i i | ‘Chapter 5: Function and their Properties 51 Defiritions sr»... 52 Graphical Transformation .... 5.3 Some Important Functions and their Graphs... 5A Classification of Functions ....... 55 ‘Limit of a Function 5.5.1 General Principle for Existence of Limit (GPEL) .. $52 Second Definitio 583 One Side Limit .. 5.5.4 Theorems on Limits $8.5 Some Important Limits. __ 5.6.4 Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity | Chapter 6: Continuity 61 6.1.1 Second Definition of Continuity 6.1.2 Third Definition of Continuity ......... 6.2 ‘Types of Discontinuity .... 63 Algebra of Continuity 64 — Some Important Theorems on Continuous Functions 6S ‘Culform continuity. 65.1 Non-Uniform Continuity Criterion ..... 65.2 Uniform Continuity Theorem 65.3 Lipschitz Function es 65.4 Continuous Extension Theorem 6.5.5 Some Important Sufficient Conditions for Uniform Continuity 68.6 Algebra of Uni irmly Continuous Functions . ‘Chapter 7; Differentiability 7A 72 73 Definition .. Geometrical Meaning of the Derivative Algebra of Differentiabitity ...7.3.1 Darboux’s Theorem ssesoremssssesense 74° Local Maxima & Local Mimima ssa Ss Mean Value Theorems ....scssssserssrseeessnn | 7.6. Higher Order Derivatives. 7.7 Indeterminate FOrmS wn IB Convex Set ssevveosese 781 Convex Function: 78.2 Concave Function -: Chapter 8: Riemann Integral 81 Definition ... — 82 Quick Review for Riemann Integrability ‘83 Improper Integral Chapter 9: Uniform Convergence 9.1 Definition 9.2 Quick Review for Uniform Convergence ... Chapter 10: Function of Several Variables 10.1 Definition of n-tuples .arvnnnn 10.2 Real valued function on 7» Variables «~~. 10.3 Limit and Continuity of Vectors and Real Valued Functions 10.4 Maxima and Minima of Functions of Two Variables. 10.5 Compactness of Cannectedness. Assignment Sheet - 5 Assignment Sheet ~ 6... Assignment Sheet — 7 sens Assignment Sheet - 8 Assignment Sheet ~ 9... Assignment Sheet ~ 10CHAPTER 5 FUNCTION ANI (D THEIR PROPERTIES $.1. Definitions _ Function: Let 4,2 < R be two subsets of R. A function from 4 to # denoted by f:4->B is a rule which assign every element of 4 to unique element of B. 4 is defined as a:domain of f & B is defined as co-domain of f and /() is defined eeCL “f, where (LAS la)eBixed}- 2 1. Equality of two functions: Two functions f; cae to be equal if and only if () & f; hove same domain D (say) @) AG 2. Composition of functions: Let f:i>Y"and g:y-+Z be two functions such that /(x)=y and g(y)=2, wliére xe X, yeY, eZ Then the function hz 3-2. “Migh~ that (x)= =e(y) =e(f(2)) ¥xeX is known as the coimposition of / and g and is denoted by gof. ~ ee 3. Inverse function: Let f:X — Y be a one-one onto function, Then the function g:¥ > X which associates to each element y<¥ the unique element xeX stich that (x)= is known as inverse function of n(x) VxeD ‘The inverse function g.of f is denoted by f-'. Then, we have | - f7¥ >X such that f"(y)=x, where f(x) =¥ 4, Domain of Definition: let y= (x) be a rule, ScR on which f ’ becomes real valued function i.e, if S bea subset of R & f:5>R be real valued function then S is called domain of definition. We 3 sometimes denote domain of definition as * Dod” Examples: (@) F(x)=sinz, x41, Dod =R- {1} Blog. x, Dad =(I, =) loge lg, log, x, Dod =(eF, 2) 2841, (Fst Pow) Ha Sara Hut Khas, Neat LE, New Dai 11006, Ph @)-2687807, Email iaftalaeundemcom: Webue: mvdoaneaden SOIR & HIRING, RSET amzi jon and their Propert ‘Rntso 9008 2008 state ‘Some well known functions 1,” Yentity Funetion: The function defined by (x)= for ali xeRR is called the identity function on R. Clearly, the domain and range of the identity function are both equal to R. The graph of the lentity function is a straight line passing through the origin and inclined at an angle of 45°to x axis. 2 Polynomial —Funetion: A function, * Sof the form, ‘fe iy +44x-+4327 +...4a,x", where neN, whee dy ER. Then, f is called a polynomial function Example: f(x)=2 +2249 QW 3. Modulus Function: The function. 7? SK defined by ref, 2 phe set of all non-negative eal numbers y, Properties: ( b]sasasx 5-0 of x20; (a20) Gil) p=

R defined by S(x)=[x]=0 VnsxR defined as f(x)=[]= the integral part of x which is nearestand greatest integer to x.. It is also known as ceiling of x. [HOOF For ar as Ks, Near LT, New DANG Ps (i) STE, Cas PPLE PRION, RBA E-mail: ifetdtraaden.com: Webs: wrredinnsndeny 0mTy ny Example: [2.3023] =3,[-8.0725]=-8 Properties: : @ [x]=x, if xeZ. Vo @i) [eed] =[x]+rsif rez 1. Exponential Function: Let « be positive real number. Then the function f:R->R defined as f(x)=a" is called the exponential function. The range is the set of all positive real numbers. year yas yeahart 7 Ocact t (0.1) eu ah \* i: 8. Logarithmic Funetion: Let ‘a’ be a se Sar humber, then the function f:R* +R defined as Ve fog, Sg called the logarithmic |) function, The range is the set R of all ran Se Wot itive real numbers yn je Gi) og, a” = miog,a meR 2 (iv) log, asl > ©) beg, bel &meR . 1 : (i) es abel 4 vil) log, a = 2E=4 abel & m> (i) ons 2 = ES bal & m>0 (Vii) alt= = m m>0 &ael (ix) alte? = pte calTy 9. Rational Function: Let p(x), (x) be two polynomials. Then a rational function, is a function f:D->R defined as (2) ae where a?) D=R~{reRla(x)=0} Example: @) Let sm fo} oR defined ae (x)=! (b) Let f:R~ {0} +R defined as f(x) 10, Signum Function: Let f= — {-1,0,1} defined as 1 ifx>0 £9 it x<0 0 ifx=0 is called signum function. xaxis 11. Trigonometric Functions: (@ Sine Function: The function whith"associates each real number x to sinx is called the sine function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle. The domain of the sine function is R and the range is Ful] ii) Cosine Funetion: The function that associates each real number x 10 cosx is called the cosine function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle. The domain of the cosine function is R and the range is [11]. en) SoNLEDE EVTGITN, SSEEITOD1} Rasa soo" 2008 Certihed instore ii) Tangent Function: The function that associates each real numbers to tanx is called the tangent function. Clearly, the tangent Function is not defined at odd multiple of x/2, i. #n/2,x3n/2 ett. So, the domain of the tangent function is R-{(2n+1)x/2|ne 7}. Since, it s takes every value between - and «, So, the range is R Ne (iv) Cosecant Funetion: The finciion that assoctateS,cazh real number x to cosecx is called the cosecant fuyétion Clearly, cosecx is not defined at x=nn, neZ ie, 0,¢n, ¢2n%43n MB, So its domain is. R-{nx|n€Z}. Since cosecx 21 oA Beng SCT: Therefore, range is (#,-1Ufo) (v) Secant Function: The function that associates each real number x to seex is called the secant function. Clearly set is not defined at odd multiples of x/2 ie. (2n+1)x/2, nZ. So, its domain is R-{(2n+1)x/2|meZ} . Since jsecx|>1, therefore its range is(vi) Cotangent Function: The function that associates a real number x to cotz is called the cotangent function. Clearly, cotx is not defined at x=n,neZ ive, at m= 2x etc. So domain of cotx is R-{nx|neZ). The range of f(x)=cotx is R as is evident from its graph in figure. 