p true and q false never occurs. In a direct
Departement of Computer Science – IT College – University of Bahrain proof, we assume that p is true and use axioms, definitions, and previously proven
Dr. Amine Mahjoub, Dr. Youssef Jaziri, Mrs Sarra Essa – 2017/2018 – theorems, together with rules of inference, to show that q must also be true.
Semester 1 Definition 1. The integer n is even if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k,
and n is odd if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k + 1. (Note that every integer
is either even or odd, and no integer is both even and odd.) Two integers have the
1 Introduction same parity when both are even or both are odd ; they have opposite parity when one
is even and the other is odd.
In chapter we introduce the notion of a proof and describe methods for construc-
ting proofs. A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a mathematical Example 1 : Give a direct proof of the theorem ”If n is an odd integer, then n2 is
statement. A proof can use the hypotheses of the theorem, if any, axioms assumed odd.”
to be true, and previously proven.
The methods of proof discussed in this chapter are important not only because they Note that this theorem states ∀nP (n) → Q(n), where P (n) is ”n is an odd
are used to prove mathematical theorems, but also for their many applications to integer” and Q(n) is ”n2 ” is odd. To begin a direct proof of this theorem, we assume
computer science. These applications include verifying that computer programs are that the hypothesis of this conditional statement is true, namely, we assume that n
correct, establishing that operating systems are secure, making inferences in artifi- is odd. By the definition of an odd integer, it follows that n = 2k + 1, where k is
cial intelligence, showing that system specifications are consistent, and so on. Conse- some integer.
quently, understanding the techniques used in proofs is essential both in mathematics We want to show that n2 is also odd. We can square both sides of the equation
and in computer science. n = 2k + 1 to obtain a new equation that expresses n2 . When we do this, we find
that n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1 . By the definition of an odd
integer, we can conclude that n2 is an odd integer (it is one more than twice an
2 Terminology integer). Consequently, we have proved that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is an odd
integer.
• Theroem : is a statement that can be shown to be true. We demonstrate that
a theorem is true with a proof. A proof is a valid argument that establishes the
Example 2 : Give a direct proof that if m and n are both perfect squares, then
truth of a theorem
nm is also a perfect square. (An integer a is a perfect square if there is an integer b
• Proposition : less important theorems
such that a = b2 .)
• Lemma : A less important theorem that is helpful in the proof of other results.
Complicated proofs are usually easier to understand when they are proved using
a series of lemmas, where each lemma is proved individually
• Corollary : is a theorem that can be established directly from a theorem that 3.2 Proof by Contraposition
has been proved. An extremely useful type of indirect proof is known as proof by contraposition.
• Conjecture : is a statement that is being proposed to be a true statement, Proofs by contraposition make use of the fact that the conditional statement p → q
usually on the basis of some partial evidence, a heuristic argument, or the is equivalent to its contrapositive, ¬q → ¬p . This means that the conditional
intuition of an expert. statement p → q can be proved by showing that its contrapositive, ¬q → ¬p, is true.
In a proof by contraposition of p → q, we take ¬q as a premise, and using axioms,
definitions, and previously proven theorems, together with rules of inference, we
3 Methods of Proving Theorems show that ¬p must follow. In an other word, a proof by contraposition consists of a
direct proof of the contrapositive ¬q → ¬p.
3.1 Direct Proofs
A direct proof of a conditional statement p −→ q is constructed when the first Example 1 : Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.
step is the assumption that p is true ; subsequent steps are constructed using rules of

1
Example 2 : Prove that if n is an integer and n2 is odd then n is odd. 3.6.1 Exhaustive Proof
Some theorems can be proved by examining a relatively small number of examples.
3.3 Proof by Contradiction Such proofs are called exhaustive proofs, or proofs by exhaustion because these
proofs proceed by exhausting all possibilities. An exhaustive proof is a special type
Suppose we want to prove that a statement p is true. Furthermore, suppose that
of proof by cases where each case involves checking a single example.We now provide
we can find a contradiction qsuch that ¬p → q is true. Because q is false, but ¬p → q
some illustrations of exhaustive proofs.
is true, we can conclude that ¬p is false, which means that p is true. How can we
find a contradiction q that might help us prove that p is true in this way ?
Example 1 : Prove that (n + 1)3 ≥ 3n if n is a positive integer with n ≤ 4.
Because the statement r ∧ negr is a contradiction whenever r is a proposition,
we can prove that p is true if we can show that ¬p → (r ∧ ¬r) is true for some
proposition r. Proofs of this type are called proofs by contradiction. 3.6.2 Proof by Cases
√ A proof by cases must cover all possible cases that arise in a theorem. We illustrate
Example 1 : Prove that 2 is irrational by giving a proof by contradiction. proof by cases with a couple of examples. In each example, you should check that
Example 2 : Give a proof by contradiction of the theorem ”If 3n + 2 is odd, then all possible cases are covered.
n is odd.”
Example 1 : Prove that if n is an integer, then n2 ≥ n.
3.4 Proofs of Equivalence Example 2 : Use a proof by cases to show that |xy| = |x||y|, where x and y are real
numbers.
To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement, that is, a statement of the
form p ↔ q, we show that p → q and q → p are both true. The validity of this
approach is based on the tautology : (p ↔ q) ↔ (p → q) ∧ (q → p).
3.7 Existence Proofs
Example 1 : Prove the theorem ”If n is an integer, then n is odd if and only if n2 Many theorems are assertions that objects of a particular type exist. A theorem
is odd.” of this type is a proposition of the form ∃xP (x), where P is a predicate. A
Example 2 : Show that these statements about the integer n are equivalent : proof of a proposition of the form ∃xP (x) is called an existence proof. There are
• p1 : n is even several ways to prove a theorem of this type. Sometimes an existence proof of
• p2 : n − 1 is odd ∃xP (x) can be given by finding an element a, called a witness, such that P (a)
• p3 : n2 is even is true. This type of existence proof is called constructive. It is also possible to
give an existence proof that is nonconstructive ; that is, we do not find an ele-
3.5 Proofs by Counter Example ment a such that P (a) is true, but rather prove that ∃xP (x) is true in some other way.

