Chapter -3

Common digital components

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 Outlines
Integrated circuits

Decoder

Registers

 Binary counters

Memory units

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 Integrated circuit (IC)
 An integrated circuit (IC) is a small silicon semiconductor crystal,
called a chip, containing the electronic components for the digital
gates

 The various gates are interconnected inside the chip to form the

required circuit

 The chip is mounted in a ceramic or plastic container, and connections

are welded by thin gold wires to external pins to form the IC

 The number of pins range from 14 to 100

 Each IC has a numeric designation

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 Integrated circuit (IC)……
 based on the number of gates they have, integrated circuit are
categorized as:
 Small scale integration

 Medium scale integration

 Large scale integration

 Very large scale integration

Small scale integration

 It contains several independent gates in a single package

 The inputs and outputs of gates are connected directly to the pins in
the package
 The number of gates is usually less than 10
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 Integrated circuit (IC)……
Medium scale integration
 It contains 10 to 200 gates in a single package
 They perform elementary digital functions such as decoders, adders,
registers
Large scale integration
 It contains gates between 200 to few thousand in a single package
 They include digital systems such as processors, memory chips etc
Very large scale integration
 It contains thousands of gates within a single package such as
microcomputer chip
Ultra very large scale integration
 It contains hundred of thousands of gates within a single package such as
microcomputer chip
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 Integrated circuit (IC)……
ϗ Digital integrated circuits are classified not only by their logic
operations, but also by specific circuit technology they belongs
ϗ The circuit technologies are referred to as logic families
ϗ Many different logic families of integrated circuits have been
introduced commercially. These are:
ϗ Transistor-transistor logic(TTL)
ϗ Emitter-coupled logic(ECL)
ϗ Metal-oxide semiconductor(MOS)
ϗ Complementary Metal-oxide semiconductor(CMOS)

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 Integrated circuit (IC)……
Transistor-transistor logic(TTL)
ϗ Widespread logic family that have been used for many years
Emitter-coupled logic(ECL)
ϗ Provides highest speed digital circuit in integrated form
ϗ Used in system such as super computer and signal processor where
high speed is essential
Metal-oxide semiconductor(MOS)
ϗ Suitable for circuit that need high component density
Complementary Metal-oxide semiconductor(CMOS)
ϗ Preferable in a system requiring low power consumption

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 Decoder
ϗ Discrete quantities of information are represented in digital computer
with binary codes
ϗ A binary code of n bits is capable of representing up to 2n distinct
elements of the coded information
ϗ A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information
from the n coded inputs to a maximum of 2n unique output
ϗ A decoder has n inputs and m outputs, where m ≤ 2n, and are called n-
to-m-line decoders
ϗ Each output represents one of the combinations of the input
variables
ϗ An enable input controls operation of the decoder
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 Decoder….
Example: 3x8 decoder
ϗ The three A0, A1,A2 are decoded into eight output
ϗ Each output represent one of combination of three inputs binary
variables
ϗ A particular application of this decoder is a binary to octal conversion
ϗ A logic diagram is shown as follow

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 Encoder
ϗ An encoder is a digital circuit that performs the inverse of a decoder

ϗ An encoder has 2n (or less) input lines and n output lines

ϗ The output lines generate the binary code corresponding to the
input value
ϗ An example of encoder is the octal to binary encoder
ϗ It has 8 input(octal digit) and 3(binary numbers) output
ϗ It assumes that one inputs has only a value of 1 at given time

ϗ An encoder can be implemented with OR gates

ϗ A0 = D1 + D3 + D5 + D7
ϗ A1 = D2 + D3 + D6 + D7
ϗ A2 = D4 + D5 + D6 + D7

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 Register
ϗ A register is a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of storing one
bit of information
ϗ An n-bit register has a group of n flip-flops
ϗ A register may also have combinational gates that perform certain
data-processing tasks
ϗ The flip-flops hold the data and the gates control when and how
new data is transferred into the register
ϗ The simplest register is one that consists only of flip flops with no
external gates
ϗ The flip-flops have a common clock input
ϗ A common clear input is available to reset all the flip-flops asynchronously
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 Register …
ϗ The other type register have flip flop and gates
ϗ The transfer of new data into a register is called loading the register
ϗ If all bits are loaded simultaneously with a common clock pulse
transition, then the loading is done in parallel
ϗ The load input determines the action to be taken with each clock
pulse
ϗ If the load input is 1, then the data in the four inputs are transferred at
the next positive clock transition
ϗ If the load input is 0, the data inputs are inhibited and the output is fed
back to simulate a no change condition

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 Shift register
ϗ A shift register is capable of shifting its binary information in one or both
directions
ϗ The logical configuration is a chain of flip-flops, with the output of one
connected to the input of the next
ϗ The serial input determines what goes into the leftmost position during
the shift
ϗ The serial output is taken from the output of the rightmost flip-flop