12, inverse Trigonometric Function: The =e function sin“'x,cos"'x, tan“x etc. are det ie inverse of the coresponding trigonometric functions, or Ship sin"! is defined as the angle whose sine is x. But since ee of sin! x, there are unlimited number of values of tie ‘ani Tes-whose sine is x and for values of x for which | |>1, six + Yags not exist. Thus, we cannot define the inverse function of sis uals we modify the definition of sin: in such a way that it becomes Wijection. If we consider sinx as @ function from [-n/2,x/2] to [-1, 1], then itis a bijection. Consequently sin” “exists and it is a function from [-1, 1] to [-r/2,x/2] Similarly, the other inverse trigonometric functions can be defined, ‘The domain and range of the inverse trigonometric functions are stated below: Function | Domain Range Fu | 12,212] yes reox=siny costs | fbi} [o.8] yreos xeo.x=cusy tants | (Com) or) (22212) | yatan tees eetany cot"tx | (2.2%) oF | (0,n) yeoot! x2 xecotp coseete | R-(-41) | [ | “() 12812) | ywcosecty cox coveey [sects R-(-L1) | [On]-{2/2} | yoseetx es xesecy ‘AAI, (Fa Flor Sa Sa Haus Kis, Near LL T, New Dalit 11016, Ph (OI) 26507817, Cate SOTO DORIGITIR, SMART Els infodlavacadem com: Webel: Wo dneeadny.cnTy | Kmigo soot 2008 Corded institute "5.2. - Graphical Transformation 1. ‘When f(x), transforins to f(x)+a. (where a is +ve) ie, f(2) > f(s)+e shift the given graph of f(x) upward through ‘a’ units again, S(x)> f(2)-2 shift the given graph of f(x) downward through ‘a’ units Example: $Gc)03 f@) f(x) transforms tof (x4) ie, f(x) > £(x-a); a is positive. Shift the Bry RFs (x) through ‘a "wait towards right f(x) wansformations to 0% ayy ie, f(x) > s(x+a); @ is positive. Shi egion of f(x) through * a” unit towards left ce Example: . ’ Flat) fen ent eat sate Td shiby yw 2 by SQdext f(x) transforms to af (x) ies s(x)» af(2)s a>1 Stretch the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times along rans Ha) oA sah, a>1. Shrink the graph of f(x) ‘a? times along paris. &4. ‘Example: Plot'y=sinx and y=2sinx Solution: We know; y=sinx and f(x) a f(x) = Stretch the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times along y-axis. y=2sinx = stretch the graph of sinx *2" times along y-axis. “ y | yet aN 7 Ua fobs = Re, ee = a F(x) transforms to. 7( ie, f(x) s(ax): a>1 Example: Plot y=sin"'x and y =sin“!(2z) Solution: Were; y =sin' (2x), i to shrink (or contract} the graph of sin x 2 times along x-axis. i) 2 A TTBais caduny Seopa 5. f(x) transforms to f(-x) ies #(2)> F(-x) To draw y= f(-x), take the image of the curve y= f(x) in y-axis as | plane mirror. or “Tum the graph of f(x) by 180° about y-axis.” OR y y e 20 re yeh — yaa Le Example: Plot y=e* Ny Solution: As y=." is known; they yee plane mirror for y= e*; shownas; * ‘ 6. f(x) transforms to - (x) be, f(x) > F(x); To draw y=-f(x), take image of y= /(x) in the y-axis as plane mirror, OR “Tum the graph of f(x) by 180° about x-axis.” ai Sara Hs Khar Nour LET, New DOBFAT0OLG, Ph (UYAESSG7, Cli 99918B4R4 & SRRI6TT, SRSOATEO| mail nfooacndem com: Webnte:ww alpneedeny emExample: Pict the curve y=~e'. - Solution: As. y= e* is known; <=. y=~e take image of y =e* in the x-axis as plane mirror. 7. f(x) transforms ta ~ s(x) ie, f(x) > -F(-x)s To draw y=—(-x) take image of 7(1) about y-axis to obtain f(-x) and then take image of f(~x) about x-axis to obtain ~/(-x). “S@)> SC) @ Image about y-axis (ii) Image about x-axis Example: Plot the curve Solution: As y=logx is known; () Toke image about y-axis, fo. (Gi) Toke image of y = tog(-x) abdut 22 8 f(x) transforms to |/(x)) Le, SE) Here; y=|7(x} is drawn in two steps. (i In the first step, leave the positive part of f(s), fie, the part of f(x) above x-axis) as itis. (i) In the second step, take the mirror image of negative part of (+) fie, the part of f(x) beiow x-axis) in the x-axis as plane miztor. oR Take the mirror image (in x-axis) of the portion of the graph of (x) Which lies below x-axis, OR "Ais es Fw) Se Sara Hous Ks, Near LET, Now DeiT0016 small Ifodalorende.com: Weble: wr lnaeadeRY om Function and their Properties (CLR, Cae 98UAR Ce GTN, HONS‘Tum the portion of the graph of (x) lying below x-axis by 180° about x-axis. Graph of f(2): Gragh for] f2)1: Example: Sketch the graph for y = Soluti lere;_y=sinx is known, a To draw y-=|sinx|, we take the mirror image (ii~x. axis) of the i =a portion of the graph of sinx which lies beloWx~axis= 9% F(x) transforms to (|x|) ~ ie, FQ) > F() If we know y= /(x), then to plot y= /(|x), we should follow two steps: (Leave the graph lying right side of the y-axis as itis, (i) Take the image of f(x) in the right of »-axis as the plane mirror and the graph of f(x) lying leftward of the y-axis (if it exists) is omitted. OR Neglect the curve for <0 and take the images of curve for x20 about yeaxis. lyst =) BIRR BRA 1617, SHEET4 1) ‘Anise seo} {2000 cerified inetute Example: Sketch the graph for y = og Solution: As we know, the curve y=log _y=logls}, could be drawn in two steps: (i) Leave the graph lying right side of the y-axis as itis. (Gi) Take the image of r(x) inthe right of y-axis as the plane mirror. 10. Sketching A(x)=Minimum { Went h(x) =Minimam { ¢(x),2(x)} : (A(x) = Maximum {7 (2), (2)} So yu {ZC)s when F)> ge I" Le(ah wten fa) >F) } Sketch f(x) when its graph WS~above the graph of g(x) and i sketch g(x) when its graph is above the of (x). (i) (x)= Minimum {f(2),8(2)} owes 8 +. Sketch. f(x) when its graph is lower and otherwise sketch (x) OR “To draw the graph of functions of the form y=max{f(x),¢(x)} or y=min{f(x),2(x)}-” first draw the graphs of beth the functions /(x) and g(x) and their | We first draw the graphs of both the f F (2) and g(x) and thei [ye points of intersections. Then we find any two consecutive points of } | intersection, In between these points either f(x)> g(x) or f(x) < #(x) » then, in order to max{/(x),(x)} we take those segments of (x) for which /(x)> g(x), between any two consecutive points of intersection Y of s(x) and g(x) Siwnilarly, in order to min { f(x),4(x)}, We take those segments of (x) for which f(x)< g(x), between any two consecutive points of intersection of f(x) and g(x) { ‘RST, (ist lr) i Sera, Hour Khas, Near JLT New Deh-11016 Ph (01) 2659997, CO 999834 A 99PIGI73,#SSS4K7ID fi | t mall lfoscndemy com: Webel: Wir dinseedem coeExample: Sketch the graphof Solution: First plot both y=sinx and y=cosx by a dotted curvé'as Gan be seen from the‘graph in the interval (~%) and then dass those ted lines for which f(x) ¢(x) oF e(x}> F(x). wl From adjacent figure the point of intersetioniare 43B:C. +. Graph of max{sin x,cos.x} eR Solution: First plot the graph for: ve|z].y=l1~2), y=[x+1] by a dotted curve as can be seen from the graph and then darken those dotted lines for which lek (le-Ihle+ay} [x-tj<{lxhlz+i} and |red}< {xh fe-t} Graph for y=|x|,y=|¥-Ihy=[x+1]. Pr 1 28015, et ow) Sak Haas Khas, Rear LET New Dai 4 Pom| Ly 53. 6 Phu (OI) 26507807, Cee SPOUNASG DILITSG, BSI Website: we bnendemy cat5.4, Classification of Functions ©.) 1. Algebraic Function: A’ function y= f (s)'is said to be an algebraic function and set Sc R, if it is a root of the equation of the form Bo (2) 9" +i (x) yt tat Py (x) =O ae Where p,(x) are polynomial in xes oR xeQ xe? Then f(x+a)= f(x) VreR, VacQ Set of periods is Q (set of rationals) ref) But fundamental period does not exist. : respectively and L.C.M. of ,2...T, exist. Then their linear combination of f'sis periodic function and their L.C.M. decide the period of fs i | © If f,frosfy are periodic functions with periods %).7,,...T, ECM {Po PavonPa} ' , () toms Pi,Pe, Pe Sarre ACF {91.4209} \ Pig laa @ UE @,03,.00, are irrational numbers, obtained by multiplying same irrational number by different rational (non zero) then LCM (24,0,..,¢)= LCM (Rational multiplied by that irrational) (a) L.C-M of rational and irrational numbers is not defined. "AIT, Prat or lia Sera Maus Kies, Near TILT, New DOB-IIOON Ph (OH) 2655697, Clk 99PIRDIM & 9SH161794, BSEESETID Ea inflncadencom: Website: mdangcadecom1 EE Examples of Periodic Functions: @ 1e)=s0(2) is a periodic function with period én. i Reason: Since period of sinx = 2 , «period of w=] = x3-= 68 (b) f(x)=sin® x has period . Reason: Since sin? x=!