Periodic Table

PERIODIC TABLE
KEY POINTS

Acid anhydride : A nonmetal oxide that reacts with water to form an acid.
Actinides : Elements 90 through 103 (after actinium).
Amphoteric oxide : An oxide that shows some acidic and some basic properties.
Amphoterism : The ability to react with both acids and bases.
Atomic radius : The radius of an atom.
Basic anhydride : A metal oxide that reacts with water to form a base.
Catalyst : A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without itself being consumed in the reaction.
Combustion reaction : The reaction of a substance with oxygen in a highly exothermic reaction, usually
with a visible flame.
d-Transition elements (metals) : The B group elements in the periodic table; sometimes called simply
transition elements.
Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) : The nuclear charge experienced by the outermost electrons of an atom;
the actual nuclear charge minus the effects of shielding due to inner shell electrons.
Electron affinity : The amount of energy absorbed in the process in which an electron is added to a neutral
isolated gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion with a 1– charge; has a negative value if energy is released.
Electronegativity : A measure of the relative tendency of an atom 10 attract electrons to itself when
chemically combined with another atom.
f-Transition elements (metals) : Elements 58 through 71 and 90 through 103; also called inner transition
elements (metals). Hydride : A binary compound of hydrogen.
Ionic radius : The radius of an ion.
Ionization energy : The minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely held electron
of an isolated gaseous atom or ion.
Isoelectronic : Having the same number of electrons.
Lanthanides : Elements 58 through 71 (after lanthanum).
Noble gases : Elements of periodic Group 0; also called rare gases;formerly called inert gases.
Noble gas configuration : The stable electron configuration of a noble gas.
Normaloxide : A metal oxide containing the oxide ion, O2– (oxygen in the –2 oxidation state).
Oxide : A binary compound of oxygen.
Periodicity : Regular periodic variations of properties of elements with atomic number and position in
the periodic table.
Periodic law : The properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
Peroxide : A compound containing oxygen in the –1 oxidation state. Metal peroxides contain the peroxide ion, O22–
Radical : A species containing one or more unpaired electrons; many radicals are very reactive.
Rare earths : Inner transition elements.
Representative elements : The A group elements in the periodic table.
Roasting : Heating an ore of an element in the presence of air.
Shielding effect : Electrons in filled sets of s and p orbitals between the nucleus and outer shell electrons
shield the outer shell electrons somewhat from the effect of protons in the nucleus; also called screening effect.
Superoxide : A compound containing the superoxide ion, O2– (oxygen in the –1/2 oxidation state).
Ternary acid : An acid containing three elements, H, O, and (usually) another nonmetal.
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INTRODUCTION

The branch of science concerned with the substances of which matter is composed, the investigation
of their properties and reactions, and the use of such reactions to form new substances.
The branch of science concerned with the substances of which matter is composed  Atomic
Strucutre
the investigation of their properties  PERIODIC TABLE

NCERT VIEW :
 What is the basic theme of organization in the periodic table ?

DEVELOPMENT OF PERIODIC TABLE

Lavoisier Classification :

(i) Lavoisier classified the elements simply in metals and non metals.
– Metals are the one which have the tendency of losing the electrons.
 Na   e 
Na 
 K   e
K 

– Non-metals are the one which have the tendency of gaining the electrons.
F + e– 
 F–

Cl + e– 
 Cl–

NCERT VIEW :
 What are the major differences between metals and non-metals?

Prout’s Hypothesis :

He simply assumed that all the elements are made up of hydrogen, so we can say that
Atomic weight of element = n × (Atomic weight of one hydrogen atom)

Atomic weight of H  1

where n = number of hydrogen atom = 1, 2, 3,....

Ex. Chlorine (atomic weight 35.5) and Strontium (atomic weight 87.6)

 Drawbacks or Limitations :
(i) Every element can not be formed by Hydrogen.
(ii) Atomic weight of all elements were not found as whole numbers.

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Dobereiner’s Triads :

(i) He made groups of three elements having similar chemical properties called TRIAD.
(ii) In Dobereiner triad, atomic weight of middle element is nearly equal to the average atomic
weight of first and third element.

Ex. (i) Cl Br I [x = (35.5+127)/2 = 81.2]

35.5 80.0 127
(ii) Ca Sr Ba [x = (40 + 137)/2 = 88.5]
40 87.6 137
(iii) Li Na K [x = (7+39)/2 = 23]
7 23 39
Where x = average atomic weight of middle element.

 Drawbacks or Limitations :
All the known elements could not be arranged as triads. It is not applicable for a lot of elements.

Newland’s Octave Rule :

If the elements are arranged in the increasing order of atomic weights, on starting with an element,
the first element will exhibit similarities with the eighth element e.g.
Symbol of element Li Be B C N O F
7 9 11 12 14 16 19
Symbol of element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5
According to table the properties of Li are similar to 8th element i.e. Na and properties of Be are
similar to Mg and so on.

 Drawbacks or Limitations :
(i) This rule is valid only upto Ca, because after Ca there is difference of 18 elements instead of 8
element.
(ii) After the discovery of Inert gases and including them into the periodic table it becomes the 8th
element from Alkali metal so this law had to be dropped out.

Lother meyer’s Curve :

(i) He plotted a curve between atomic weight and atomic volume of different elements.
(ii) The following observations can be made from the curve –
a) Most electropositive elements i.e. alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs etc.) occupy the peak positions
on the curve.
b) Less electropositive i.e. alkaline earth metal (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba) occupy the descending positions
on the curve.
(c) Metalloids ( Si, As, Te, At, etc.) and transition metals occupy bottom part of the curve.

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(d) Most electronegative i.e. halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) occupy the ascending positions on the curve.

