^tilliilllMIMUUlK

LIBRARY
the; new YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN
BRONX, NEW YORK 10458
fc^
Flowerless Plants
Go forth under the oi^en sky and hst to Ncature's teachings.
—Bkyant.
 Flowerless Plants
Ferns, Mushrooms, Mosses, Lichens, and
Seaweeds

By
ELIZABETH H. HALE, A. B.
PRINCIPAL, P. S. NO. 98, MANHATPAN

Nature ever yields reward

To hira who seeks, and loves her best.
—
Cornwall.

NEW YORK
DOUBLED AY, PAGE & COMPANY
1910
 50 S_

Copyright, 1008, by
Doubleday, Page & Company

Copyright, 1907, by George S. Hulbert & Company

 PREFACE
The purpose of this book is threefold:
1. To interest children in flowerless
plants and to
lead them to a desire for further knowledge.
2. To present a few facts in such a way as to en-

able the reader to discover for hinself others equally

interesting.
3. To aid many who have found it difficult to ob-
tain information on this subject without a tedious
search through volumes not easily procured.
It is earnestly to be hoped that this book will in no
sense displace the study of the real plants, but that
it
may be rather an incentive and an aid to field work.
More can be learned out "under the open sky" than
from any book, and there is greater pleasure in knowl-
edge thus gained. This book is but an introduction
to nature's flowerless plants, for this is all that can be

presented in so small a volume.

An effort has been made to secure illustrations that
will be helpful, and to keep the language within the

comprehension of the young readers, whom we wish

to reach. For this reason few technical terms have
been used, and these in such a way as to be readily
understood.
For several years the author has studied nature in
the woods and fields, and at home with the micro-
scope. Among the books consulted which have been
5
 TREFACE

especially helpful for ferns are Gray's Manual, Mrs.

Dana's How to Know the Ferns, Clute's Our Ferns in
Their Haunts, and Waters's Ferns. To the last we are
especially indebted for information about spores and
the growing of young ferns.
Marshall's Mushroom Book, Gibson's Our Edible
Toadstools and Mushrooms, Palmer's About Mush-
rooms, and Atkinson's Studies of American Fungi have
been most helpful in the work on those interesting
plants.
For the study of mosses and lichens Macmillan's
Footnotes from the Pages of Nature, Grout's books en
Mosses, and Lindsay's British Lichens were consulted.
Hervey's Sea Mosses and Arnold's Sea Beach at Ehh
Tide were of great assistance in the study of seaweeds.
Nearly all the illustrations were from the author's
own specimens. To Mr. Henry E. Bedford we are
indebted for the photographs, and to Miss Sylvia C.
Warren for her assistance in the color work and in the

pen-and-ink sketches.
To Miss Emma L. Wagenseil we are under obliga-
tions for some of our specimens of mosses.
Our thanks are also due to Mr. Edward B. Shallow,
Associate Superintendent of Schools in Greater New
York, for reading the manuscript, for helpful sugges-
tions, and kindly words of encouragement.
The verses on pages 25, 49, and 55 are taken by
permission from Clute's Our Ferns in Their Haunts.
6
CONTENTS
 CONTENTS
PAfiE
The Boleti . 70
Ink Caps 77
The Amanita Fam.tly 79
Tree Mushrooms 82
Puff RALLS 86
The Coral Fungi 88
Mosses ....
Parts of the Moss Plan r
91
94
Tree Mosses 98
Peat Moss ... •99

Fern Mosses 102

Hair-Cap Mosses 103
Hypnum Mosses . 105
Water Mosses 109
Other Commox Mosses 118
Fl CHENS ... 119
Reindeer Moss . 123
Iceland Moss 124
Lichens as Dyestuffs 126
A Few Common Lichens 128
Seaweeds 132
Ulva .... 135
Fucus, OR Rockweed 136
Sargassum, or Gulfweed 138
Edible Seaweeds 141
Giant Seaweeds 144
Sea Tangle . 145
Sea 1'lowers 148

8
 NATURE'S TEACHINGS

Longfellow tells us to go to the woods and hills

and learn lessons from nature. And Bryant, too,

another of our poets, says

'^Go forth under the open sky and list

To Nature's teachings."

If you would do you might learn what a won-

this,
derful teacher nature is. Perhaps the birds would
tell you how they build their nests and take care of their

little ones. In the woods and fields you would find

''On many a green branch swinging,

Little birdie ts singing."