—S08 8 cos2xhas period = «sin? (x) has period (©) f(2)=sin? x hasa period 2 — Reason: sin’ x= 4 (Gsinz—sii3x) 3, 1 \ =Fsin xsi "i — genx join ~ N since 2sinx has period 2x — . * Se AN to “S tes 2x 3 inde has period 2 = and LcatLon 28} _ ECM (2,2) “ACF (L3} = sin? x has period 2. (@ f(2)=sinx+x-[:]is periodic function with period 2. Reason: Since sin nx) has period 2 =2 and x~{x] has period 1. also LCM {2,1} is 2. =. £ (2) is periodic function with period 2. Notes: (a) Sum or difference of two periodic function may not be periodic Example: Take (x)= sin x, ¢(x)=x-[x] ‘Then f and gare periodic function with period 2eand 1 resp. But f(x) g (x)is not periodic. iz ‘28A/1, (Fra Foor) ia Seri, Haws Khas, Near LL, New Dai-110016, Pi: (11)-26537527, Cell 9999183434 & 9899L6I7S4, SSHRBCATEO. 2 ml: node com: Website: wn dinseaden.comPipscaleny \ ‘An 150 9001 : 2008 Certified instinate (@) Sum of two non periodic function may be periodic function, 2 Example: {(x)=2, g(x)=-x? VxeR Then f and g oth are non periodic functions But reel(a=s (eee (eo Veer is a periodic function. (©) Sum of two periodic functions (having their fundamental periods) may be periodic but fundamental period may not exist Example: f(x)=sin? x, g(x)=<08? x both, oie functions ‘with fundamental period x. But £(x)+ 2(x) Re not have fundamental period. @ If f and gare two fimetions ‘defined on, we: ‘gis petiodic. ‘Then fogs petiodic on R.~ Reason: Since | | | ! = Se) (logs) Vxe Dod, x+aeDod (© Algebraic functions cannot be periodic. unless they are constant function. 4. Bounded Function: Let $ / is bounded, (b) For a function to be unbounded, range must be infinite set. (©) fis unbounded on Seo ¥neN 3 x, €5 such that Ureall>” tex (f(s)) is unbounded. (@) Sum, difference and composition of two bounded functions is bounded function. HAM, ist Fen. Ps OBESE, Ca, O9OTGIN & SODTOL TD, SREB+ = Onbounded set contained in /([0,t)) Then f is unbounded. Reason: For all n<, + efo,t} such that s(E}-e (if is said to be monotonically ineasg FPO Xzis monotonic on X and f:X>>.¥5 is atonotonic on Xz then fof: +X; is monotonic on X, (©) Sum of two monotonically increasing (decreasing) function is ‘monotonically increasing (decreasing), @ Difference of two monotonically increasing (decreasing) function ‘may not be monotonically increasing (decreasing), & FEA, Fs Flour Seral Haz Kas, Neat ELE, New Dobi-y5 Pa OF -ISSS757, Cat 979150434 & POPVTOTT3G SSIRAIS t Ema ifesdeen dem co: Webte: W dipacadeny 2ox Example: rfpg]oR g ee f@)=sins, — g(s)ex vee[og| Then f and g are monotonically increasing functions but A(s)=sins—x is not monotonically increasing function. (©) Product of two monotonically increasing (decreasing) functions may not be monotonically increasing (decreasing). Example: f:R—® defined by 0 x<0 reef} 20 and g:R>R 7 x<0 ooo But seals)-{ a \ is not monotonically increasing. Ss Exampies of some well non monotonic. 000 (8). S:R>R defined by SY ‘s(a)=e" VxeR, a> is monotonically increasing function, (0) f:(0,0)> R defined by— fAx)=log, x ¥ x €{0,«) is monotonically increasing function. (© F:R>R defined by ‘J(2)=-x ¥.xelR is monotonically decreasing function. 6. Even Function and Odd Function: A function f:S +R is said to be ‘an even function if /(-x)= f(x) xe and fis called an odd function if f(-x)=-s(2)v res. Examples of even functions: @ s(x)=¥onR (b) F(x)=cosx on {© s{z)=1x| on'R are even functions Examples of odd functions: (@) s(x)=sinx On () F(z)=" on (© F(x)==%sin(2) on all are odd functions. [EAT et Foo a Sarl Haar Ks, Noor LUT, New Deb 10016 Ps (11) 24507597, Ces DODTE & HODIOTTN, ESBS Emule ifiovsende com: Web: wwe dbiendean. ctZ) ec cimi ‘Remark: (@) The graph of an even function is always symmetrical about y -2xis. iz, the curve left hand side of y-axis is the mirror image of the i curve on its right hand side. (b) The graph of an odd function is always symmetric in opposite + quadrant. ie, the curve in the first quadrant is identical to the curve in third quadrant and the curve in second quadrant is identical to the curve in fourth quadrant. (©) If f is a even and differentiable function on R. Then f*(x)is an odd function. (© If 7(2)is an odd diferentiable fonction on R, then /*(x) i an even function. \ 5.5. Limit ofa Funetion $5.1 “General Principle For Existence of Limit oPEL Let ScR be a subset of Rand x= be member of 5) Let f:59R We say /€R is the limit of / >for any co ye Such that = NO a yy € (x:0<|x-01<8} >| /(x))- Foam ‘Note: This method is rather usefil to dsciatin at imit doesnot exist Examples: — 1. ‘im sin does not exist. ‘Solution: For any 6>0 3neWsuch that 1 -80, 3% €Q and x, eQ° and 4.%) € (a—8,a-+8) such that [F0i)-s (a) +2 emai dltdosenden | =Drips.acadany ae | —— 3. Prove that lim Jx~Va for a>0 ‘Solution: The function S(x)=ve is defined for all non-negative real it 4 numbers, Since we consider the interval (a-5,a+5), we can choose } 1 0<8Ja [ Now |Ve—Va]=|2-| 0 be given; we want tind 38> 0 such that ey j |F(z)-11]0 be given, Then we want to find a 5 > 0 such that [r(2)-20| 0 such that Is(x)-o| for any* sequente {a,) 5 such that (a,) 70-9 f(a) +1. (a, 5 VneN) Not (a) If we can find two sequences (a;),ands(i,) in 5 converging to a but ‘F(a,) and f(b,) converging to'dilléreat limit. Then we say the function has no limit at x=0. or limit does not exist at «=n. (b) We can say limit does not exist at x=0. if we can find a sequence (a,) in $ such that (a,)-+ a and f(a,) does not converge at all, @ s:R-(0} +8 defined by (1 F(x)=sin 7) ¥ eR -(0} Then limit of / does not exist at x=0. Reason: (an)=(2) is sequence in 5 = R ~ {0} such that : (a,)-»0 but /(a,)=/| 1(4)- sin 1a nd oes not converge anywhere. (b) /:RR defined by f 0 Fixj={0x=0 JH x<0 ‘Then limit of / does not exist at x=0 [Jo BA i ra ot as, Re Da Ps OPE, Ge TONG GT NTN 4 ‘Mosinertomcoms Wt er dae553 Ty ‘An tb0 9008 £2000 carted inti no (t toe ( 4 Then a, >0 and b, +0 But f(a,)>1 and f(4,)->-1 (©) f:%~(0}9R defined by vreR-{0} Reason: Take (1)=(2), then lim, (2) does not exist, Then (2,)-»6 but £(a,)=(+ }=(n) which is not 1 T m One Side Limit = Sa Definition 1: A function /(x) is said to a eas. x a from the right or from above if given ©>0, there exists a\9 > 0 Sich that Ipla)-2] s ” ‘The number Z is called the right hand ‘Yignit OKY-at a. We write this a8 lim, f(2)=1. Note that for the exitenct ofthe right hand limit /(=) should be defined in (2,24). — Definition 2: A finction /(x) is said to approach M as x approaches from the left or from below if given #>0, there exists 5>0 such that \/(2)-m| talees)= mano NN Hence lim(x+[x])=0- eo fence hint +[x])=0 SL Example: A function f is defined by 1 ee fe)=73 1 Bony hexel alate ty f(2) Solution: We have lim f(x)= lim f(3 Ee lim f(s) tim f(x)= tig {3-3} 7, wt a Na Hence im f=} does not exist. 2 5.5.4 Theorems on Limits 1. Uniqueness Theorem) Let ScR bea subset of Rand f is defined on S. Then lim f(x) if exist then it is unique. 2. If lim f(x)=Z, then f is bounded on some deleted neighbourhood of 3. lim f(x) and equal to a real number <> both left hand limit > tim_ f(x) and right Himit tim f(x) exist and are equal to 1. 4. Algebra of limits Let tim f(x)=1 and tim g(x) =m Then tim ( (#)#.6()) = lim f(x) tim o (x) =1 tm Gin (F (2).8(2))= Jim (F (2) tim (90) ‘HAA, rat lor) Seal Haus Ks, Near LT, New DalbFI1006, Ph: (11}2459757, Cel S99TRD4 & 999161736, SHREAATE Email infladnrecadencom: Webae: we dipiandten com \ IGi) im 22 ao 1 eG) Examples: oo (x4 2\(3x— f Sg ree (6) tim AEE=2 m0 x © tim 2% ante de \ Solutions: i (x+2)(x=1) _ Sin (+3), lin, Ox-IS Yebe2 tim (2? 