 Remember me : Elements having similar properties occupy similar positions on the curve.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table :

According to Mendeleef’s periodic law, the physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic
functions of their atomic weights.

 Main features of Mendeleev’s periodic table :

(a) The horizontal rows – periods.
There are seven periods in the periodic table, 1 to 7 (Arabic numerals).
(b) Properties of elements in a particular period show regular gradation (i.e. increase or decrease)
from left to right.
(c) The vertical columns – groups.
These are nine in number and are numbered from I to VIII and Zero (Roman numerals).
(d) Groups I to VII are subdivided into A and B subgroups. Groups Zero and VIII don’t have any
subgroups.
(e) All the elements in a particular group are chemically similar in nature. They show regular grada-
tion in their physical properties and chemical reactivities.

 Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic classification :

(a) Study of elements : First time all known elements were classified in groups according to their
similar properties. So study of the properties of elements become easier .
(b) Prediction of new elements : Mendeleev’s periodic table had some blank spaces in it. These
vacant spaces were for elements that were yet to be discovered.
For example, Ganga Sc Gemuna Tac
Ga Sc Ge Tc

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 Demerits in Mendeleev’s periodic classification :
(a) Position of hydrogen : Hydrogen resembles alkali metals as well as halogens.

(b) Position of isotopes : Position of isotopes not show in this table.

(c) Anomalous pairs of elements :

At certain places, an element of higher atomic mass has been placed before an element of lower atomic
mass.
For example : Ar and Co were placed before K and Ni respectively in the periodic table, but having
higher atomic weights.

NCERT VIEW :

 Which important property did Mendeleev use to classify the elements in his periodic table
and did he stick to that?

 Use the periodic table to answer the following questions.

(a) Identify an element with five electrons in the outer subshell.
(b) Identify an element that would tend to lose two electrons.
(c) Identify an element that would tend to gain two electrons.
(d) Identify the group having metal, non-metal, liquid as well as gas at the room temperature

MODERN CLASSIFICATION

Moseley’s Discovery (1913) :

According to Moseley, The most fundamental property of an element and not its atomic mass. Atomic
number, (Z), of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom.

– Wave length of x-ray decreases (or frequency increases) in the regular way on moving from
lighter to heavier element.

Z
Property of x-ray depends on charge in nucleus (positive charge, proton).

– Moseley found that the physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic function of
their atomic number. This is also known as ‘Modern Periodic Law’.

 In Modern Periodic Table :

– The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods (1 to 7)

– Elements having similar outer electronic configuration in their atoms are grouped in vertical
columns called groups or families (1 to 18)

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NCERT VIEW :
 What is the basic difference in approach between the Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and the
Modern Periodic Law?

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Classification of Periods :

I-period 2 elements H1 – He2 Shortest period

II-period 8 elements Li3 – Ne10 Ist short period
III-period 8 elements Na3 – Ar18 IInd short period
IV-period 18 elements K19 – Kr36 Ist long period
V-period 18 elements Rb37 – Xe54 IInd long period
VI-period 32 elements Cs55 – Rn86 Ist longest period
VII-period 32 elements Fr87 – Uuo118 IInd longest period

NCERT VIEW :
 On the basis of quantum numbers, justify that the sixth period of the periodic table should
have 32 elements.

Classification of Groups :

s-block group 1 and 2 General configuration = ns1–2

d-block group 3 and 12 General configuration = (n–1)d1–10, ns0-2
p-block group 13 and 18 General configuration = ns2 np1-6
f-block group 3 only General configuration = (n–2)f0–14 , (n–1)d0–1 , ns2

Nomenclature of Elements (after Atomic Number 100) :

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Nil Un Bi Tri Quad Pent Hex Sept Oct Enn

Ex. What will be the name of the element with Z = 101, 102 & 120
(i) 101 unnilunium Unu
(ii) 102 unnilbium Unb
(iii) 120 unbinilium Ubn

Remember me :
(a) p-subshell can accommodate a maximum of six electrons. Therefore, p-block elements are
divided into six groups which are 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 group.

(b) The f-block elements are from atomic number 58 to 71 (Lanthanoids) and from 90 to 103(Actinoids).

(c) Inner Transition Elements

(i) In these elements last three shells i.e. outermost, penultimate and prepenultimate shells are incomplete.
(ii) These are related to IIIB i.e. group 3.

(d) The lanthanides occur in nature in low abundance and therefore, these are called rare earth elements.

(e) All the elements after atomic number 92 (i.e. Uranium) are transuranic elements.

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(f) Transition Element :–
(i) Last two shells of these elements namely outermost and penultimate shells are incomplete in
neutral or most stable ionic state.
(ii) The last shell contains one or two electrons and the penultimate shell may contain more
than eight or up to eighteen electrons.
(iii) Zn, Cd and Hg (IIB or 12th group) are d-block elements but not transition elements because
these elements have d10 configuration in neutral as well as in stable +2 oxidation state.

(g) Number of Gaseous elements – 11 (H, N, O, F, Cl + Noble gases)

(h) Number of Liquid elements – 6 (Cs, Fr, Ga, Hg, Br, Uub)
Bromine is the only non-metal which exists in liquid form.

(i) Number of Solid elements – 95 (if discovered elements are 112)

(j) 2nd period contains maximum number of gaseous elements - N, O, F, Ne

(k) 3rd group is called longest group having 32 elements including 14 Lanthanides and 14 Actinides

(l) In the periodic table, elements with similar properties occur at intervals of 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 and
32. These numbers are called as magic numbers.

Ex. Find the group, period and block of Atomic number 55.
Sol. Group = 55 – 54 (Nearest inert gas no.) =1 (Group no.)
It gives Group number = 1.
Hence s block.

Next noble gas is Xenon(Z=54)

Which has a period of 5.
Hence Z = 55 belongs to the 6th period.