Soon you would learn to know each by its song,

even when you could not see it.
Then there are those busy httle creatures, the
insects and spiders They would show you how many
!

things they have to do and how they do them. Among

them is
''The honeybee that wanders all day long
The field, the woodland, and the garden o'er,
To gather in his fragrant winter store."
9
 NATURE'S TEACHINGS

Here, too, the ant, whose example all idle peo-

is

ple are told to follow. Yoii may learn from the in-
sects that the smallest of God's creatures have work
to do.
The soiland the rocks can tell you wonderful
stories. They have traveled great distances and have
seen strange sights along the way. When you
many
know them well, you can often find out where they
have come from.
You have already learned many things about plants;
you can name their parts and you have seen the beauti-
ful blossoms fade and die. You know that from them
comes the seed with its baby plant wrapped close to
protect it from harm.
But do you know that there are some plants upon
which no bright, fragrant blossoms are ever seen?
It is about these floiveiiess plants that we are going
to read in this book. Perhaps you think that there
are not many of them. If so, you are mistaken;
there is realh^ a greater numl)er of flowerless plants
than there flowering ones. Among them are
is of
ferns, mosses, and seaweeds. Others are the lichens,
groimd pine, and fungi, such as toadstools, or mush-
rooms.
The ferns are the largest of them all. They are
also the most like the flowering plants. Like them
their leaves are closely packed away from the winter's
cold. When spring comes, the ferns stretch up into
10
 NATURE'S TEACHINGS
the light and send up green leaves- borne upon
slender stems. because the ferns are so much
It is
like flowering plants that we are going to read about
them first.
As we go on with our story you will learn many
things about these plants. But reading is not see-
ing, and Mother Nature's invitation is, ^^Come and
see."
You can more from the plants themselves
learn
^'^
under the open sky" than you can from books.
Then go into the woods and fields when you can.
But do not wait to do that. Use your eyes wherever
you are. In the country the ferns are growing along
the roadside. Mosses, hchens, and toadstools, or
mushrooms, are almost at your feet as you walk about.
Even in the city streets we may see these. You may
find moss upon the walks, on the cellar wall, and in the
neighboring patches of short grass. Do not pass these
by if you would hke to know what they can teach
you.
Do you remember the story of Fawn-footed Nannie
and what she saw and heard? Suppose that you try
to make your ears and eyes like hers.

^^^
Fawn-footed Nannie, where have you been?'
X'hasing the sunbeams into the glen.
Plunging thro' silver lakes after the moon,
Tracking o'er meadows the footsteps of June.'
11
 NATURE'S TEACHINGS
Fawn-fo'oted Nuniiie, what did you see?'
'

'
Saw the fays sewing leaves on a tree ;

Saw the waves counting the eyes of the stars,

Saw cloudlamps sleeping by sunset's red bars.'

'Nannie, dear Nannie, take me with you, too,

So
may I and see as you do.'
listen

'Nay! 3'ou must borrow my ear and my eye,

Or music will vanish and beauty will die.'"

12
 FERNS
PARTS OF A FERN
Let us first try to find out something about the
parts of a fern. Do you remember how many kinds of
roots 3^ou found when you
studied flowering plants?
The roots of ferns resemble some of these. They are
like stems growing under the groimd and sending out
Httle rootlets, as you see in the picture. This under-

A Slender, Creeping Rootstock. A Short, Stout Root-

stock.

ground stem is called a rootstock. Some rootstocks

are short and stout. They send up their leaves in
circles, but only in the spring. In these circles the
13
 FERNS
yoiiDfrer loaves are always in the middle. In the very
center you will find circles of buds which afterward
grow into leaves.
Other kinds of ferns have long, slender rootstocks,
which creep along under the ground and have many
branches. The leaves of
these come up in irreg-
ular clusters, or else a
single leafgrows up here
and there along the root-
stock. New ones come
up every Uttle while dur-
ing the summer.
The buds of ferns are
different from those of

flowering plants. They

Fern Jiuds
are always coiled or folded
Uncoiling.
close. Very rarely do we
find this arrangement in
Fern Frond.
any other plant. AMkmi
a bud is all uncoiled, the leafy part is known as the
l)lade. The stem, or stalk, of the fern leaf is called
a stipe. The blade and stipe together form the
frond,
but the blade alone often receives this name.
The work of a plant is to grow. The parts needed
for this work are a root, a stem, ;ind leaves. The fern
has all of tliese.
Nature has given each part something to do. She
14
 HOW FERNS GROW
says to the root: "Cling fast to the earth and hold
this plant in its place. Get all the food and drink
that you can from the soil and give them to the
stem."
To
the stipe she says: ^^Take the food and water
from the rootstock and carry them to the leaves, for
they need these to help them grow large and strong."
Then she asks the leaves to take the nourishment that
is brought them and to spread out their blades, so that

the light and moisture may reach every part, for she
wants them to grow just as fast as they can.
And the busy little ferns will help to make us
happy by doing their part to make our earth more
beautiful.