43x-2), V¥rx-2 BONS * REAL Fee NS. (b) ii t ale © nS [ a2) on | i | Example: Evaluate lim —<— 0g 41 Solution: Now when x-0°,1/x> ae" 0 and when xO 1x28 40 es so that the left hand limit is not equal to the right hand \imit. Mx Hence lim 7 does not e jn not exist, Example: Find tim e*sgo(x+[x]), where the signum fonction is defined pe x20 as sen(x)={0if, x =0 and [+] means the greatest integer , for this will imply y, > y2 contraditting Su\assumption. Hence the only akernative is % 0, there exists}: | positive number & such that | ¢()~r|i Also then we write lim f(z)=! or f(x)! asx—><0 Gi) A function f is said to tend to Fas x-» ~» if given ¢>0, there exists a positive number k such that | f(x)-Ij/asx-—« Gi) A function f is said to tend to % as x tends to aaail however large, there exists a positive murmber aaugnany(s)> é ‘whenever 0<|x-a|<8 SN —~ (iv) A function fi sai to tend to 0 a tendons, if given 4>0, | however large, there exists a postive nurnBer 5 Stich that (1) <-k : whenever 0<|s-a|<3 - Also then we write tim #(s] Also then we write tim f(x)=-s0 ot Sea lS asx a 4} A function f is said to tend to <0, a8 xe. if given #> 0, however. large, there exists a positive number Ksych that f(x)># whenever xoK S Also then we write lim f(x)=s0 oF f(x) 0 asx—r a, (vi) A function fis said 10 tend to -2 as x if given k>0, however large, thete exists a positive number Ksuch that /(x)<-k whenever ek Also then we waite jim f(x)=-w or f(x)» ~0 as x->, 1 {vii} A function f is said to tend to © as x -o, if given k > 0, however i large, there exists a positive number K such that f(x)>& whenever a 4 x<-K. | Also then we write tim f(x)=« or — f(s)-+wasx-p-s0, : (viii) A function is said to tend t0 <0 as x-» ~~, if given k > 0, however j large, there exists a positive number K such that /(x)<~k whenever | 7 | : xe-k, = Example: Show that im + a Solution: Let ¢> 0be given. Choose M =1/e. Then \ wom = |i] vea|Ftlce "SN ie nt) Fs Sra, Hou Khas Near ELT, New Dt-016, Ph 1) 2650897, Cel 99918864 & LGN, BUGIS a iofrdtnacadancom: Website wnat.Examples: Show that Le ® ae tim 1-2 ah Gi eee Gi) tim, Solutions: SN RN Hence im 4 ~ 1 e (i) Again 8 “pi = WSS Se : CY Hence lim +=-, aan abs \ fl an 7 Note : lim — does not exist. dx Gii)Now -8<2<8 = 1 Hence tim J 40, 2 ‘Example: Find tim —7—* sm PTD viding numerator and denominator by x7, we get irae Meee arene Al tim pealzal cae soa Tx 12 x90 14 Tx 412/37 147 im (1/x) +12 im (1/2?) 2 EO) 100 ny Example: Evaluate tim 5 eae +1 2 Solution: We know ef =1+045 Function and their Properties ‘HAI, at ler a Sra Haus Klas, Nar LL, New Del-110006, Ps (01) 26507517, Cn SPPINS34 & SESITE, SAHRA Hema leftednuenden cm: WeIt follows that eas > +00 By previous example, x 0+=>1/xt0 => e!* + 40, by (I) 1 oor 30 3 eM 50 Again x+0- = -L440 6 +40, by (I) slo. Hence x-+0+ > eM +0 andx0- > el 50, (A) ett . We have lim atti fn F101 using (A) ‘ fn 1 sotto Us Example: Show thas Yin site POs Solution: We know that x0 =e" and x-+0- = e"* +0. Webave lin 22 = 00 Bh i0 wt xo lim ——— = lim ———. oo and ede bea Dal i. tim 2 Hence eee Example: Prove that jim ——=0 ert Solution: Let (x)= 1/(x+1) and let e> 0 be given, Then 1 Is)-= k = tim Example: Evaluate tim + hl Solution: Let f(x)=1i x}. Let €>0 be given and let § =1/k. Then O<[-0]<8 afs]<5 > hs]<1/# > Lok Thus, f(x)> & whenever O<|s—0}<8 = lim 7 Function and their Properties ‘Elif nendencom: Website: ww dipsendemy.coa [EAI at lou) Sia Sral ous Kis, Near LUT, New Da-0016, Ph (1) 2653727, Ca OOTESSN A POTING,SSHBATED‘Example: Find Ly than x. : Solution: Right-hand limit = tim [x] and Left-hand limit = im [x]= im, (0—A]=-1 where [x] denotes the greatest integer not greater im [o+h]=0 . Since righthand limit » left-hand limit, stim [x]does not exist RRC mer aad "BAIT, et For ia Sarl Haus Kia, Near LLT, New Dei 116016, Ph (@1)-2AS0SE7, Cal HTRGIGG A DODIGTTSN,SSSSEHTY El lafttdvaradem.com: Webi: wor dosent com.61, : CHAPTER 6 . , : ; | CONTINUITY Definitions: Let SCR be a subset of R and f:5—>R be a real valued function. Then we say fis continuous ata ¢ 5 if any of the following condition is satisfied: {) ae5-5" (Lea is an isolated point of 5) . (i ces" and tim /(2)=/(a) (ie. limit of exist & xedbani equal to the value ofthe function) KS Remarks: wey (a) Ifany of the condition fails at « pointapen the agen is said to be iscontinuous at that point and the point\ig. called -a point of discontinuity of f° YN (b) If limit point of 5 is not member ofS. THeH-y is assumed to be iscontinuous at that point, YY Example: Let f:R-{I} > R be defitied as f(x) =sinx. Then at x is discontinuous function. SS (© Atisotated points, f(x) is said to Bcontinious if itis defined there at ig Example: Let f:[0l]U(3}-+R defined by f(x)=sinx, Then f is comimaous st x=3 al ‘Example: The function f:R—>R defined sop 740 ig 0 x0 continuous atx = 0 Solution: We know, lia, (x)= issn 0. Also, f(0)=0 So lim #(2) = (0). Hence, fis continuous at x= 0. Example: The function f:R +R defined by f(x) continuous at x=0. Solution: We have lim Ja) = in 2 a =0 tim £2) =£(0) (+ £(0)=0) Hence, f is continuous at v= 0. "HAI it Few) Sia Sora Has Kha, Caml: noioanende.com: Webi: wen dite com LET. New Deli 10016 Ph (11) 085757, Cor SEDER & 959161734, SSATP61. CHAPTER 6 ; ‘ \ CONTINUITY Definitions: Let SCR be a subset of R and f:S~»+R be a real valued function. Then we say fis continuous ata eS if any of the following condition is satisfied: (@ aeS~s" (ie.a is an isolated point of 5) Gi) aes" and tim f(x) = f(0) the value ofthe function) Remarks: @) If any of the condition fails at ¢ point then se sigipny i is said to be discontinuous at that point and the “points galled -a point of limit of f exist atx= discontinuity of 7 (&) If limit point of 5 is not member of'sTHei-y is assumed to be discontinuous at that point, Ao Example: Let f:R—(}—+B bedeed 3) sinx. Then at x=1, f is discontinuous function, aid to Scoala i (@) At isolated points, f(x) Example: Let :[0,JU(3}>R defined by f(x)=sinx. Then f is continuous at x=3. 1 ‘Example: The function f:R->R defined by f(x)= fo eed 0 x0 ‘continuous at x = 0. Solution: We kaow, tim f(x) = tin xn Also, /(0)=0. So lim f(x)=£(0). ~ Hence, f is continuous at Example: The function f:R—rR defined by /( continuous at x=0. welt roo Leel lim £(2)=£(0) (+ £(0)=0) Solution: Weave lio f(2)= lis, Hence, / is continuous at "HAI, ire Fe) Sa Gre ou Khar, Neat LL, New DaRFsIO016 Ph (O11) 265079, Call 9991804 SOP91G) 794, SHOUT Ema Ialo@aomeate com Webs: Wn doacaecom61.1. Example: The function f:R->R defined by f(x) danimost x0, o se Solution: We have, im f(s)= lim > TOF is (= time =0) im &Y <0) lim F(0)= lim ae (: slim e-Y* <0) Also, f(0)=0. Hence / is continuous at x =0 Example: Let f be the function defined on R by f(x)=[x], for all xeR where [x] denote the greatest integer not exceeding x . Then f is discontinuous at the points x =0,+1,42,43,... and is continivous at every other point. Example: Let f be the function deft on. Ras 7(x)=| | +[x] x€R Determine the points of discontinuity of f - » for all ‘Solution: We bave, S(x)=x+0=8, for 0s ret f(x 1 for isx<2s f(x)=x42, for 2sx<3f(x)=x+3, for'3sx<4; SL(x)=-2-1, for -1<.x<0;f(x)=-x-2, for -2Sx<-1; and so on. We have = fe -t lim /(2)= fia x=; S (x)= Him x=, tim f(x) = im(x+1) = 2; slag £4)= fig ort) =3, Ban (2) = ti (42) lim f()= fim (-x=2)=-3, tim f(x) = fim + and so on. Thus lim f(x)# lim f(s) Vnez. Hence the points of discontinuity of fare 0,21,42,+3, ‘Second Definition of Continuity ; Let SCR and f:5 +R be a function then we say f is continuous at the 4 point aeS<> for every sequence (x,) in 5 such