Remember me :
(i) ns1–2 = s block
group number = ns electrons
(ii) If (n–2)f1–14 (n–1)d0–1 ns2 = f block
group number = 3 or IIIB
(iii) (n–1)d1–10 ns0–2 (d-block)
group number = (n–1)d electron + ns electron

NCERT VIEW :

 In terms of period and group where would you locate the element with Z =114 ?

 What is the atomic number of element keeping in mind both the cases given below ;
1. Element is in 3rd period of the periodic table.
2. Element is in 17th group of the periodic table.

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 Write the general outer electronic configuration of s-, p-, d- and f- block elements.

 Assign the position of the element having outer electronic configuration

(i) ns2np4 for n=3
(ii) (n-1)d 2ns2 for n=4, and
(iii) (n-2) f 7 (n-1)d 1ns2 for n=6, in the periodic table.

THE PERIODICITY OF ATOMIC PROPERTIES

What is the Periodicity ?

The regular gradation in properties from top to bottom in a group and from left to right in a period
is called periodicity in properties.

 Effective Nuclear Charge / Screening Effect :–

The effective nuclear charge (often symbolized as Zeff or Z*) is the net positive charge experienced by
an electron in a multi-electron atom. The term “effective” is used because the shielding effect of nega-
tively charged electrons prevents higher orbital electrons from experiencing the full nuclear charge.
Shielding effect (Screening Effect) is when the electron and the nucleus in an atom have a decrease
in attraction which changes the nuclear charge.

 Slater’s rule :
Z* = Z – 
Z* = effective nuclear charge,  = shielding constant and Z = nuclear charge
(a) The shielding effect or screening effect of each electron of 1s orbital is 0.30.
(b) Value of  constant for s and p electrons
(i) The shielding effect of each electrons of ns or np = 0.35
(ii) The shielding effect of each electrons of n–1 shell = 0.85
(iii) The shielding effect of each electrons of other inner shell = 1.0
(c) Value of  constant for d and f electrons
(i) The shielding effect of each remaining electrons of nd or nf = 0.35
(ii) The shielding effect of each electrons of other inner shell = 1.0
(d) In general along a period, Zeff  (with 0.65 value) and atomic size 
Element Li Be B C N O F Ne
Zeff 1.30 1.95 2.6 3.25 3.90 4.55 5.20 5.85
(e) In general along a group, Zeff will be constant but no. of shell  and atomic size also 
Element Li Na K Rb Cs Fr
Zeff 1.30 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20
(f) Order of shielding = s > p > d > f

Ex. Screening effect is not observed in?

(A) He+ (B) Li+2 (C) H (D) all of these
Sol. (D) All species are monoelectronic species.

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Remember me :
(i) Zeff for different ions of an element
Ex. N+ > N > N– (Zeff)

(ii) Zeff of isoelectronic species

Ex. H– < Li+ < Be+2 < B+3 (2e– species)
Ex : N–3 < O–2 < F– < Na+ < Mg+2 (10 e– species)

NCERT VIEW :
 Why do elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical properties?

ATOMIC RADIUS

WHY it is very difficult to measure the atomic radius ?

(i) The isolation of single atom is very difficult.
(ii) There is no well defined boundary for the atom. (The probability of finding the e– is 0 only at infinity).

 All atoms are bonded with different type of chemical bond, so atomic radius are of four types.
(i) Covalent radius (ii) Metallic radius
(iii) Vander waal radius (iv) Ionic radius

(i) Single Bond Covalent Radius :

For Homoatomic molecules dA–A = rA + rA or 2rA
dA A
rA =
2

 For heteronuclear diatomic molecule, A–B, while difference between the electronegativity values of
atom A and atom B is relatively larger
dA–B = rA + rB – 0.09 (XA –XB)
where XA and XB are electronegativity values of high electronegative element A and less electrone-
gative element B, respectively. This formula is given by Stevenson & Schomaker.

Remember me : Covalent radius is slightly smaller than actual radius.

(ii) Metallic Radius :

The radius of an atom is half the distance between adjacent atoms in a solid. This technique is
best suited to elements that are metals.
dMM
rM =
2

(iii) Vander Waals Radius :

Half of the distance between the nuclei of two non bonded atoms belonging to two different
molecules closest to one another is called van der waals radius.
The values of atomic radii in noble gases are always determined as van der Waals radii.

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Remember me :
rVander Waals > rMetallic > rCovalent
Vander Waals radius is slightly larger than the actual radius.

(iv) Ionic radius :

Ionic radius are of two types
(a) Cationic radius :
An atom forms a cation on loss of electron/s.
The size of a cation is smaller in comparison to the size of its corresponding atom.
M > M+ = radius
Na > Na+ = radius

(b) Anionic radius :

When a neutral atom gains electron/s it becomes a negatively charged ion called an anion.
The size of an anion is greater than the size of its corresponding atom.
E < E– = radius
O0 < O–1 < O–2

NCERT VIEW :
 What does atomic radius and ionic radius really mean to you?
 Explain why cation is smaller and anions larger in radii than their parent atoms?

Isoelectronics :

Size of isoelectronic series : The species, which have same number of electrons but different nuclear
charges, constitute an isoelectronic series.

Ex. C4– > N3– > O2– > F– > Na+ > Mg+2 > Al+3 = radii
Protons (Z) 6 7 8 9 11 12 13
Electrons (e–) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

In the isoelectronic species with the increase in Z/e– ratio, the size of ion goes on decreasing.

NCERT VIEW :

 What do you understand by isoelectronic species? Name a species that will be isoelectronic
with each of the following atoms or ions.
1. Ar 2. Rb+ 3. F– 4. Mg+

 Consider the following species : N3–, O2–, F–, Na+, Mg+2, and Al+3
(a) What is common in them?
(b) Arrange them in the order of increasing ionic radii.