HOW FERNS GROW

Wehave learned that the work of all plants is to
grow. Flowering plants have other work to do. When
they have grown large and strong enough, they put
forth flowers. Laterthey are very busy forming
still,
seeds and caring for them. By and by new plants
will grow from these seeds.
Flowerless plants do not have flowers or seeds, but
Mother Nature finds another way for them to give
us new plants.
If, in midsummer, you look on the under side of
15
 FERNS
the fronds of sonio of our common ferns you will see

many small, brownish spots. These are fruit dots.

Sometimes each fruit dot has a thin, whitish cover-
in_i2;. This hides it until it is nearly
ripe. The fruit dots are made up of
small bodies called spore cases. Within
these are the spores, which are set free
when ripe. These spores take the
TOP VIEW

',^''
SIDE VIEW !'-•

HACK VIEW SIDE VIEW

I'artsof Fern
Leaves with SIDE VIEW SIDE VIEW

Fruit Dots. Forms of Spore Cases.

place of the seeds which we find in flowering plants.

From them come new' plants.
Here are pictures of the spore cases of some of our
common ferns. See how the spores are scattered.
Notice the stalked spore case. Around it is a jointed
16
 HOW FERNS GROW
ring. When the spores
within are nearly ripe the
ring becomes dry. This
causes a strain that bursts
the spore case. The ring
straightens out with a
jerk, tearing open the
spore case and scattering
the spores in all direc- The Stalked Spore Case. 1, Closed;
tions. The wind often 2, Open; 3, Scattering the Seeds.

carries them great dis-

tances.
When the spores are
set free they fall to the

ground. If the soil is

moist, they will begin

to grow in a few days.
The brown coat bursts
open. A long tube, di-
vided into cells by cross

partitions, springs from

it. Then hairlike roots
a, A Spore before it Begins to Grow; are seen here and there.
b, Opened Spore with Tube Show- These fasten the young
ing Cross Partitions and Root-like
plant to the soil. Soon
Hairs; c, Tube with End Flattened
into Prothallium ; d, Tube with
the end of the tube
Prothallium Full Grown. flattens out and forms
17
 FERNS
a small, green, platelike ol)ject. This called the pro-
is

tharii-iim. When fully grown it is less than half an inch

across. On the under side of this are two sets of organs.
One set does the work of the stamens of the flower. The
other set does the work of the pistils. By the imion of
the contents of these two sets of or-
gans a new fern plant is formed.

Young Fern Plants, a, Prothallia from which Young Plants Grow;

h, Leaves of the Young Fern Plants.

The first leaves of the little plant are very small

and simple, not at all like the later ones. They are so
nearly alike in most of our ferns that 3^011 cannot tell
one from another when the plants are very small.
The young fern receives its food through the prothal-
lium imtil it isold enough to take care of itself. Then
the prothallium dies away.
Do not mistake spores for seeds. Both fall from
the parent plant when fully ripe. Both begin to grow
ifthe}^ fall upon a moist soil. But a seed, when planted,
sends up a plant like the parent a fern plant does not
;

18
 OTHER WAYS TO START NEW FERNS
come up from a spore. The prothallium comes first,
and from that the fern grows.
If you have sharp eyes you may be able to find
fern prothalHa in the woods or fields. Look for them
along the moist and shaded banks of a stream or on
decaying stumps. You may also see them at the
florists', where they are found in the boxes used for

growing 3^oung ferns. Sometimes they are on the

outside of flowerpots, where the spores have fallen
accidentally and have begun to grow.
Perhaps you would like to raise some ferns from
spores. It is very easy and j^ou would enjoy w^atching
them. Put some rich earth in a deep flow^erpot saucer.
Scatter some spores over the surface of this earth, and
keep the soilmoist by placing the saucer in a plate
containing a w^ater.
little Cover the saucer with a
deep glass dish. This screens it from the sun and keeps
the earth moist. Look for the spores to begin to grow
in about a week. Sometimes it takes longer than that;
so do not become discouraged if the}^ do not appear
on time. From three to seven years is required for
a fern to become old enough to have spores of its own.

