Lecture # 2, Quantum Computation 2: QEC Criteria

Lecture notes of Isaac Chuang, transcribed by Jennifer Novosad

Outline:

0. Review

1. Classical Coding

2. Q. Coding

3. Operator Measurement and Error Syndromes

4. Shor 9 Qubit Code

5. Quantum Error correction Codes Criteria (QEC criteria)

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0. Review
�
χ ≡ χ∗
Ek χEk† where Ek Ek† = I
� �
β(χ) = k k
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1. CLASSICAL CODING

1-p
0 0
p
p
1 1
1-p

FIG. 1: a binary symmetric channel

P = prob of error
Definition: A Classical [n,k,d] code is a set of 2k n-bit strings which have a minimum
Hamming distance d.
Definition: A Hamming distance between two bit strings is d(x, y) = w(x ∃ y) where ∃
is the x-or operator, and w is an operation that counts the number of ones.
Example: 0L(ogical) = 000, 1L = 111 is a [3,1,3] code

could send could receive prob decode prob. of error

0L = 000 000 (1 − p)3 0
001 p(1 − p)2 0
010 p(1 − p)2 0
100 p(1 − p)2 0
011 p2 (1 − p) 1 p2 (1 − p)+
101 p2 (1 − p) 1 p2 (1 − p)+
110 p2 (1 − p) 1 p2 (1 − p)+
111 p3 1 p3

So, the total probability of error is 3p2 − 2p3 = O(p2 )

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2. QUANTUM CODING

1995: Thought error correction to be impossible!

1. States collapse on measurement

2. Classically error occurs or does not occur. In Q. M., errors are continuous: �|0→ +
� |1→ ≡ (� + β)|0→ + ...

3. No cloning Thm prohibits copying, so cannot create �|0→ + �|1→ ≡ (�|0→ + � |1→)(�|0→ +
� |1→)(�|0→ + � |1→)

The Solutions:

1. Measure only the effect of the environment, not the state (i.e. did an error occur?)

2. & 3. Orthogonalize errors using entanglement: the environment has done one thing, or
another, in an entangled way. �|didsomething→ + � |didnothing→

Example: The Quantum Bit Flip Code:

|0L → = |000→
|1L → = |111→
|�L → = �|0L → + � |1L →
suppose β(χ) = (1 − P )χ + P XχX where P is the probability of error and X is the error
operator.
�(�)
A≡ B
Define: An [[n,k]] quantum code C is a k-qubit subspace of an n-qubit Hilbert space. So,
for our example, k=3, n=1.
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��3
Input � Output prob decode prob. of error
|�� = �|000� + � |111� �|000� + � |111� (1 − p) 3 0
�|001� + � |110� p(1 − p)2 0
�|010� + � |101� p(1 − p)2 0
�|100� + � |011� p(1 − p)2 0
�|011� + � |100� p2 (1 − p) 1 p2 (1 − p)+
�|101� + � |010� p2 (1 − p) 1 p2 (1 − p)+
�|110� + � |001� p2 (1 − p) 1 p2 (1 − p)+
�|111� + � |000� p3 1 p3

3. OPERATOR MEASUREMENT

Given U with eigenvalues ±1, eigenvectors |u± →

Definition: Measuring U
measurement result
0 H H z

C0 u+
U �

C1 u-

Initially, the state is |0→(C0 |u+ → + C1 |u− →)

After the first Hadamard, �1 (|0→ + |1→)(C0 |u+ → + C1 |u− →)
2
After the Controlled-U gate, �12 (|0→(C0 |u+→ + C1 |u− →) + |1→(C0 |u+ → − C1 |u− →))
After the last Hadamard, �12 (|0→ + |1→)(C0 |u+ → + C1 |u− →) + (|0→ − |1→)(C0 |u+ → − C1 |u− →)
= |0→C0 |u+ → + |1→C1 |u− →
If the measurement is z = 0, then |P si→ = |u+→. (With prob C02 , z = 0)
If the measurement is z = 1, then |P si→ = |u− →. (With prob C12 , z = 1)

3.1. Error Correction Syndrome Measurement

U1 = δz1 δz2 = δz δz I
U2 = δz2 δz3 = Iδz δz
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state U1 U2
�|000� + � |111� 0 0
�|001� + � |110� 0 1
�|010� + � |101� 1 1
�|100� + � |011� 1 0

TABLE I: 0 represents a +1 eigenstate of U i , and 1 represents a -1 eigenstate.