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 Affecting factors for Atomic Radius :
The atomic radius depends upon the following two factors.

(a) Effective Nuclear Charge -

1
Zeff 
atomic radius

Ex.1 Li > Be > B > C > N > O > F = Zeff  , atomic radius 

Ex.2 Mg2+ is smaller than O2– in size, though both have same electronic configuration. Explain?
Sol. Zeff in Mg2+ is greater than that in O2– ion.

(b) Number of Shells (n)

n  atomic radius

Ex. Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs = Atomic Radius

Sol. Number of shell (n) increases, atomic radius increases generally

Atomic Radius in a period :

The number of orbits remains same on going from left to right in a period while there is a unit
increase in the atomic number. Thus the electron experiences more force of attraction towards nucleus.
Hence atomic radius decreases from left to right in a period.
Ex. Li > Be > B > C > N > O > F = Zeff  , Atomic Radius 

NCERT VIEW :
 How do atomic radius vary in a period and in a group? How do you explain the variation?

Atomic Radius in a group :

The atomic radii increase on going downwards in a group because the number of orbits also increase
on going from top to bottom in a group.

Ex. Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs = n  Atomic Radius 

Atomic Radius in d-block

Sc > Ti >V
 > Cr > Mn
  > Fe  Co  Ni < Cu
   = Atomic Radius
< Zn

Zeff   Zeff   Zeff  

Remember me :
(i) Lanthanide contraction is the gradual decrease in the atomic and ionic size of lanthanoids with
an increase in atomic number.
Causes of lanthanide contraction :
With an increase in the atomic number, the positive charge on nucleus increases by one unit and
one more electron enters same 4f subshell.
The electrons in 4f subshell imperfectly shield each other. Shielding in a 4f subshell is lesser than
in d subshell.
With the increase in nuclear charge, the valence shell is pulled slightly towards the nucleus. This
causes lanthanide contraction.

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Ex. 4d series Zr Nb ... In Sn



5d series Hf Ta ... T l Pb

(ii) Due to Lanthenoid contraction the atomic radii of second (4d) and third (5d) transition series in
a group is almost same except Y(39) and La(57)
(iii) Atomic radius of Aluminium and Galium are approximate same due to poor shielding effect of
3d-electrons which is knows as transition contraction
(iv) along the period, atomic radius of f-block elements are generally decreases because Zeff increases.

IONISATION ENERGY

Minimum energy required to remove most loosely bonded outer most shell e– from an isolated gas-
eous atom is known as ionisation energy.
Energy

X(g) 
 X(g)  e

NCERT VIEW :
 What is the significance of the terms — ‘isolated gaseous atom’ and ‘ground state’ while
defining the ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy?

 Successive Ionisation Energy of an Atom :

Why IE1 < IE2 < IE3 of an atom ?
E
1
M(g) + E1   M+(g) + e– E1 = Ist Ionisation energy

E
M+1(g) + E2 
2
M+2(g) + e– E2 = 2nd Ionisation energy

E
M+2(g) + E3 
3
M+3(g) + e– E3 = 3rd Ionisation energy

E1 < E2 < E3 (Always for an element) Successive Ionisation Energy of an Atom always increases.

The energy required to remove one electron from a neutral gaseous atom to convert it to monopositive
cation, is called first ionisation potential (Ist IP). The energy required to convert a monopositive cation
to a dipositive cation is called second ionisation potential (IInd IP). Ist IP < IInd IP < IIIrd IP because as
the electrons go out of the atom, the effective nuclear charge increases & the ionic size goes on de-
creasing. Thus the forces of attraction on valence shell electrons increases and hence the order.

Ex. Mg+ < Mg+2 < Mg+3 (Ionisation Energy)

Q. M(g) 
 M+(g) + e– ; H = 100 eV

M(g) 
 M2+(g) + 2e– ; H = 250 eV
(A) IE1 of M(g) is 100 eV (B) IE1 of M+(g) is 150 eV
(C) IE2 of M(g) is 250 eV (D) IE2 of M(g) is 150 eV
Sol. SOLVE ME !

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Factors affecting ionisation potential :

(i) Atomic radius :

1
Ionisation potential 
Atomic radius

Q. Which of the following has higher ionisation energy, Mg or Ca ?

Sol. SOLVE ME !

(ii) Effective Nuclear Charge :

Ionisation potential  Zeff

Q. Which of the following has higher ionisation energy, Mg or Na ?

Sol. SOLVE ME !

(iii) Stability of half filled and fully filled orbitals :

Ionisation potential  half-filled (p3, d5, f7) or fully-filled (s2 , p6 , d10 , f14)
half-filled (p3, d5, f7) < fully-filled (s2 , p6 , d10 , f14) = I.E.

Q. Which of the following has higher ionisation energy, N or O ?

Sol. SOLVE ME !

(iv) Penetration power :

Penetration order of orbitals = s > p > d > f
Ionisation potential = s > p > d > f

Q. Which of the following has higher ionisation energy, Be or B ?

Sol. SOLVE ME !

Remember me :
Oxidation no. of an atom increases and ionisation energy also increases.
ionisation energy = Fe+3 > Fe+2 > Fe

NCERT VIEW :
 Energy of an electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom is –2.18×10–18J. Calculate
the ionization enthalpy of atomic hydrogen in terms of J mol–1

 What are the various factors due to which the ionization enthalpy of the main group elements
tends to decrease down a group ?

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I.E. in a period :

The value of Ionisation potential normally increase on going from left to right in a period, because
effective nuclear charge increases and atomic size decreases.