that (4) a= S(%) > (2) (Bt ei ra she ar LER Dal OG us QUST, Ca Pn HG AIP E-mail ifoaainencnden com: Webs: wor dpsneaden.cotRemarks: (@ KC we cam find two sequences (a,),(b,) in S$ suck that (a,),(b,) converges to a but f(a,)., (by) converges to different limits. Then f \ is not continuous at =a, + ii) Ifwe can find a sequence (a,) which converges to a but /(a,) does not converges at all. Then f is not continuous at x= a. Examples related to above definitions: @) Let f:{0,1]-+ be defined by t o S46 0 otherwise 2 : Zefa pez Pelaih na ‘Then f is continuous at every irrational umber discontinuous stall rationals except 0. (b) Let f:[-1,1]-+ R be defined as Then limit does not exist on [-1,0), so itot continuous on [-1,0) Hence, f is continuous on (0,1) \@ aithat.x=0,1 (©) Let f:RR defined by ™ - [1 xeQ f(s)= Oy peor ‘Then, f is not continuous at any real number. | (@) Let f:(0,1]-» 0,1] defined by 1 P os psin( + in (0,1). .9 €2 rool) Eaton x 520 or refoijag ~ y : Thien f is continuous at all irrational in [0,1] & 0 and not continuous at all rationals except 0. : Note: Let f:R > R bea function defined by a(x), res S(Q)= Je) ie x85 | Where (x),¢2(x) are continuous function on their domain and s is any dense subset of R Then roots of the equation 4, (x)~4,(x)=0are only point of continuity \ of f. Also if the roots are repeated then is differentiable at that point also, ‘BRA, at Porn Sarl Hanz Ks, Ne ELT Now DM-IOOLG Ph; (OH) 2ESSTG7, Cel 999183494 & 9E1GI734, ASESATID Boma: fflceder-o Webale wn dlosacadem.comi Example: (@) Let FRR defined by a1 xeQ A ro-{* reQ 7 Then fis contimons at x=1,-Lonly, go08 cored iettate Reason: The equation (5° -1)-(1~s6)=0 givesx* ‘Which have only two distinct real roots viz. 1 and -1 (b) Let £:R—R defined by : 4s) {: xeQ = x xe + Then f is continuous only at x=0. 6.1.2. Third Definition of Continuity _ A function f:5-+R is continuows.af @ point Ce Siff Yor given any e— neighbourhood ¥,(/(c)) of f(c) there exist'a, 3 nalghbourhood ¥%(c) of 6 such that / (SNF, (€)) Me (F(e)}ie it x : F(x) belongs to ¥,(/(c)). : 6.2. Types of Discontinuity 1, Removable discontinuity (sinipié~distontinuity): Let ScR and F:S-R be a function. If lim F(x) éxist but either f(x) is not aliy:point of SAY; (c), then defined atx-=cor it is defined and lim f(x) # f(a).Then we say that the function has removable discontinuity at x= a Example: " ( (@) Let ¢:R > defined by ‘ \ sinx Fea) x 0 x=0 x40 Then / has removable type discontinuity at x= 0. Reason: 4m #(2)=tn( 822) tan £(0)=0. \ (b) Let £:(0,1) +R defined by | ; S@)=x vxe(0,)) Then / is discontinuous at x = 0and 1. ‘Note: This type of discontinuity can be removed by defining a new function g as (2) when x# a i {ie 9 when x= Then g is continuous at O01HREEA & HOITOTTIG, BRB ‘ALE, Gis oe) la Sara HadT) SRniso soot | oon Corned insets Continuity 2. Discontinuity of first kind or (ump discontimity): A function f:S9R is said: to have discontinuity of first kind (or Jump discontinuity) at x=a. i€ at this point teft hand limit (LHL. and sight - had limit (RLELL.) both exist but not equal furthermore. ; - {® A function f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind from the left to a if LHLL exist but it is not equal to f(a). Gi) A function / is said to have a discontinuity of first kind from the right to a. if RIHLL. exist but itis not equal to f(a) Note: Jump at (x= a) = Example: . (a) Let £:R->R defined by /(x)=[x] VreR SQ ODS. ~ : - ‘Then f has jump kind crn 1 ~ (b) Let f:R->R defined by f(x)= {3} V a is [OE Re fractional part of x eo ‘Then at x=1 f has jump kind of (© Let f:R-> R defined by ee Ww S(x)=40 x=0 Yo More NY Then atx=0, f has jump king yatinuity. = 3. Discontinuity of second kind (Mixed discontinuity): A function f(x) is said to have a discontinuity of second kind (or mixed discontinuity) at yea, if any of Right hand limit or Left hand limit or both does not eae Examples: (a) Let f:R->R defined by fl xeQ 100) { ane Then for any eR. 38>0 and HEQr(aats), meQ*r(aa+s) such that Wla)-sl)l=2- => RELL, does not exist => f has discontinuity of second kind at every a ¢R . (&) Let f:[0,1] +R defined by fl vo) 0 x0 Then at x=0 LHL, and RL. both does not exist = f has a discontinuity of second kind at x=0 {AAI a Fn) a Sarl Ha Kha, Nea LT, Now DOG-/1006, Ps (0) BASIS, Cale 999165454 & SDLGI34, OSORIO Ema noses dence: Wea mre orcad ote BB63. (o) Let /:R +R defined by el sin(I/ 4 nef 8e veo | lo x=0 Then f has discontinuity of second kind at x = Reason: We know that xo 0a elt in sin) ae. 0 and x30+ se 0, which does not exist 7 Hence, f has a discontinuity of the second kiiid front the right at xe0. ~ ‘Algebra of Continuity Let SCR and f &g real valued be functions ons ¢Nbet a BeR suppose that ac and /&garecontinuous a ‘Than, ©) max{f.g) (ayelins| is also continuous at x=0. (Ureyiss| is also continuotis at #= (vi) max{f,g} Remark: (a) Converse of the above results may not be true. fi xe Example: Let f,g:R-+R be functions defined as f(2)= ie : i reQ xeQ Clearly both f and g are discontinuous at each real number. “and so)-{" But(f+g)()=0 VxeR is continuous function * (Fa) £ (}e9 =-1 VxeR is continuous function, & 1 VxeR is continuous function (b) If f is continuous function at x=a and gis discontinuous fiznction at x=a then fg cannot be continuous finetion at «=a { © If f and gare two continuous funetions at x=a stich that gof and Jog is defined. Then fog and gof both are continuous at x=a . Converse need not be true, Ci 2284/1, (Fst Floor) Ja Sarai, Hauz Khas, Near LLT, New Delhi-110016, Ph: (11)-26507527, Ce; 9999153434 & 9899161734, 8555840789 Emil inffaeianeadomv com: Webse: wo doses cu1 xeQ aq Example: Consider two functions f and ¢ defined as i ) fa x6 rT anie(=} ve + Then f and g are nowhere continuous but fog and gof both are continuous on R. 64. Some Important Theorems on Continuous Functions 1. Boundeduess Theorem: Let I ={2,b}and f:!+R be a continuous function, then f is bounded on ‘can construct examples which show that the conclusion imay-fails ifany one of the hypothesis is relaxed, So (a) The interval must be bounded: The furiction Files for xin the ‘unbounded interval 4 =[0,co) is contin unt bounded on 4 SS (6) The interval must be closed: The, funetion-g(x)=+ for x in the half-open interval 8 =(0,1] is coptintdug bit Bo hounded onB. (c) The function must be continusus; The funstion (x) defined on the Cs closed interval C=[0,1] by Abe? * For x(0,i] and 4(0)=1 is 7 discontinuous and unbounded onc. (@) Converse of the theorem need not be true. fl xe@a[o,l] amples Let 7[0l]-rR defined by £6) =] f ' : t i E Remark: Each hypothesis of the Boundedness Theorem is needed, we } | 1 xeQ® ofo,i]” i Then fis bounded but not continavas. I | Definitions: ( Absolute Maximum: Let ACR and /:4—> be a function, then wwe say that f has an Absolute Maximumt on 4 if there is a point } xte A such that /(2*)2 f(x) for alle 4 Gi) Absolute Minimum: Let 4GR and f: 4 be a function, then wwe say that has an Absolute Minimum on 4 if there is a point . we such that f(x.) f(s) forallxe 4. We say that x* is an absolute maximum point for f on A and that x, is an absolute minimum point for / on 4 .if they exist 2. The Maximum-Minimum Theorem: Let =[4,6] and f:1+® be continuous on /, then f has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on I ‘HADI, rt low) Ss Sarl ows Khas, Nene ILE, New Dai1016, is i) BOSSE, Cle VDIRSUA EDTA LG SERTED Ema infanenem com: Webs: wr sadamégelzeome © Remark: (a) If 1 is not closed interval then result may not hold. \ Example: Let f :(0,1)->R defined by f(a) =4 is continuous on (0.1), but does not have absolute