OTHER WAYS TO START NEW FERNS

You have learned how ferns begin to produce spores,
and also how the young plants grow from these spores.
But the ferns have other ways to start new plants.
19
 FERNS
Some of the rootstocks sciul out branches in all direc-
tions. After a \N'iiile these l)ranches send up their own
fronds. Then the}" separate from the old root stock
and form new fern plants.
One daint}^ little fern has all along the under side
of the stem curious little bulbs about the size of a
grain of pepper. After a while these fall to the ground.
In a week or two new plants
begin to grow out of them.
Each bulb is made up of two
or three little bits of flesh}^

green scales joined together

at the l)ase. If you watch
them at this time, }'0U ^^ill
see a couple of slender roots

Fern Growing from a BuUj.

from between the
springing
These reach down into
scales.
the soil. Then a tiny frond begins to uncoil from the
heart of the bulb. After it come larger and larger
ones, until it is a good-sized plant. As these fronds
grow, the rootstocks push out from the l)ulb, growing
larger and thicker as the fern gains strength.
There is a fern, called the walking fern, which has
another way of forming new plants. In August the
fronds are fully grown. Then the tips of some of the
longer ones bend down against the rock or into the
moss. Soon a young plant with two or three tiny
fronds is found growing ' upon the end of the leaf.
20
 OTHER WAYS TO START NEW FERNS
Let us see how these young plants start. At first the
end of the frond becomes thicker. Soon a tiny frond
begins to uncoil. Others follow, until a little rosette
of from three to six leaves is pressed close against the
moss. The 3^oung plant keeps its connection with the

'S. c rv
The Walking Fern.

older one until the next summer. Then the large

frond withers away and the young fern starts out upon
an independent life. In this way these ferns spread
rapidly. Notice in the picture the lobes at the base
of the leaves. Sometimes new plants are formed on
these in the same way. There are a few other ferns
that start young plants in this manner.

21
 FERNS

FERNS IN SPRING

The soft air and the warm sunshine seemed to sa}^:

''(^lood news! Good news! Winter is going awa^M.
Come out into the woods and fields." What do you
think we foiuid? The rol)in and the bhiebird had come.
Pussv Willow had taken the scales from her winter buds,
and the}^ were all soft and furry. On some of the shrubs
and trees the leaf buds were starting out. The early
spring plants were beginning to put forth their delicate
blossoms.
What is that down among the rocks and fallen
trees? A few weeks ago there was a mass of dead
leaves, mixed with brown papery or hairlike scales.
Now, something green is beginning to grow. The
parts are all coiled up Uke little watch springs! There
is only one kind of a plant that comes up in that way.

It must be a fern and those are its uncoiling buds.

They are called crosiers.

The crosiers are not alike in all ferns. Some are
clothed with a coat of silver}'- white wool. These are
sometimes called fiddleheads. When the weather be-
comes warmer, they will turn to a yellowish brown and
the wooll}^ covering will disappear. Over there bj^ the
roadside is another kind of crosiers. They are covered
with soft, short hairs of a silvery gray. Instead of the one
coil, there are three divisions, which unroll separately.
99
 FERNS IN SPRING
In the woods, we see circular clumps of uncoiling
buds. The}' are thickly covered with silky white scales
that make them easily seen above the dark soil. Along
the stream there are some slender crosiers somewhat

Crosiers with Three Divisions. Fiddleheads."

different in shape. They look hke little green spheres

as they nod at the tops of their long stems.
Here are three kinds that show brighter colors in
their uncoiling fronds. The first has a stipe of a clear
23
 FERNS
wine color with light,
thin scales. The leafy
part is of a yellowish
green. Another mass of
buds has a tawny pink
hue. A third kind be-
longs to a fern having
a delicate frond. The
crosiers are slender and
the stems are covered
with a bluish bloom. The
uncoiling leaves are of
a dull-red color. These
ferns give a touch of
"
The Green and Graceful Fern, l)rightness to the spring
How Beautiful it is." woods.
One of our poets
has written the following Hnes about the fern at this
season :

''Have ye e'er watched it budding,

With each stem and leaf wrapped small.
Coiled up within each other
Like n rounrl and hairy ball?