2nd Period Elements : Element Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne
Ionization Energy 520 801 899 1086 1314 1400 1680 2080
3rd Period Elements : Element Na < Al < Mg < Si < S < P < Cl < Ar
Ionization Energy 496 578 738 786 1000 1021 1251 1521

Ex. Why in second period ionisation potential of Be is greater than that of B, and in the third period
ionisation potential of Mg is greater than that of Al ?
Sol. due to high stability of fully filled orbitals of Be.

Ex. Why in second period ionisation potential of N is greater than O and in the third period ionisation
potential of P is greater than that of S
Sol. due to stability of half filled orbitals of N.

Remember me :
(i) In the first transition element series the first ionisation potential normally increases on going
from left to right from Sc to Cr because shielding effect is much weaker in comparison to
effective nuclear charge.
(ii) The value of first ionisation potential of Fe, Co and Ni remains constant, because shielding
effect and effective nuclear charge balance one another. The value of ionisation potential shows
slight increase from Cu to Zn because they have fully filled s and d orbitals.
(iii) The value of first ionisation potential of Mn is maximum because it has maximum stability due
to fully filled s and half filled orbitals.
(iv) Inner transition elements : The size of inner transition elements is greater than that of d block elements.
Therefore the value of ionisation potential of f block elements is smaller than that of d block elements.

NCERT VIEW :
 Among the second period elements the actual ionization enthalpies are in the order
Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne.
Explain Why
1. iH for O is lower than iH of N and F ?
2. iH for Be is higher than iH than B ?

I.E.in a group :

The value of ionisation potential normally decreases on going from top to bottom in a group be-
cause both atomic size and shielding effect increase.
Group 1 Group 17
Element Element
Li (520) F (1680)
Na (496) Cl (1251)
K (419) Br (1143)
Rb (403) I– (1009)
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Remember me :
(i) The value of ionisation potential remains almost constant from Al to Ga in the III A group.
(B > Al , Ga > In)
(ii) In IVB group i.e. Ti,, Zr and Hf the I.P. of Hf is higher than that of Zr due to Lanthanide
contraction. Thus the I.P. of IVB group varies as Ti > Zr < Hf. Ionisation Energy of 5d > 4d
(due to lanthanide contraction)
(iii) In the periodic table the element having highest value of ionisation potential is He.
(iv) The values of ionisation potential of noble gases are extremely high, because the orbitals of
outermost orbit are fully-filled (ns2 , np6) and provide great stability.
(v) In a period, the element having least value of ionisation potential is an alkali metal (group I A )
and that having highest value is inert gas (Group 0)
(vi) For isoelectronic species I.E. increases with positive charge and decreases with negative charge.

Ex. Al+3 > Mg+2 > Na+ > F– > O–2 > N–3

NCERT VIEW :
 How would you explain the fact that the first ionization enthalpy of sodium is lower than that
of magnesium but its second ionization enthalpy is higher than that of magnesium ?

 The first ionization enthalpy values (in kJ mol–1) of group 13 elements are :
B Al Ga In Tl
801 577 579 558 589
How would you explain this deviation from the general trend ?

 Would you expect the first ionization enthalpies for two isotopes of the same element to be
the same or different? Justify your answer

Application of Ionisation Potential :

(i) Metallic and non metallic character :

Generally for metals Ionisation Energy is low.
For Non-metals Ionisation Energy is high.
1
Metallic Character 
I.E.

(ii) Reactivity of metals :

1
Reactivity of metals 
I.E.

(iii) Stability of oxidation states of an element :

(a) If the difference between two successive ionisation energies of an element  16eV, then its
lower oxidation state is stable.

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 Periodic Table

Ex. Na(g)  Nag 

 IE  42.7eV
Nag  Na2 g 

Difference between ionisation energy > 16 eV. So Na+ is more stable.

(b) If the difference between two successive ionisation energies of an element  11 eV, then its
higher oxidation state is stable.

Ex. Mg(g)  Mg g 

 IE  7.4eV
Mg g  Mg2 g 

Difference of ionisation energy < 11 eV. So Mg+2 is more stable.

(iv) To determine the number of valence electrons of an element :

Number of valence electrons = number of lower values of IP before 1st highest jump.

Ex. IE1 Mg = 737.7 KJ/mol ; IE2 Mg = 1450.7 KJ/mol ; IE3 Mg = 7732.7 KJ/mol
According to value of I.E. Mg has only 2 electrons in its outermost shell.

Q. The IP1, IP2, IP3, IP4 and IP5 of an element are 7.1, 14.3, 34.5, 46.8, 162.2 eV respectively. The
element is likely to be :-
(A) Na (B) Si (C) F (D) Ca
Sol. SOLVE ME !

Q. Match the column.

Column-I Column-II
Valence electronic configuration Successive ionisation energies
(a) ns1 (p) 19, 27, 36, 48, 270
(b) ns2 (q) 16, 28, 34, 260
(c) ns2 np1 (r) 18, 26, 230, 250
(d) ns2 np2 (s) 14, 200, 220, 240
Sol. SOLVE ME !

ELECTRON AFFINITY OF ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY (Heg)

The amount of energy change when an electron is added to the valence shell of an isolated gaseous
atom is known as EGE. This ability is measured by electron affinity.
X (g) + e– 
 X–(g) + E Heg

Remember me :
(i) By convention, electron affinity is assigned a positive value when energy is released during the
process. Greater the value of electron affinity, more energy is released during the process and
greater is the tendency of the atom to gain electron.
(ii) Generally first electron addition in an isolated gaseous atom is an exothermic process (except
stable electronic configuration)
X(g) + e–  –(g) + EGE

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 Periodic Table
(iii) Second (and so on) electron addition in an isolated gaseous atom is always an endothermic
process due to inter electronic repulsion.
X–(g) + e–  X–2(g)
H eg II = positive

Ex. O  O– = H eg I = –140 kJ/mol

O–  O2– = H eg II = +844 kJ/mol

(iv) Formation of poly negative anion like O–2, N–3, C–4 etc. is always an endothermic process.