We stated previously that to show that a statement of the form ∀xP (x) is false, Example 1 : A Constructive Existence Proof : Show that there is a positive
we need only find a counterexample, that is, an example x for which P (x) is false. integer that can be written as the sum of cubes of positive integers in two different
ways.
Example 1 : Show that the statement ”Every positive integer is the sum of the Example 2 : A Nonconstructive Existence Proof : Show that there exist irra-
squares of two integers” is false. tional numbers x and y such that xy is rational.

3.6 Exhaustive Proof and Proof by Cases

Sometimes we cannot prove a theorem using a single argument that holds for all
possible cases. We now introduce a method that can be used to prove a theorem, by
considering different cases separately. This method is based on a rule of inference that
we will now introduce. To prove a conditional statement of the form (p1 ∨ p2 ∨ . . . ∨
pn ) → q the tautology [(p1 ∨p2 ∨. . .∨pn ) → q] ↔ [(p1 → q)∧(p2 → q)∧. . .∧(pn → q)]
can be used as a rule of inference.

2
4 Exercises Exercise 2 :
Give a counter example for each :
Exercise 1 : n
1. ∀ n ∈ Z n+1 is not integer
1. Show that if n2 − 3 is even, then n is odd. Proof by contrapositive.
2. ∀ a, b, c ∈ Z a|(b + c) → (a|b) ∨ (a|c)
2. Show that for any real number x, if x + 2 > 10, then x2 − 14 > 5x. Use direct
proof.
Exercise 3 :
3. Show by contradiction ∀x ∈ R : x2 − 5x ≤ 0 −→ (x ≥ 0) ∧ (x ≤ 5)
Give an example for each :
4. Prove that for any positive integer n, n is odd if and only if 5n + 6 is odd. a2 +4
2
1. ∃ a ∈ Z+ a is perfect square.
5. For any real number x, if −4 ≤ x ≤ 4, then x + x − 20 ≤ 0. Prove by 2
contrapositive. 2. ∃ a ∈ Z a + 3a + 2 < 0 and a < 0.
6. Prove By contradiction that for any integer a : if a2 − 1 is odd , then a is even.
Exercise 4 :
7. Prove by cases, if m is an integer, then m2 + m + 1 is always odd.
State by True or False. Give example or counterexample.
8. Prove that if n is a positive integer, then n is even if and only if 7n + 4 is even.
1. ∃x, y ∈ Z : x2 − xy + 1 is a perfect square.
9. Suppose that x, y ∈ R .Prove that if y 3 + yx2 ≤ x3 + xy 2 then y ≤ x.
2. ∀n ∈ Z+ : n2 − n + 3 is prime.
10. Prove that if x2 + 2x − 15 ≥ 0 then x > 3 or x < −5. √ √ √
3. ∀a, b ∈ Z : a + b < a −→ ( a + b) < a
11. Show that if n2 − 3 is even, then n is odd. proof by contrapositive
4. ∀a, b, c ∈ Z : ab|(b + c) −→ ac|(b + c)
12. For any real number x, if x + 2 ≥ 10 , then x2 − 14 ≥ 5x. Use direct proof. Use
cases.
13. Prove that if n ≥ 5 then n2 − 7n + 12 ≥ 0.
14. Proof that the number 2t − 17 is odd for any integer t
15. Proof that For any real number x, if x2 + x + 1 < 13 , then x < 3. Hint : What
is the contrapositive statement ?
√ √
16. Given that 2 is irrational. Show that 2 + n is irrational for any integer n.
Use Proof by Contradiction.
17. Show that (proof by cases) if an integer n is not divisible by 3, then n2 = 3k + 1
for some integer k
18. Given r an irrational number. Proof that 2r is irrational.
19. Prove by contrapositive and cases that : for any integer n, if n2 − 1 is not
divisible by 3 then n is divisible by3.
20. For any integer n, show that if n is not divisible by 3 , then n2 − 9 is not
divisible by 3.
21. Show that n(n2 − 1)(n + 2) is divisible by 4 for all integer n.
22. Proof that, for any integers a and b, if a2 + b2 is divisible by 4, then either a is
not odd or b is not odd.
23. Use Direct Proof to show that for any integers a and b, if 2a + b is divisible by
3, then 5b + a is divisible by 3. Discrete Structure I – Proofs Generated by LATEX