maximum on 7 (©) If 1 is not bounded interval then result may not hold. Example: Let f [0,c0) > defined by f(x)=x V xe[00) Then f is continuous on =[0,00) but does not have absolute ‘maximum on 1. Ms : __ (©) Condition of continuity of f on closed and bovinded ner cannot |) ON fe be relaxed. me — Example: Let f [0,1] R defined by SN ~ eS ref S Then f is discontinuous and unbot stew: 7 mT 1] 3. The Location of Roots Theorem Let ¥=[a,6] and f:1>R be continuous on 7 and if Fearon f(a)>0> f(b) ie. F(@).f (b)< then there exist a number. ¢ 2 6) such that f(c)=0. Remark: . (a) The condition f(a). f(b) <0 cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f :{1,2]>B defined by f(x)=x Then f is continuous on [1,2] but there docs not exist any ce(1,2) such that /(c)=0 () The condition of continuity of f cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f:{-1,l]>R defined by a f()= fi Then f(-1),f(1)<0, but f does not vanish anywhere in [-1,1] xs0 x0 (© If 1=[a,b] and f:1R be such that /(a)./(b)<0 and there exist c¢(a,b) such that f(c)=0. Then f may not be continuous. Example: Let f:[-1,1]-> defined by 4 -Asx<0 ror x=0 1 Oexst Lg ‘AA/A, est lor)aSeral Huuz Khas, Net LUT, New Dei-110016, Ph (126507507, Cl 999183434 & 899161734, SUSHI Em: llotnvacaden.coa: Webs: wv dlustadear.comRigo son ose Cocttat nations (@ The converse of the above theorem need not be true ie. Let 1[a,6) and f:2—R is continuous on / and if 3 ce (a,b) such that /(c)=0 then /(a).f (6) need not be negative. \ Exareple: Let f:[-1,1]>R defined by f(x)=x? Vxe[-Ll]. © If f:[a,6]-+B is continuous on [a,b] and there exist o,8¢[2,5] such that f(a) f(B)<0 then there exist ¢¢(a,p) such that f(c)=0 4, Bolzano’s Intermediate Value Theorem (1.V.P.): Let J be an interval and /:1> be continuous on J and if these exist abet and ke satisfying /(a) B be defined as QR ™ —_ XS xe (01) \ F(2)= i 0 xsl . ‘Then f is continuous on (0.1ybut ads goat juous at O and 1. Lt NT Also, sE)-$R be continuous on 1. Then the set f(t)is an interval. Remark: ~ (2) Condition of closeness of 1 cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f :(0,1)->R be defined as . S(2)=4 Vxe(6.1) & —— Then f is continuous on (0,i) SS But $={F(x):x (0,1) (0), ulin ter bounded nor closed. 7 oo (b) Condition of boundedness cannot be relaxed Example: Let f :[0,0]+® vee rojas Vref) SN a ‘Thea f is continuous oO he) but S=(s(x):xe/} is [0,~0), which is unbounded. — (© Image of closed and bounded interval under continuous map f is closed and bounded interval and the interval is [m, 44], where maint {f(2):xe 1), M=sp{ f(z): 7} ‘Sign Retainméat Property of a Continuous function If a function f is continuous at an interior point ¢ of an interval [a,b] and /(c)#0 then 3 @3>0 such that f(x) has the same sign as f(c), for every x¢(c-8c+8) Rema (@) If F is continous at the end point & of [4,5] and f(4)«0 then there exist an interval (-8,b) such that f(x) has the sign of f(6) forall xin (6-35) (0) A similar result hold for continuity and point a (©) This result can be extended for any subset of R. ie, If SCR, and f:$>R is continuous function at =a and F(a)#0 Then there exist §>0 such that f(x) has the sign of f(a) for all xin (a-8,0+8)05 (5g BARE ee Sr eri Nae Re DING Ps UDRP, Ca JHU IGT HT { Eval: ifodloaendemr cou: Welle: wr diecadeny om. |(First Foriny Let f be a continuous function on an interval 7 and F(x) 20 VxeIn, Then f(x}=0 Vxer (Second Form) If f(z) and g(x) are continuous on an interval 7 and )=2(s)[email protected] f(x)=2(x)vxel Generalized for Let f and g are two continuous functions on Sem and f(x)=g(x) Veet (where 7 is a dense subset of S ), Then S(a)=ala) Vaes . Remarks: ne (@) If f is monotonic on 7. Then im 7) wissen) oo i say not be equal. RE? ie, A monotonic function can hay, onium Fito iscontinity {b) if f is monotonic and satisfy LV.P, omen it is continuous function. NON Y (© The set of point of discontinuity Gate ie kind of real valued function is countable. (@ There is no. real valued’ function with-in continuous on every rational point and discontinuous at eyery irrational point. Some Important Examples: 5. 1, Let j be @ function defined Sn~R_which satisfy the condition [F(slzt vreR Then / is continuous at x=9 Reason: Since 0<|/(0)|<|o| =f (0)= Let ¢20 be given. Consider, Ve) Fhe OY Shiba Geometric Mean Bee ly : = xta2, x+4isinx2 2-sinx21 a = xtlisineeo ve i = xttesing Vx Thus f has ao fixed point. ml lfodinacadeoy.com: Webtke: w¥dipnaatea cme (aa, wr) in Surah Hine Ks, Near LUT, New DeF-I06, Ph (1) 26597507, Clr PPOIRM & PORTTIG, RSRBATIDSY Fixed Point Existence Theorem & +sinx (b) Let /:R—>R defined by /( Let d= {re /f(x) <3}. Then card (4) is countably infinite Reason: Let us define a function as Hadas (ax ssinzta—x =sinx Then h(x)=0 Vx=nn where ne Thus, card 4 is countably infinite. SON (©) Let f:R > be a fimetion defined as 10) ce 8s Then has no fixed point, Qn. Reason: Since the line y=x and y: PR ea intersect anywhere, oss @Let f:R-{0}9R be F(2)=[oey(x\| VxreR-(0}. Then f has 1 fixed point. F(x) intersect at exactly 1 Reason: Since the line y=x,anby: points. If f:[a,6]=>{a,6] is 2 continuous function. Then f has a fixed point. fe 3 x9 ¢ [4,8] such that / (x) =x Remark: (@) Condition of closeness cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f :(0,1)-+(0,1) be a function defined by f(x)= Then f is continuous on (0,1), but it does not have any fixed point. () Condition of boundedness of the interval cannot be relaxed. Example: Let f:R-» R be a function defined by f(x)=e*. Then J is continuous on R but f does not have any fixed point. (© If domain and range are not equal then function may not have fixed oint ‘ 1 Example: Let f (0,1) -» (0,20) be a function defined by f(x)=—. Then f is continuous on (0,1) but does not have any fixed point. © Hf F:fa,8]>{c,d] is @ continuous function where [e.d}< [0.0] Then / must have a fixed point, Reasom Take the restriction of f on [c,4]. "HAAN, Fora Sera nua Kis, Near LUE, New DanFLIOUIG, Ps (H1)AUES7S7, Ca 9991884 & PATON, IVT. mall ifiinocademy somes Webi wom dloncademy com i< 3rs f Rago sunt 2000 certs nstute (© This theorem gives only the existence of a fixed point. i« ‘f:[a,6]>[2,6] isa continuous function then f may have ‘countably infinite, finite uncountable numbers of fixed point. @ Let f:[-11]>[-11] be a function defined as [>sio(2) ifx#0 St \x, has countably infinite fixed points. {| 0 itx=0 Gi Let f:[-1,1]+[-1,1] be a fimetion defined as f(x two fixed point. Gii)Let f:[-11]+[-4,1] be a function defined as _f(x)=x has uncountable numbers of fixed point. + Result: If f is differentiable on R & |/"(2)sa%t. (iene £@) 2 has denote the derivative of f), Then either / has nixed LBoint or unique. fixed point, oS 6.5. Uniform Continuity . oS cee A function f defined on ax interval 1 is said:tq be ni ‘uniformly continuous on J iffor each e>0 there exists a 5>0 suchthat “\S. | |r(22)-F(x1}|@ be given. Taking 8 = c, we get \f(x)-F (0) , but not uniformly continuous on JO,z{ . Example: The function f(x) = sin.x? is not uniformly continuous on [0,[ - Example: The function f(x)= 06.5.1. 65.2. 