NCERT VIEW :
 Would you expect the second electron gain enthalpy of O as positive, more negative or
less negative than the first ? Justify your answer

Factors affecting Electron Affinity :

(i) Atomic size or atomic radius :

1
Electron affinity 
Atomic size

(ii) Effective nuclear charge :

Electron affinity Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

(iii) Stability of fully-filled and Half-filled orbitals :

The stability of the configuration having fully-filled orbitals (p6, d10, f14)
and half-filled orbital (p3 , d5 , f7 ) is relatively higher than that of other configurations.
Hence such type of atoms have less tendency to gain an electron, therefore their electron
affinity values will be very low or zero.

(iv) Screening or Shielding effect : E

Electron affinity  1
Shielding effect

NCERT VIEW :
 Describe the theory associated with the radius of an atom as it
(a) gains an electron (b) loses an electron

Electron Gain Enthalpy in a Group :

In a group, the electron affinity decreases on moving from top to bottom, that is, less and less
amount of energy is released. Such trends in its values (in kJ/mol) for group 1 and group 17 elements
are given below.
Group 1 Group 17 (Element)
Li (58 kJ/mol) F (333 kJ/mol)
Na (53 kJ/mol) Cl (348 kJ/mol)
K (48 kJ/mol) Br (324 kJ/mol)
Rb (45 kJ/mol) I (295 kJ/mol)

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 Periodic Table
Remember me :
(i) Electron affinity of 3rd period element is greater than electron affinity of 2nd period elements of
the respective group.
The value of electron affinity of F is lower than that of Cl, because the size of F is very small and
compact and the charge density is high on the surface. Therefore, the incoming electron experi-
ences more repulsion in comparison to Cl . That is why the value of electron affinity of Cl is
highest in the periodic table.
(ii) The values of electron affinity of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals can be regarded as zero,
because they do not have tendency to form anions by accepting electron.

NCERT VIEW :
 Which of the following pairs of elements would have a more negative electron gain enthalpy?
a)F or Cl b) O or F

Electron Gain Enthalpy in a period :

In a period, atomic size decreases with increase in effective nuclear charge and hence increase in
electron affinity.
N < C < O < F = Heg

Remember me :
(i) N < C = Heg
This is because there are half-filled (2p3) orbitals in the outermost orbit of N, which are more
stable. On the other hand, the outermost orbit in C has 2p2 configuration.
(ii) Si > P = Heg
This is because electronic configuration of the outermost orbit in P atom is 3p3 , which being
half-filled, is relatively more stable.
(iii) The values of electron affinity of inert gases are zero, because their outermost orbit has fully-
filled p orbitals.
(iv) In a period, the value of electron affinity goes on decreasing on going from group IA to group IIA.
(v) The value of electron affinity of the elements of group IIA is zero because ns orbitals are fully-
filled and such orbitals have no tendency to accept electrons.

Ex. Consider the elements N, P, O and S and arrange them in order of increasing negative electron
gain enthalpy.
Sol. Order of increasing negative electron gain enthalpy is
N<P<O<S

Q. Electron addition would be easiest in :-

(A) O (B) O+ (C) O– (D) O+2
Sol. SOLVE ME !

NCERT VIEW :
 The increasing order of reactivity among group 1 elements is Li < Na < K < Rb CI > Br > I.
Explain.

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 Periodic Table

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

The tendency of a covalently bonded atom to attract shared pair of electrons towards itself is called
electronegativity. Electronegativity is a dimensionless quantity and does not have any units.
 
A – B
Here, E.N. of A < E.N. of B

NCERT VIEW :

 What is the basic difference between the terms electron gain enthalpy and electronegativity?

Measurement of Electronegativity :

(A) Pauling scale : If two atoms, A and B, having different electronegativity values, get bonded to form
a molecule, AB, then the bond between A and B in A – B will have both covalent and ionic properties.

EA–B = 1/2 [EA–A + EB–B] = 0.208 A–B = XA – XB

where XA > XB or 0.043 × A–B = (XA – XB)2

(B) Mulliken scale : Mulliken suggested that the value of electronegativity of an element as an average
of the values of ionisation potential and electron affinity of the element.
I.P.  E.A
XM = (in eV)
2

where XM = Electronegativity value as given by Mulliken

XM I.P.  E.A
Xp = = ; where Xp = Electronegativity value as given by pauling or Xp = 0.336 (XM –
2.8 5.6
0.615)

(C) Allred-Roschov’s scale

Zeff .e2 Zeff .e 2  0.744

XAR = ; Xp = 0.359
r2 r2

Zeff = Z –  where Z = Nuclear charge,  = Shielding constant

or Xp = 0.359 XAR + 0.744

NCERT VIEW :

 How would you react to the statement that the electronegativity of N on the Pauling scale
is 3.0 in all the nitrogen compounds ?

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 Periodic Table

Factors affecting Electronegativity :

(i) Atomic size :

1
Electronegativity 
Atomic radius

Ex. F > Cl > Br > I  E.N.

(ii) Hybridisation state of atom : Electronegativity increases with increases in the s character of
the hybrid orbital. This is because the s orbital is nearer to the nucleus and thus suffers greater
attraction resulting in increase in electronegativity.
sp3 < sp2 < sp = E.N.

Ex. C – C < C = C < C  C  E.N.

(iii) Oxidation number :

Electronegativity  Oxidation number

Ex. Fe < Fe+2 < Fe+3  E.N.

(iv) Effective nuclear charge :

Electronegativity  Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

Ex. O–2 < O–1 < O < O+1 < O+2  E.N.

Remember me :
(i) Electronegativity does not depend on stability of fully-filled or half-filled orbitals because it is
simply the capacity of nucleus to attract bonded pair of electrons.