Steps to Error Correction:

1. measure syndrome operators (here, U1 & U2

2. Apply recovery operator R (here, 00 ≡ I, 01 ≡ δx3 , 11 ≡ δx2 , 10 ≡ δx1

To create the initial state |P siL →:

� 0 +� 1

0 � 000 + � 111

And then to error correct:

0 H H

αz
�
Ψ αz αz R
αz

0 H H

note: the double lines indicate classical information.

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Claim:
This scheme also corrects for a small continuous rotation error!
We will do this on one bit to demonstrate.
β(χ) = eiεδx χeiεδx
e−εδx = Rx (2ε)
Rx1 (2ε)|�→ ∝
= |�→ − iεδ 1 |P si→ ∈ |�∗ →
x

The fidelity is F = |√�|�∗ →|2 ∝

= 1−ε
Syndrome measurement collapses error into either I or δx1
F (R(β(χ)), |�→) ∝
=? ∝
= 1 − ε2
Example: The Phase Flip Code
βphasef lip(χ) = (1 − P )χ + P δz χδz
Recall Hδx H = δz , Hδz H = δx
So, Hβphasef lip(HχH)H = βbitf lip
Explicitly,

� 0 +� 1 H H
0 H Ψ H R
0 H H

0L = |+++
+ = 0 + 1 / sqrt(2)
1L = | - - ­
_ = 0 - 1 / sqrt(2)

For the bit flip: Uo = δz δz I and U1 = Iδz δz

For the phase flip: Uo = δx δx I and U1 = Iδx δx
Claim:
arbitrary errors can be described as δx , δz , and δx δz errors
Proof Argument:
β(χ) = k Ek χEk†
�

Ek Ek† = I
�
where we are guaranteed k

Recall pauli matrices δj = I, δx , δy , δz , and that δy = −iδx δz

�
Since δj is a basis for all 2x2 hermitian matrices, let Ek = j Ckj δj .
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Then, β(χ) = kjj � Ckj Ck�j � δj χδj �

�
�
β(χ) jj � �jj � δj χδj �
is the “Chi representation or OSR”
Example: recall
∝ |P si→ − iεδx |P si→
Rx (2ε)|�→ =
β(χ) = χ − iεδx χ − iεχδx + ε2 δx χδx
The −iεδx χ − iεχδx term disappears in the syndrome measurement, and the χ + ε2 δx χδx
term remains.
The result is that the syndrome measurement projects the environment into a definite
error state.
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4. SHOR 9 QUBIT CODE

⊕
|0L → = (|000→ + |111→)�3 / 8
⊕
|1L → = (|000→ − |111→)�3 / 8
this code will correct ANY single qubit error.
Syndrome Measurements:
for a bit flip: δz1 δz2 , δz2 δz3 , δz4 δz5 , δz5 δz6 , δz7 δz8 , δz8 δz9
for a phase flip: δx1 δx2 , δx3 δx4 , δx4 δx5 , δx5 δx6 , δx6 δx7 , δx8 δx9 ,
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5. QEC CRITERIA/CONDITIONS

Ek χEk†
�
Channel: E(χ) = k

Thm: Let C be a quantum Code defined by the orthonormal states { |�l → }

� a quantum recovery operation R correction β on C iff:

1. Orthogonality:

if I have 2 errors j and k,

√�l |Ej† Ek |�l → = 0

2. Nondeformation criteria:

√�l |Ek† Ek |�l → = dk �l

this is so you cannot distinguish shrinking on different code words, all shrinking is the
same.

C
Ψ C
C
C

No Overlap or Unique Deformations

C C
C

�
note that dk implies probability loss, but not information loss, k dk = 1 since
� †
k Ek Ek =1
Proof: (≡)
�
Let P = l |�l →√�l | (project onto C)
note P Ej† Ek P = dk αjk P (*)
�
note by Polar decomposition (extracting rotation and shrinkage) Ek P = Uk P Ek† Ek P =
⊕ ⊕
dk Uk P where dk is the shrinkage and Uk P is the rotation.
1. Syndrome measurement:
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Ek P Uk† Uk P Ek†
let Pk = Uk P Uk† = �
dk
= �
dk

By (*), the Pk s are orthogonal:

�k ∼= j, Pk Pj ∀ Uk P Ek† Ej P Uj† = 0
measure Pk output k syndrome.
2. Apply Recovery R
R(χ) = k Uk† Pk χPk Uk
�

note for |�→ � C ,

Uk† Uk P Ek† �jk dk P ⊕
Uk† Pk Ej |�→ = �
dk
Ej P |�→ = �
dk
|�→ = dk αjk |�→
Thus:
Ej |�→√�|EjT ) = Uk† Pk Ej† Pk Uk =
� � �
R(β(|�→√�|) = R( j jk jk dk αjk P = |�→√�|