653. Ty Non-Uniform Continuity Criterion Let JR and let £:14 R. Then the following statements are equivalent: @ fF isnot uniformly continuous on J Gi) There exists an ey >0 such that for every 8>0 there are points 5.45 in J such that |x5 -us|<8 and |fls)- Fs) 28). ii) There exists an _ >0 and two sequences (x,) and (u,) in 7 such that Tim(x%y~u,)=0 and |/(%,)~ f (uy) 26 forall ne Application: We can apply this result to claim that f(x)=1/x is not uniformly continuous on /= (0,0). For, if x, =1/n and.u, =1/(n-+1), then wehave tim(x,—4,)=0, but [e(x,)~# (ty)=1 forall ne Ns. Result: A function which is uniformly continuous. continuous on that interval, Note: Converse of the result need not the true. re Example: Let f:{0,1)-+8 be a furiction dined \ continuous but not uniformly continuous on, (0,1). Uniform Continuity Theorem oN Let 1 be a closed and bounded interval'id gro R be continuous on 1. Then f is uniformly continuous on 1. x Alternative solution: ‘The functt We = i(x+1) is uniformly continuous for x ¢[0,2] ee Here f(x) is a rational function and so. it is continuous for every real number other than zeros of the denominator of polynomial function x-+1. But :+1=0-> 2-1, which does not belong to [0,2]. Hence f(x) is contimaoys on the closed interval [0,2] Since every function which is continuous in a closed interval is also uniformly continuous in that interval, it follows that f(x) =2/(x+1) is uniformly continuous in [0,2] Lipschitz Function Let ACR and let f:4>R be a function if there exists a constant K> 0 such that |/(x)-f(w)|sK[x-u| for all xwe4. Then f is said to be a Lipschitz function (or to satisfy a Lipschitz condition) on 4. Result: If f:/> 2 isa Lipschitz function, then f is uniformly continuous on 7 Remark: Converse of the above result need not be true. ie, A uniformly continuous function on the interval 1 may not be Lipschitz function on 1. Example: Let g{x)=Vx for x in the closed and bounded interval = [0,2] Since g is continuous on J. Then g is uniformly continuous on J However, g isnota Lipschitz function on / ‘af interval is A, ow) Si Sarl Haz Khas Nene LET, New Dab O16, Ps UD 2GRTER, Cee TENG & SOP1OTT, ABBOGTIS 4 fe Simub ome ma oie a]Dripsaadeny Reso S00t a00e Cartiied nateete * 654. 65.5. Continuous Extension Theorem Let 1 =(a,b) be an interval. Then, f:1 > is uniformly continuous on 1 if and only if it can be defined at the point a and b such that the extended {| function is continuous on [a,6] / Application: The function defined by s(s)=asia(4) is uniformly continuous on (0,1) ‘Reason: Since the extension function g:[0,1]->R defined by a(s)= ssa(}) 7H O. continuous on [0,1] oO a0 Some important Sufcient Conditions For Uniform a nity ~ cl. If f is continuous on R then it is stent ti son eveiys | interval of finite length. But not conversely. Example: A function 10) 220 uieh Fn jus on every interval of finite length but not uniformly contintiays.on 2, IE / is differentiable on (a,8) and derivative of Nx bounded. Then / is uniformly continuous on (a,b) but rae! (we will prove this by LV. Example; A function f :(0,1)>R & eats) ee Ae vx is uniformly continuous on (01) but derivative sno Bi Doitide 3. If f is periodic on m and continiious on R. Thea it is uniformly continuous on R. 4. Graph of a funetion is parallel to x-axis then f must’ be uniformly continuous on its given domain, S. Graph of f is parallel to x-axis (or fluctuate) then f cannot be ‘miformly continuous on its given domain. 6. If f is continuous on [a,«), (aeR) and limit at co exist finitely. Then f is uniformly continuous on [a,°0) 7. If f is uniformly continuous on (2,4) & (b,c) and continuous at x=6: ‘Then f is uniformly continuous on (a,c) 5 Result: Let f: +R be a uniformly continuous function on 1 and (x,) be a Cauchy sequence in s . Then (f(x,)) is also Cauchy Sequence, Remark: (@) This result tells us that image of a Cauchy Sequence under uniformly continuous map is Cauchy sequence. (®) Uniform continuity 4 boundedness ic, A uniformly continuous function may not be bounded. Example: A function :R—>R defined by f(x)=x. (©) Continuity + boundedness $> Uniform continuity i bounded function may not be uniform continuous. Example: A function f:R +R defined by f(x)=sin(x*) . A continuous {8401 et Flr) a Sera, Houz Ka, Near ELE, New DelBP-L1O016, Pb (O11) 20457527, Cal OTARG A SBPIOTTS4,SSURGNTED E-mail iafodedianeaden com: Webs rm ainacdeny.comBipscademy ‘Aniso S001! 2008 Cerined intite 65.6. Algebra of Uniformly Continuous Functions Let f and g are uniformly continuous functions on the interval 1 . Then (@ of +g is uniformly continuous on /, Va,peR (i If Ff and g both are bounded functions. Then f.g is uniformly continuous function, (DIE f(x)2k>0 W xe / where keR. Then 7 8 tmiformly continuous on ie Remark: (@ Condition of boundedness of f and g cannot be relaxed in) 7 Example: Let us consider functions f,g: aR 5 S(x)=g(2)=2 VxeR SS is not uniformly continuous on 8. (&) The condition f(x}2 £50 Se : Example: Let ws consider a funn NGi)+R defined as f(Qx)=x Vxe(01) . Then f js~ ‘nfectly continuous, But Fide which is seoap-2p ]e)=2 is not uniformly continmous oe ‘Weal: wemdancadea.com 81, (et Fer a Sart Hatz Ks, Neat LT, New Debt TOOL6, Ph: (01) 2697527, Ca 9018334 a 959173, ASERSUTOS| eal illo 9CHAPTER 7 { DIFFERENTIABILITY 7A. Definition Let f be a real valued function defined on an interval [a,b] i., S:fad]>R. Let aceR as f(x), fe Then f is 2x-1 xe Qe differentiable at x=1. (b) Let = f:R>R be «function defined as * sin( 1 >0, x fee) ae 7% x4 ° then 7 is differentiable at °, x=0 xs0ca>l. (©) Let /:RR be a function defined as f(x)=|x|+|z-1| VxeR. Then / is not differentiable at x =0,1. 3 @ The function f(x)= |x| is derivable at the origin. Reason: We have 17 (0)= ig SOLO. AB 1. y@=r@-o Hence "(0)=0 fA et Pan) SiS Hae Rear LE Nox DOBEOG Ps 1) 47S, Cae PURSE TCI AEST { i lafoaainncnge. com? Website: wr pacar{ | 1a ‘Anis0 90082008 Dri i + 8x+a, ifxsl . The x) =. . (© The function f defined by f(x) { eon tao 8 Ben to be derivable for every x.Find a and 5. Solution: Since f is derivable for every x, f must be derivable at x= and hence, f must be continuous at x=1. Let h>0. Then f is continuous at x=1. 2 S(I)=/(1+0)= f(1-0) 44a im (L+H) = im f(-) Asa fim (0(14+h)+2}= fim {(1-A)+3(1-A)+4}, _ 2 RA fi Lm Again, 7 is differentiable at x=1 = 110=OL oo in UDF) py FM) SS dtanb+2=440 = a i Ah mS a SS b(L+k)4+2-(44a) (I-A) sa@D Wee) ss i i Th ii b-a+bh-2 BP -Sh ~ fig P82 py SH SB b-(b-2)+bh-2 . a 2m A negating bes SW Since b=5, 50 (1) gives a=b-2=5- Thus, a=3,5=5. Geometrical Meaning of the Derivative Let f:[a,6]+R be derivable at ce}a,b{ . Let RQ be the graphical representation of the function y= f(x). We take two neighboring points Ple,f(c)] and Ofe+h f{c+h)}. On the curve such that a 0, the point Q approaches the point P ‘along the graph of / and, hence, the chord PQ approaches the tangent line PY as its limiting position. Thus, as h-> 0,0 y. tan = fim tan = fin £E* =F (0) oe fe) ‘Showing that f'(c) is the slope of the tangent to the curve y= f(x) at the point (c,f(c)) Note: If there is a sharp edge in the curve then at that fis 7 SN Bemark: SSN — ion forthe existence 1. Continuity is a necessary but not a sufficient a finite derivative. ie., every differentiable functior is aa Nen need not be true, ; CN Proof: Let f be derivable at the point ewaah oc A = lim[7@)-s(@)] aS = fim f(2)-F(0)= FCC) We have /(x)-/(c)=| > lims)=s(0) S => Ff iscontinuous at ¢ ‘Thus, continuity is a necessary condition for differentiability but it is not a sufficient condition for the existence of a finite detivative as shown in the following example. Thus, the converse may not be true. %_ 20 5c x<0) 5 Example: Let f be defined by f(x) Then f is continuous at 0,, but itis not derivable st 0. Sian * 2. Ifat x=c,f has Left Hand Derivative and Right Hand Derivative both (may or may not be equal) ‘Then f is continuous at x= 3. If f:[a.b]>R such chat f is differentiable on (a,b) and Right Hand _ Limit of eee) exist finitely at x=b and Left Hand Limit of \ ~ ese) exist finitely at x=a.Then fis differentiable on [a,b] (BARE Ren era a RL Ne