Periodicity in Electronegativity :

Electronegativity decreases in a group from top to bottom.

H
2.1
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
E.N.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
E.N.
K Br
0.8 2.8
Rb I
0.8 2.5

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 Periodic Table
Remember me :

(i) The elements of group II B i.e. Zn, Cd and Hg show increase in electronegativity value on going
from top to bottom in the group.

(ii) The elements of group III A , i.e. Al to Ga show increase in electronegativity value on going
from top to bottom in the group.
E.N. of Ga > E.N. of Al

(iii) The elements of group IV A, show no change in electronegativity value on going from top to
bottom in the group from Si on words.

Applications of Electronegativity :

(i) Nature of bond : If difference of electronegativities of the two elements is 1.7 or more, then ionic
bond is formed between them whereas if it is less than 1.7, then covalent bond is formed. (HF is
exception in which bond is covalent although difference of electronegativity is 1.9)

(ii) Metallic and nonmetallic nature : Generally values of electronegativity of metallic elements are
low, whereas electronegativity values of nonmetals are high.

Ex. The correct decreasing order of metallic character among the following elements is
(A) Fe > Sc > Rb > Br > Te > F > Ca (B) Ca > Rb > Sc > Fe > Te > F > Br
(C) Rb > Ca > Sc > Fe > Br > Te > F (D) Rb > Ca > Sc > Fe > Te > Br > F
Sol. D

(iii) Partial ionic character in covalent bonds : Partial ionic characters are generated in covalent
compounds by the difference of electronegativities. Hanny and smith calculated percentage of ionic
character from the difference of electronegativity.
Percentage of ionic character = 16(XA – XB) + 3.5(XA – XB)2
= 16 + 3.52 = (0.16 + 0.0352) × 100 (Here XA XB)
XA is electronegativity of element A, XB is electronegativity of element B
 = XA – XB

Q. Find out percentage ionic characters in CsF if E.N. of Cs is 0.7 and E.N. of F is 4.0.
Sol. SOLVE ME !

(iv) Bond Length : When difference of electronegativities of atoms present in a molecule is increased,
then bond length decreases. Shoemaker and stephensen determined.
Bond length dA–B = rA + rB – 0.09 (XA – XB)

Q. If radius of F2 = 1.44 Å, radius of H2 = 0.74Å. Find out the radius of H – F ?

(EN of F is 4.0, EN of H is 2.1)
Sol. SOLVE ME !

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 Periodic Table
(v) Nature of oxides : If difference of the two electronegativities (XO–XA) is 2.3 or more than 2.3 then
the oxide will be basic in nature. Similarly if value of XO–XA is lower than 2.3 then the compound
will be first amphoteric then acidic in nature.
Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7
(XO–XA) 2.6 2.3 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.1 0.5
Nature Strong Basic Amphoteric weak Acidic Strong Strongest
basic acidic acidic acidic

(vi) Nature of hydroxides : According to Gallis if electronegativity of A in a hydroxide (AOH) is more

than 1.7 then it will be acidic in nature whereas it will be basic in nature if electronegativity is less
than 1.7
For example NaOH and ClOH
Electronegativity (XA) 0.9 3.00
Nature Basic Acidic
If the value is more than XO–XH , then that hydroxide will be basic otherwise it will be acidic.

(vii) Acidic and basic nature of hydroxides of elements : Acidic and basic nature of hydroxide of an
element AOH depends on ionisation potential of A. If ionisation potential of A is low then it will
give its electron to oxygen easily thus AOH will be basic.

Remember me :

(i) N2O, NO, CO and H2O are neutral oxide

(ii) ZnO, Al2O3, Ga2O3, V2O5, BeO, Cr2O3, PbO, PbO2, SnO and SnO2 are amphoteric in nature.

Q. In which of the following oxide is amphoteric in nature -

(A) CO2 (B) Al2O3 (C) NO2 (D) (B) & (C) both
Sol. SOLVE ME !

NCERT VIEW :

 Predict the formulas of the stable binary compounds that would be formed by the combination
of the following pairs of elements.
1. Fluorine and element 71
2. Iodine and Aluminium
3. Nitrogen and magnesium
4. Oxygen and Lithium
5. Oxygen and silicon
6. Fluorine and phosphorus

 In the modern periodic table, the period indicates the value of :

(a) atomic number
(b) atomic mass
(c) principal quantum number
(d) azimuthal quantum number.

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 Periodic Table
 Which of the following statements related to the modern periodic table is incorrect?
(a) The p-block has 6 columns because a maximum of 6 electrons can occupy all the
orbitals in a p-shell.
(b) The d-block has 8 columns because a maximum of 8 electrons can occupy all the
orbitals in a d-subshell.
(c) Each block contains a number of columns equal to the number of electrons that can
occupy that subshell.
(d) The block indicates the value of an azimuthal quantum number (l) for the last subshell
that received electrons in building up the electronic configuration.

 “ Anything that influences the valence electrons will affect the chemistry of the element”.
Which of the factors given below is not affecting the valence shell?
1. Nuclear charge (Z)
2. Nuclear mass
3. Number of core electrons
4. Valence Principal quantum number (n)

 The size of isoelectronic species — F–, Ne and Na+ is affected by

(a) nuclear charge (Z )
(b) valence principal quantum number (n)
(c) electron-electron interaction in the outer orbitals
(d) none of the factors because their size is the same.

 Which one of the following statements is incorrect in relation to ionization enthalpy?

