NOTES

PSYC1001: Introduction to Psychology

University of Sydney

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 Table of Contents

1! SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT! 5!
1.1! VARIABLES! 5!
1.2! LOGICAL!FALLACIES! 5!
1.3! RESEARCH!DESIGNS! 6!
1.3.1! CASE!STUDY! 6!
1.3.2! CORRELATIONAL!STUDIES! 6!
1.3.3! QUASI5EXPERIMENT! 7!
1.3.4! TRUE!EXPERIMENT! 7!
1.4! EXPERIMENTAL!VALIDITY! 7!
1.4.1! INTERNAL!VALIDITY! 7!
1.4.2! EXTERNAL!VALIDITY! 7!
1.5! SCIENTIFIC!HYPOTHESES! 7!

2! STATISTICS! 8!
2.1! INTRODUCTION!TO!STATISTICS! 8!
2.2! SIGNIFICANCE!AND!POWER! 9!

3! SOCIAL INFLUENCE! 10!

3.1! METHODS! 10!
3.2! SOCIAL!FACILITATION! 10!
3.3! SOCIAL!LOAFING! 11!
3.4! CONFORMITY! 11!
3.5! BYSTANDER!EFFECT! 11!
3.6! DEINDIVIDUATION! 12!
3.7! MINORITY!INFLUENCE! 12!

4! SOCIAL PERCEPTION! 13!

4.1! ATTRIBUTION!THEORIES! 13!
4.2! ATTRIBUTION!BIAS! 13!
4.3! STEREOTYPES! 14!
4.4! ATTITUDES! 14!

5! NEUROSCIENCE! 15!
5.1! RELATING!STRUCTURE!TO!FUNCTION! 15!
5.2! NEUROANATOMY! 16!
5.3! NEURONS! 17!
5.4! DRUGS! 18!
5.5! EMOTION! 19!

6! DEVELOPMENT THEORIES! 20!

6.1! RESEARCH!DESIGNS! 20!
6.2! NORMATIVECDESCRIPTIVE! 20!
6.3! LEARNING!THEORY:!BEHAVIOURISM!AND!SOCIAL!LEARNING! 20!
6.3.1! BEHAVIOURISM!(PAVLOV/WATSON,!SKINNER)! 21!
6.3.2! SOCIAL!LEARNING/COGNITIVE!THEORY!(BANDURA)! 21!

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 6.4! STAGE!THEORY:!PSYCHOANALYTIC!(FREUD/ERIKSON)!AND!COGNITIVE!(PIAGET)! 21!
6.5! ETHOLOGICAL!THEORY:!ATTACHMENT!THEORY!(BOWLBY)! 22!
6.6! CONTEXTUAL/SOCIOCULTURAL!THEORY!(VYGOSKY)! 22!

7! EARLY DEVELOPMENT! 23!

7.1! PRENATAL!INFLUENCES! 23!
7.1.1! STAGES! 23!
7.1.2! PRENATAL!VULNERABILITY:! 23!
7.1.3! PRENATAL!LEARNING!AND!COGNITION!IN!FOETUSES! 23!
7.2! EARLY!DEPRIVATION! 23!
7.3! ORPHANAGE!STUDIES! 24!
7.4! ENGLISH/ROMANIAN!ADOPTION!STUDY! 24!
7.5! INTERVENTION! 25!
7.5.1! INITIAL!HEAD!START!PROGRAMS! 25!
7.5.2! PERRY!PRESCHOOL!PROGRAM! 25!
7.5.3! ABECEDARIAN!PROJECT! 25!
7.5.4! EARLY!HEAD!START!PROGRAM! 25!
7.6! MOTOR!SKILLS!DEVELOPMENT! 25!
7.6.1! REFLEXES! 26!
7.6.2! VOLUNTARY!MOVEMENT! 26!
7.6.3! ORPHANAGE!STUDIES! 26!
7.6.4! CROSS5CULTURAL!STUDIES! 26!
7.7! HIGHER!LEVEL!PROCESSES! 26!
7.7.1! SENSORY5NEUROLOGICAL!PROCESSES! 26!
7.7.2! INTEGRATIVE5PERCEPTUAL!PROCESSES! 27!
7.7.3! COGNITIVE!PROCESSES! 27!
7.7.4! METACOGNITIVE!PROCESSES/EXECUTIVE!FUNCTIONS! 27!
7.7.5! DEVELOPMENTAL!COORDINATION!DISORDER! 27!

