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    Biomolecules

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    rathore284golukkmmannat
    This document summarizes key information about biomolecules, focusing on carbohydrates. It describes the main types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides formed from two monosaccharide units, oligosaccharides with 2-10 monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides formed from many monosaccharide units. Glucose is discussed in detail, including its preparation from sucrose or starch hydrolysis, structural determination involving D/L notation and cyclic forms, and mutarotation. Fructose structure is also briefly covered. Disaccharides are defined as two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage via dehydration.

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    Biomolecules

    Uploaded by

    rathore284golukkmmannat
    6 views2 pages
    This document summarizes key information about biomolecules, focusing on carbohydrates. It describes the main types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides formed from two monosaccharide units, oligosaccharides with 2-10 monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides formed from many monosaccharide units. Glucose is discussed in detail, including its preparation from sucrose or starch hydrolysis, structural determination involving D/L notation and cyclic forms, and mutarotation. Fructose structure is also briefly covered. Disaccharides are defined as two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage via dehydration.

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    This document summarizes key information about biomolecules, focusing on carbohydrates. It describes the main types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides formed from two monosaccharide units, oligosaccharides with 2-10 monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides formed from many monosaccharide units. Glucose is discussed in detail, including its preparation from sucrose or starch hydrolysis, structural determination involving D/L notation and cyclic forms, and mutarotation. Fructose structure is also briefly covered. Disaccharides are defined as two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage via dehydration.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    6 views2 pages

    Biomolecules

    Uploaded by

    rathore284golukkmmannat
    This document summarizes key information about biomolecules, focusing on carbohydrates. It describes the main types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides formed from two monosaccharide units, oligosaccharides with 2-10 monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides formed from many monosaccharide units. Glucose is discussed in detail, including its preparation from sucrose or starch hydrolysis, structural determination involving D/L notation and cyclic forms, and mutarotation. Fructose structure is also briefly covered. Disaccharides are defined as two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage via dehydration.

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    BIOMOLECULES

    I. CARBOHYDRATES
    • Optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds that produce such units
    on hydrolysis.
    • Since some carbohydrates are sweet, they are also called sugars or saccharides.

    Types of Carbohydrates:
    1) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler unit.
    Examples: glucose, fructose, etc.
    • About 20 natural monosaccharides are known.
    • Monosaccharides can be further divided as:

    No. of C Atoms General Term If Aldehyde If Ketone


    3 Triose Aldotriose Ketotriose
    4 Tetrose Aldotetrose Ketotetrose
    5 Pentose Aldopentose Ketopentose
    6 Hexose Aldohexose Ketohexose
    7 Heptose Aldoheptose Ketoheptose

    2) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that give 2–10 monosaccharides on hydrolysis.


    • They can be disaccharides, tri-saccharides, etc.

    3) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates that give many monosaccharide units on hydrolysis. Examples:


    starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc.
    • Not sweet ⇒ also called non-sugars.

    4) Reducing or non-reducing sugars: Carbohydrates that reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollens’
    reagent are called reducing sugars.
    • All monosaccharides (both aldoses and ketoses) are reducing in nature.
    (Leave 10–15 lines.)

    GLUCOSE:
    • Also called dextrose.

    Methods of Preparation:
    (1) By hydrolysis of sucrose in boiling HCl or H2SO4 solution:
    H+
    C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 (glucose) + C6H12O6 (fructose)

    (2) By hydrolysis of starch in boiling H2SO4:


    H+
    (C6H10O5)n + n H2O → n C6H12O6 (glucose)

    Structure Determination of Glucose:

    (Leave 1 page – one side.)

    The D and L Notation:


    • In the Fischer projection of a carbohydrate, if the –OH group joined to the lowermost chiral
    carbon is on the right, then the compound is a D-sugar.
    • If the –OH group is on the left, then the carbohydrate is an L-sugar.
    • D and L are not related to the optical activity of the compound.
    • D and L configurations indicate the relation of a stereoisomer with glyceraldehyde.
    • Generally, natural sugars are D-sugars.
    • The D- and L- forms of a carbohydrate are related as mirror images.
    (Leave 1 full page – both sides.)

    Cyclic Structure of Glucose:


    Limitations of open-chain structure:
    • Glucose does not react with Schiff’s reagent and NaHSO3.
    • The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with NH2OH, indicating the absence of free –CHO
    group.
    • Glucose exists in two different crystalline forms — α and β. The crystallization from conc.
    glucose solution at 303 K gives α- glucose (m.p. 419 K), whereas crystallization from hot and
    saturated aqueous glucose at 371 K gives β-glucose (m.p. 423 K).

    Mutarotation:
    • Slow change in the optical rotation of a compound to an equilibrium value.
    • Non-reducing sugars do not show mutarotation.
    (Leave 1 page – one side.)

    FRUCTOSE:
    • Found in fruits, honey and vegetables; sweetest natural sugar.

    Structure of Fructose: (Leave 1 page – one side.)

    DISACCHARIDES:
    • Two monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkage.
    • Glycosidic linkage: An oxide linkage between two monosaccharide units formed by the loss
    of a water molecule.

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