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 Bidirectional shift register
ϗ A bi-directional shift register can shift in both directions
ϗ The most general shift register has all the following capabilities:
➢ An input for clock pulses to synchronize all operations
➢ A shift-right operation and a serial input line associated with the shift-right
➢ A shift-left operation and a serial input line associated with the shift-left
➢ A parallel load operation and n input lines associated with the parallel transfer
➢ n parallel output lines
➢ A control state that leaves the information in the register unchanged even though clock
pulses are applied continuously
➢ Shift registers are often used to interface digital systems situated remotely
➢ Rather than using n lines to transmit in parallel, transmit serially
➢ The receiver converts the incoming serial data to parallel clock pulses are
applied continuously
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 Bidirectional shift register …

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 Binary counter
ϗ A register that goes through a predetermined sequence of
states upon the application of input pulses is called a counter
ϗ The input pulses may be a clock or an external input
ϗ The input may occur at uniform intervals of time or randomly
ϗ Used to count the number of occurrences of an event and for
generating timing signals to control the sequence of
operations
ϗ A counter that follows the binary number sequence is a binary
counter
ϗ An n-bit binary counter is a register of n flip-flops and gates
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that follow a sequence of states
 Binary counter ……
ϗ Consider the sequence 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 1000, …
ϗ The lsb is complemented each count
ϗ Every other bit is complemented if all its lower-order bits are
equal to 1
ϗ Natural to use either T or JK flip-flops since they both have a
complement state
ϗ The counter has an enable input
ϗ Synchronous counters have a regular pattern with a common
clock
ϗ The chain of AND gates generate the logic for the flip-flop
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inputs
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 Binary counter……
ϗ Counters often require a parallel load capability to transfer an
initial count value
ϗ These would then need a clear input to reset the initial value
ϗ An input load control disables the count and allows a transfer
of data
ϗ If the clear and load inputs are both 0, and the count input is 1,
then the count proceeds
ϗ Counters with parallel load are referred to as registers with
load and increment operations

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 Binary counter……

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 Memory unit
ϗ A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated

circuits to transfer information in and out of storage

ϗ The memory stores binary data in groups of bits called words

ϗ A word can represent an instruction code or alphanumeric characters

ϗ Each word in memory is assigned an address from 0 to 2k –1, where k is

the number of address lines

ϗ A decoder inside the memory accepts an address and opens the paths

needed to select the bits of the specified word

ϗ The memory capacity is stated as the total number of bytes that can be

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 Memory unit(RAM)
ϗ Two major types of memory are used in computer system: RAM and

ROM

Random access memory(RAM)

ϗ In random-access memory (RAM) the memory cells can be accessed

for information from any desired random location

ϗ The process of locating a word in memory is the same and requires an

equal amount of time no matter where the cells are located physically
in memory
ϗ Communication between memory and its environment is achieved via

data input and output lines, address selections lines, and control lines
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 Memory unit(RAM) …..
ϗ The n data input lines provide the information to be stored in memory

ϗ The n data output lines supply the information coming out of memory

ϗ The k address lines provide a binary number of k bits that specify a

specific word or location

ϗ The two control lines specify the direction of transfer – either read or

write

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 Memory unit(RAM) ……
ϗ Steps to write to memory:

ϗ Apply the binary address of the desired word into the address lines

ϗ Apply the data bits that are to be stored in memory on the data lines

ϗ Activate the write input

ϗ Steps to read from memory:

ϗ Apply the binary address of the desired word into the address lines

ϗ Activate the read input

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 Memory unit (ROM)
ϗ A read-only memory (ROM) is a memory unit that performs the read

operation only – there is no write capability

ϗ The binary information stored in a ROM is permanent during the

hardware production

ϗ RAM is a general-purpose device whose contents can be altered

ϗ The information in ROM forms the required interconnection pattern

ϗ ROMs come with special internal electronic fuses that can be

programmed for a specific configuration

ϗ An m x n ROM is an array of binary cells organized into m words of n

27 bits each
 Memory unit (ROM)…..
ϗ A ROM has k address lines to select one of m words in memory and n

output lines, one for each bit of the word

ϗ May have one or more enable inputs for expansion

ϗ The outputs are a function of only the present input (the address), so it

is a combinational circuit constructed of decoders and OR gates

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 Memory unit (ROM)…..
ϗ ROMs find a wide range of application in the design of digital system
ϗ When used as a memory unit, it stores fixed programs that are not to

be altered and for tables of constants that will not change

ϗ When used in the design of control units for digital computers, it

stores coded information that represents the sequence of internal

control variables to enable the various operations
ϗ A control unit that utilizes a ROM is called a microprogrammed
control unit

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 Memory unit (ROM)…….
Types of ROM

ϗ The required paths in ROM may be programmed in three different ways

ϗ Mask programming is done by the semiconductor company based upon a

truth table provided by the manufacturer

ϗ Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is more economical

ϗ PROM units contain all fuses intact and are blown by users

ϗ Erasable PROM (EPROM) can be altered using a special ultraviolet light

ϗ Electrical erasable PROM (EEPROM) can be erased with electrical

signals

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