8! PERSONALITY! 28!
8.1! LEVELS!OF!PERSONALITY! 28!
8.2! PSYCHOANALYSIS! 28!
8.2.1! LEVELS!OF!AWARENESS! 28!
8.2.2! STRUCTURE! 28!
8.2.3! DEFENCE!MECHANISMS! 29!
8.2.4! MENTAL!ENERGY! 29!
8.2.5! PSYCHOSEXUAL!STAGES! 29!
8.2.6! FIXATION! 30!
8.3! COGNITIVECBEHAVIOURAL!APPROACH! 30!
8.3.1! HABITUATION! 30!
8.3.2! CONDITIONING! 30!
8.4! HUMANISTIC!AND!EXISTENTIAL!APPROACH! 31!
8.4.1! INNATE!GROWTH!MECHANISMS! 31!
8.4.2! ILLNESS! 31!
8.5! TRAITS!APPROACH! 31!
8.5.1! BEHAVIOURAL!GENETICS! 32!
8.5.2! ARRANGEMENT! 32!
8.5.3! LEXICAL!TAXONOMY! 32!
8.5.4! PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL!TAXONOMY! 32!
8.6! ASSESSMENT! 33!
8.6.1! QUANTIFYING!PERSONALITY! 33!
8.6.2! VALIDITY! 33!
8.6.3! RELIABILITY! 33!

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 9! FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY! 34!
9.1! EXPERT!WITNESSES! 34!
9.2! EYEWITNESS!TESTIMONY! 34!
9.2.1! ESTIMATOR!VARIABLES! 34!
9.2.2! SYSTEM!VARIABLES! 34!
9.2.3! INACCURATE!IDENTIFICATION! 35!
9.3! LINECUPS! 35!
9.3.1! COMPOSITION! 35!
9.3.2! PRESENTATION! 36!
9.4! CRIMINAL!PROFILING! 36!
9.4.1! FBI!APPROACH! 36!
9.4.2! STATISTICAL!PROFILING! 36!
9.4.3! GEOGRAPHIC!PROFILING! 37!
9.5! LIE!DETECTION! 37!
9.5.1! POLYGRAPH! 37!
9.5.2! RELEVANT/IRRELEVANT!TEST! 37!
9.5.3! CONTROL!QUESTION!TEST! 37!
9.5.4! GUILTY!KNOWLEDGE!TEST! 38!
9.6! INTERROGATION! 38!
9.6.1! 9!STEP!ACCUSATORIAL!INTERROGATION! 38!
9.6.2! FALSE!CONFESSIONS! 39!
9.6.3! PEACE!MODEL! 39!
9.7! JURIES! 40!
9.7.1! SELECTION! 40!
9.7.2! JUROR!BEHAVIOUR!STUDIES! 40!
9.7.3! REACHING!A!VERDICT! 40!
9.7.4! VERDICT!PREDICTION! 41!

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 1 Scientific thought
1.1 Variables
5 Independent variable
o Condition or event experimenter varies to observe impact on
another variable
o Manipulated
5 Dependent variable
o Affected by manipulation of independent variable
o Measured
5 Extraneous variables
o Variables other than independent variable likely to influence
dependent variable
5 Confounding of variables
o Variables linked in a way difficult to sort out effects

1.2 Logical fallacies

5 Ad hominem
o Attacking arguer instea d of the argument
5 Argument from authority
o Deriving truth due to high status of arguer
5 Argument from ignorance
o Deriving truth from lack of falsehood
o Deriving falsehood from lack of truth
o “Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence”
o Showcased in Denialism
5 Begging the question
o Assuming an answer in the phrasing of the question
5 Confirmation bias
o Looking for evidence which confirms already-held beliefs
o Vague evidence that can be re-interpreted
o Type 1 error
5 Observational selection
o Counting the hits and forgetting the misses
5 False dichotomy
o Considering only two extremes in a continuum of intermediate
possibilities
5 Slippery slope
o Unwarranted extrapolation of effects
5 Confusion of correlation and causation
o Drawing conclusions between factors due to the relationship
between them
5 Straw man
o Caricaturing or stereotyping a position to make an attack easier

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 5 Weasel words
o Vague and misleading terminology, or reinvention of language
5 Pragmatic fallacy
o Deriving truth when linking separate concepts due to desirable
results
5 Vitalistic energy
o Life and purpose in objects
o Ego-centric
o More likely to believe in paranormal activity
o Cannot be measured
5 Reification
o Treatment of an abstract relationship like a concrete entity
o Theories discuss measures of concepts, not the concepts
themselves