(a) Ionization enthalpy increases for each successive electron.
(b) The greatest increase in ionization enthalpy is experienced on the removal of an electron
from core noble gas configuration.
(c) End of valence electrons is marked by a big jump in ionization enthalpy.
(d) Removal of an electron from orbitals bearing lower n value is easier than from orbital
having higher n value

 Considering the elements B, Al, Mg, and K, the correct order of their metallic character is :
1. Al > B > Mg > K
2. Mg > K > Al > B
3. K > Mg > Al > B
4. Al > Mg > B > K

 Considering the elements B, C, N, F, and Si, the correct order of their non-metallic character
is :
1. Si > B > N > C > F
2. B > F > C > N > Si
3. N > C > F > Si > B
4. F > N > C > B > Si

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 Periodic Table
 Considering the elements F, Cl, O and N, the correct order of their chemical reactivity in
terms of oxidizing property is :
1. Cl > O > N > F
2. F > Cl > O > N
3. N > Cl > O > F
4. O > F > N > Cl

MELTING AND BOILING POINTS OF ELEMENTS

The melting and boiling points of alkali and alkaline metals decrease down the group. The melting
and boiling points, in general with the exception of Mg, decrease down the group because of the
increase in the atomic size.

The melting and boiling points of alkaline earth metals are much higher than the alkali metals. This
is because the atoms of the alkaline earth metals are smaller than the corresponding alkali metals.
This results in relatively stronger metallic bond forces in the alkaline earth metals.

In halogen group, melting and boiling points increase down the group, i.e., the melting and boiling
points of halogen follow the order, F2 < Cl2 < Br2 < I2. Fluorine has the lowest melting and
boiling point, and iodine has the highest.

DIAGONAL RELATIONSHIP

Some elements of second period Li, Be, B shows dissimilarities with other elements of this group
but shows similarities with elements of third group like Mg,. Al, Si situated diagonally to them. It is
called diagonal relationship.

3Li 4Be 5B 6C

11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si

VALENCY

Valency = No. of valence e–

IA IIA IIIA IVA

ns1 ns2 ns np ns2 np2
2 1

–
Valence shell e 1 2 3 4
Valency 1 2 3 4

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 Periodic Table

SUMMARY

1. Modern Periodic Table arranges the elements in the order of their atomic numbers in seven horizontal
rows (periods) and eighteen vertical columns (groups or families).

2. Metals comprise more than seventy eight per cent of the known elements. Nonmetals, which are
located at the top of the periodic table, are less than twenty in number. Elements which lie at the
border line between metals and non-metals (e.g., Si, Ge, As) are called metalloids or semi-metals.

3. Metallic character increases with increasing atomic number in a group whereas decreases from left
to right in a period. The physical and chemical properties of elements vary periodically with their
atomic numbers. The atomic radii decrease while going from left to right in a period and increase
with atomic number in a group. Ionization enthalpies generally increase across a period and decrease
down a group. Electronegativity also shows a similar trend. Electron gain enthalpies, in general,
become more negative across a period and less negative down a group.
4. General electronic configuration (of outer orbits)
s-block ns1–2 p-block – ns2np1–6
d-block (n–1)d1–10 ns1–2 f-block (n–2) f1–14s2p6d10(n–1)s2p6d0 or 1 ns2
5. Isoelectronic species
(i) S2–, Cl–, K+, Ca2+, Sc2+, (ii) SO3, NO3–, CO32–, COCl2
(iii) N2, CO, CN– (iv) NH3, H3O+
(v) H–, He, Li+
6. Lowest electronegativity : Cs

7. Highest electronegativity : F

8. Highest ionisation potential : He

9. Lowest ionisation potential : Cs

10. Highest electron affinity : Chlorine (Cl)

11. Least electropositive element : Fluorine (F)

12. Most reactive solid element : Li

13. Most reactive liquid element : Cs

14. Most stable element : Te

15. Largest atomic size : Cs

16. Most electropositive element : Cs (in stable element), Fr (In all element)
17. Group containing maximum no. of gaseous elements in periodic table : Zero gp ; next to zero group
is VII group or halogen group
(F2 and Cl2)
18. Total number of gaseous elements in periodic table : 11 (H2, He, N2, O2, F2 Ne, Cl2, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)

19. Total number of liquid elements in periodic table : 4 (Ga, Br, Cs, Hg) (Fr and Eka are also liquid)

20. Volatile d-block elements : Zn, Cd, Hg

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 Periodic Table

1 1 1 1
21. IP  Metallic character  Re ducing character   Basic nature of Hydroxide
Basic Nature of oxide

1
22. EA   nuclear charge. Second electron affinity is always negative.
size

Electron affinity of chlorine is greater than fluorine (small atomic size).

23. The first element of a group has similar properties with the second element of the next group. This is
called diagonal relationship. The diagonal relationship disappears after IV group.
24. Chemical reactivity is highest at the two extremes of a period and is lowest in the centre. The
reactivity on the left extreme of a period is because of the ease of electron loss (or low ionization
enthalpy). Highly reactive elements do not occur in nature in free state; they usually occur in the
combined form. Oxides formed of the elements on the left are basic and of the elements on the right
are acidic in nature. Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric or neutral.

HIGHLIGHTS

 GENERAL TREND OF DIFFERENT PROPERTIES IN THE PERIOD AND GROUPS

Along a period ( )
Along a group ( )
Max. Z

Constant Z* (effective due to screening)

Max.
Cation smaller than atom, anion larger than atom
rn (atomic, ionic radius)

Be > B, N > O, inert gas max., I1 < I2 < I3 ..........

(I.P.)
Inert gas zero
(Electronegativity)
Inert gas zero, Cl > F, S > O, P > N
(Electron-affinity)

(Hydration and Hydration energy)

(for cation)
(Size of Hydrated ion)
Na+ < Mg2+ < Al3+
(Polarising power of cation)

N3– > O2– > F–

(Polarising power of anion)
K+ < Na+ < Li+

(Acidic nature of oxides)

(Basic nature of oxides)

(Reactivity of metals)

(Reducing nature)

Page 27