DELO Ts UAT, Ca RIT A TG ATS B73. Algebra of Differentiabitity Let / and g are two differentiable functions at ceS¢R, Then he () of +Be is differentiable atc VafeR and Vag Bay (e)0/'(e)+B8'(e) Gi) (/.8) is diteremible a © end (sey (c)= s(c)e'(e)+F (e(0) (itt g()eo0 . Then £ js differentiable at c and £ (L)o= (OF ()- £68") le) (ey Remark: we (a) Converse of the above result need not be True. SS Example: Lat $R+R,and g:R2R be defined ae~ 1 xeQ 7 f reed, 2egec{) Clearly, f and g are not itferetigble We DO But f+eseZ al 8 are dferentisble at x=0 ws (b) Above results can be extended for fiite-pumbers of differentiable functions (By induction). Se (© If f is differentiable on SCR ad g is not differentiable on S. Then ‘f£g cannot be differentiable on S. Also if f(x)#0 Vxes, then ‘£8 is not differentiable on S.. Result: Let f [2s] >R be a differentiable function. If.c.is an interior point of [a6] and fY(c)>0 then 368>0 such that F(x)>S(e) Vxelee+8), f(2)0 such that f(x)< f(c) Vxelec+8] 7 Also, it may be shown that ©) s'(2)>0=4(3)> F(a) Vxe[a,a+5] : ©) f(a) <0 f(2)< f(a) Vee laat5] © S0)>0> (2) f(x)> Fb) ¥ xe[~8,5] 7.3.1 Darboux’s Theorem - If a function is derivable in a closed interval [a,b] and s"(a),/"(b) are of \ opposite signs, then there exist at least one point © in the open interval (2,0) such that "(c)=0. 7 {BAI Rt) Sr sr K, Near TT Nor BEDS ONG PO AGN, Cal MTOM A ATTN SRD k arRemark: 1. If fis derivable in [a,6] and f"(a)# s"(b), then for each number & lying between f’(a) and '(8), 3 some point ce(a,6) such that F(oj=k Reason: We are given that f(a) ~A(a) Sf $'(b) are of the same sign, then f must ania Reason: We are given that f(a) = FOE Since /"(a) and f'(b) are ofthe saing Bighkwemay take _ SS S'(a)>0 and /°(8)>0 Now /(e)>0=3 soms 8,>0 eusthat S(x)>f(a)=0 Vxe]ea+6]- Again f'(b)>0=>3 some 8; >0 such that S(x)> f(0)=0 Vxe [6-620 Thus f(a+8,)>0 and f(6-8)<0 () Obviously, [2+8,,6-82]<[4,6] (2) Since f is derivable in [a,b] , f is continuous in [a,b] and consequently by (2), / is continuous in [a+8,,6~8,], where f(a+8,) and f(b-8,) are of opposite signs, by (1). Thus, there exists some ce Ja+8,,6-8,[<]o,2[ such that /(c)=0, Hence f must vanish at least once in Ja,6[ 3. If f is derivable on [a,6],/(a)=£(b)=0 and f(x) #0 for any'x in (2,0) then f'(a) and /“(b) must have opposite signs. Reason: Let , if possible, /‘(a) and '(b) be of the same sign. Also S(a)=f(6)=0. Then, there exists some ce ]a,8[ such that f(c)=0 ‘This contradicts the given hypothesis that (x) #0 for all x in Ja,b. Hence f'(a) and f"(b) must be of opposite signs. 28411, (Ft Hoo Si Sara Haz Khas Near LLT, Now De ‘Enal: nffadienendem14. ey erred te 4, If f is derivable at a point c, then || is also derivable at c, provided f(c)#0. However result may not hold when f(c)=0. 5. Let f:[-1.1] 7 be defined by reef Then there does not exist a e'(s)=s(2) vee[-u). Reason: Let, if possible, there exist a function g-[-1,1]->® such that FOO geet g such that Ie follows that g is derivable on [-11]_ os Se ee) [ve(A)=0 and g'(1)=1]. ~. => g’ must assume every value SS eset [reC)=omde()e} Sm SY But this is impossible, since g'(x} Hace there does not exist 44S #'(x)=s(2) V¥e[-L] oN Local Maxima & Local Minima’. SS Let f:1-9R and c bean interior vote interval 7. Then such that 1. f(6) is said to be 2 local maximum value of the function /', if there exist some neighbourhood (c-A,c+8) of ¢ , such that s(c)> s(3) ¥xe(c-8,c+8) other than ¢ and e is called point of local maxitha. 2. f(c) is-sbid to-be a minimum value of the function /-, if there exists some neighbourhood Je-8,c+3[ of ¢ , such that S()R defined as f( 2. Such that f"(x)=3x7 Then f'(0)=0 — But / has neither a maximum value nor a minimum. ue atx=0. (© A function may have maximum or @ minimum value APbint without being derivable at that point. sae So Example: Let us define a funetjon_f (2) zxample: Let us define a Fete SS Then J isnot derivable at x=0 but f haStheoisiam at x= 0, (@) Let f:1>R be continuous on an intezval Aand Suppose that f has a relative extremum at an interior point ee en cither the derivative af f at © does not exist, ori i eq Results: . SS 1. Ifa function f is continuous in eather @ F(x)>0vxe]a,d[, then f is inseasing in [0,0], Gi) f"(x)<0V-xe ]a,b[, then / is decreasing in [a,b]. Further if f is defined in [4,6] and a 0= f is increasing in Je-6,,c+8,[ for some 5, >0 (iv) #'(c)<0= f is decreasing in Je—8,,¢+8y{ for some 8, >0 2, First derivative test for extreme values Leta function f be derivable in a neighbourhood of c, where f has an ‘extreme value at ¢. Then f(c) is a maximum value if the sign of f* + changes from pivs to minus and f(¢) is a minimum value ifthe sign of J” changes from minus to plus as x passes through e. Applications: Example: Examine the function x°~6x"+9x-4 for maximum and ‘minimum values. Solution: Let f (x)= x° ~6x° +9x—4, Then J'(x)=32 -12x49=3(x7 -4x43) {oF F(x) =3(e-1)e-3) S'(x)=0forx=13 (pS ern Nar Ne AG Ps HDT, CISL HAT HTS i E-mllfodinacdea com: Webae:w-dineacelea omeDeipsscademy Sealgeeme Now for x<1, /"(x)= )(-)>0, and - forx>4, s"(x)=(+).(-)<0. Thus f"(x) changes sign from plus to minus in going through x=1. Hence the function has & maximum at x=1 and f(1)= value of f isa maximum Now for x<3,5"(s)= Me)<0 and for x>3,f"(s)=(+).(+)>0. Thus f'(x) changes sign from minus to plus in going through x=3 ‘Hence the function has minimum at x=3 and (3) ya inirsum (3) ee value of SOQ 3. Second derivative est for extremevaies Ss ) Let be derivable on an interval Jo~asz Ten et) 0 @ IE (0 and /*(c)<0, then f tas value at x wan (i Hf 7"(e)=0 and f"(c)>0, then f hae PmGNewem value at x =e Example: Find the maximum and imi ‘values of the function J (x)= 128 ~45x4 +4027 +6xeR So KON Solution: We have — f(z) =60x4 = 1802) +120%7 = 60x? (x?-3x42)= 603" (x-1)(x~2). ‘The extreme values of the function f are given by f"(x)=0 te, x=01,2. Now f"(x)=240x° ~$40x? +240x of "(x)= 60(4x° ~9x? 44x) f"(2)=240>0=> f has a minimum at x=2. and f*(1) -60-<0= f as a maximum at x=1 Since §"(0)=0, we find out the third derivative, We have I” (x)= 72022 -1080x+240 => f*(0)=24080, So f has neither a maximum nor a minimum at x =0. ‘Minimum value = f(2)=~10. Maximum value = f (I)=12-45+40+6=13 ‘HAs Fa Fae) Sa Sarl Haus Kha, Net LET, New DeGOUIG Ph: (1) 2657527, Crs OTR BDOOIGTTD, SHARES Ell lefdiloneatemy om: Weite wwm dipnendemy. com‘Remark: (@ Let_f(x)=PVxeR. Then f"(0)=0 and /*(0)=0, but the function f has neither a maximum nor a minimum at x=0. (b) Let f(x)=x* VxeR. Then f"(0)=0 and f*(0)=0. Clearly, the ’ curve y=x" is symmetrical about the y-axis, passes through the origin and lies above the x-axis only. Hence the function f has a minimum at x=0. (© Let f(x)=-x4 VxeR. Then /'(0) maximum at x=0. 4. Let f be a function defined on an interval {2,6} and-aceQ. \_ 7.5. Mean Value Theorems 1. Rolle’s Theore NN Let f bea function defined on [4;5} such that (Ff iscontinuous on [a6] Gi : Git) F(a) = (0) : i Then 3 ce(a,b) such that f'(c)=0. s J is differentiable on (4,5) Geometrical interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem: Let 4 and B be the points on the graph 4R%A2 of the function y=f(x) comesponding to x=a and x=6 respectively. Then, ‘geometrically, Rolle’s theorem asserts that there is at least one point between x=a and x=6, at which the tangent to the curve of the 5 function, is parallel to x -axis. In the figure, we have shown the Es | possibility of three points R,?, and ® where the tangent is parallel to : j x-axis, | oO x BRA, i Pt a Sar Hass Ks, Ney LT, em DORLI.OI6, Ph (13ND Cae OTN 9TH SRRGTIO b nul iatiaipnerdomcomt Web: wnt com I