1.3 Research designs

5 Operational definition of variables
o Measurable and objective definition of procedure
5 Self-report scales
o Assumes insight into mental life
o Allows for deception
5 Brain areas showing activity alternatives
o Struggle due to less efficiency
o Pathway towards other area
o Related to unexpected processes
o More than one function
5 Within-subjects design
o Subjects serve as own control group
5 Between-subjects design
o Two or more independent groups exposed to manipulation of
independent variable
5 Reactivity
o Alteration of subject’s behaviour in presence of observer

1.3.1 Case study

5 Details recorded in scientific manner
5 Consists of combination of previously collected data
5 Should not be over-interpreted
5 Ideal for rare and specific investigation
5 Zero internal validity

1.3.2 Correlational studies

5 Measures naturally occurring variables
5 Possibility of large sample
5 Weak causal inference
5 No random allocation of independent variables
5 Very low internal validity

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 5 +ive coefficient: as one variable increases, the other increases
5 –ive coefficient: as one variable increases, the other decreases
5 0.1-0.4 = weak
5 0.6-0.9 = strong

1.3.3 Quasi-experiment
5 Study of pre-existing groups
5 Weak causal inference
5 Attempt at random allocation of independent variables
5 Low-moderate internal validity

1.3.4 True experiment

5 Uses dependent and independent variables
5 Random selection/sampling
5 Random allocation and double-blindness of all independent variables
5 Allows replication
5 High internal validity, low external validity

1.4 Experimental validity

1.4.1 Internal validity
5 Attributing changes in dependent variable to changes in independent
variable
5 Confounding variables
o Other variables that are causing the change
5 Reducing confounding variables
o Random allocation to different conditions
o Counterbalancing order of conditions
o Double-blind procedures

1.4.2 External validity

5 Generalising results to other populations and contexts
5 Increasing external validity
o Random selection
o Naturalistic context

1.5 Scientific hypotheses

5 Experimental hypothesis
o Prediction derived from scientific theory
5 Null hypothesis
o State of no effect
o Rejection: something found
o Retention: no consistent evidence found
5 Falsifiability
o The ability to prove hypotheses wrong

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 2 STATISTICS

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

5 Mode
o Most common score
o Score that actually occurred
o Represents largest number of subjects
o Problems occur depending how data is grouped
5 Median
o Middle score in distribution
o Isn’t disproportionately affected by extremes
o Not easy to use in calculations
5 Mean
o Balance point of distribution
o Easy to manipulate mathematically
o Good estimate of population from sample
o Easily affected by extremes
5 Symmetrical distribution
o Unimodal
o Mode, median and mean are equal
o Can have different means and variance
5 Positive distribution skew
o Slanted towards left
o Mode at apex
o Median at centre
o Mean to right of mode and median
5 Negative distribution skew
o Slanted towards right
o Mode at apex
o Median at centre
o Mean to left of mode and median
5 Deviation score
o Distance of score from mean
o Squared, as averages add up to zero
5 Standard deviation
o Average deviation of scores around the mean
o Measured in raw score distribution
5 Standard error
o Average deviation of means around a population
o Measured in sampling distribution
5 Raw score distribution
o Real data
o Raw score x Frequency
o Shape can be normal, skewed, or irregular

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 o Variability across individuals
o Likelihood of obtaining a particular score
5 Sampling distribution
o Hypothetical data
o Sample mean x Frequency
o Shape is normal regardless of raw score distribution
o Variability across experiments
o Likelihood of obtaining a particular result if null is retained

2.2 SIGNIFICANCE AND POWER

5 Statistical significance
o P-value is considered
o Determines when to reject or retain null
o Indicates reliability of effect
o < .05 suggests chance is not involved
o > .05 suggests chance is involved
5 Practical significance
o Determined by size of effect and possible application
5 Type 1 error
o Rejecting true null
o Too liberal
o False alarm
5 Type 2 error
o Retaining a false null
o Too conservative
o Miss
5 Signal detection theory
o Determining appropriate criterion for decision-making
o Weighing up costs and benefits of false alarms and misses
5 Statistical power
o Probability of rejecting false null
o Should be estimated before testing
5 Effect variability
o Greater variability increases power and consistency
o Lower variability reduces power and consistency
5 Effect size
o Distance from null to result
o Greater size increases power
o Lower size reduces power
5 Sample size
o Greater size increases power and lowers variance, but increases
chance of type 1 error
o Smaller sample size reduces power
o Should be considered in relation to predicted effect size

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NOTES
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The University of Sydney

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