Have ye watched that ball unfolding,

Each closely nestling curl.
Its fair and feathery leaflets
Their spreading forms unfurl?
24
 THROUGH THE YEAR WITH THE FERNS
Oh, then most gracefully they wave
In the forest, like a sea.
And dear as they are beautiful
Ai'e these fern leaves to me."

THROUGH THE YEAR WITH THE FERNS

Once uncurled, the ferns spread out their broad
leaves and grow and grow. By the first of June their
waving fronds be seen in all directions. Many of
may
them are water-lovers. These grow beside the running
brook or in the midst of a tangled swamp. We may
also find them on the rocks close to the waterfall.

''Far upward 'neath a shelving cliff,

Where cool and deep the shadows fall,
The trembling fern its graceful fronds
Displays along the mossy wall.

The wild flowers shun these craggy heights—

Their haunts are in the vale below;
But beauty ever clothes the rocks
Where Nature bids the ferns to grow."

During the months and August most of the

of July
ferns are full of leaves. On the under side of some of
the fronds we see the l^rown velvety spores. Other
plants have tall branching fruit clusters. These are
25
 FERNS
the months to find some of oiu' mrost ferns. But
this is not always easy. If }'ou really wish to see

Where Some of Our Ferns Grow.

Noother plants know so well how to choose their haunts. If you wish to
know the ferns you must follow them to Nature's most sacred retreats.
—Mrs. Dana.

them 3'ou must search for them in nature's hiding

places.
MTien you get there, you will find other things, too:
the bright-colored Ijutterflies, the rocks with their car-
26
 THROUGH THE YEAR WITH THE FERNS
pets of mosses and lichens, and the wild fruits and
flowers.
In September some of the late ferns show ripened
spores. Then come the bright days of October, when
the trees and shrubs are clothed in orange, red, bronze,
and yellow. Many of the ferns, change color.
too,
A few are bleached almost white. Some wear gowns
of a 3^ellowish tint, while others dress in brown. Near
by is a neighbor in orange.
All of these gradually disappear until we are left
with the evergreen ferns in their sober dresses. Their
stems become weakened by the cold and seem unable
to hold the plants erect.
Our coldest winter months come. But even then
we find some ferns that are proof against the ice and
snow. They nestle close to the earth and are not
harmed by the sharp, cold winds that blow about
them. Here we may find them if we visit the woods
in winter. No trace of green is seen among the others.
They look as if they were dead. But listen to what
they have to say:

''You think I am dead,"

The dainty fern said,
"Because I am coiled so small!
Inever have died,
But safe I hide
In a soft and fuzzy ball.
27
 FERNS
Here I can rest llirou^h llie long winter time;
AMien the robins call,
I shall hear them all,
And up I'll begin to climb."

This voice comes from yonder mass of dead leaves.

Now we remember that it was from such a place as
this that the crosiers in the spring.
grew up So we
know that these fern children sleep in warm beds.
Instead of soft wool blankets like ours, a close cover-
ing of brown leaves is provided. Under these they
are snug and warm during the cold winter,

THE MARSH FERN

Do not think that because this plant is called the
marsh fern it always grows in swamps. While that is
its favorite dwelling place, it is also found in wet
woods and l)y roadside ditches, where

''O'er the turbid water's l)reast

The plumes are waving green."

It is occasionally seen in dr}' pastures. The fronds

that are shown in (lie ])icture wen^ found in a cattle
pasture through which nm a small brook. The cattle,

by their trampling, had made a soft, water}' mud .-ilong

the banks of this stream. Here the ferns had found a
spot that suited them.
28
 THE MARSH FERN
You see that the}^ have rather stiff-looking fronds.
These are of a pale, dull green. The stipes are usually
very long for the size of the frond.
Early in the spring, before other marsh plants
come up, the slender crosiers of this fern appear. They
look like little green
balls nodding to each
other, from the tops of
their tall The
stipes.
rootstocks are long and
slender. The leaves
come up during the
whole summer. None
of the early fronds bear

spores.
About the middle of

July the spore-bearing,

or fertile, fronds ap-
pear. The fruit dots
are in a double row on
The Marsh Fern.
each leaflet. They are
well grown before the frond uncurls. The edges of
the leaves are turned over to the under side, so as to
cover the fruit dots when they are young. Perhaps
you can see this in the frond at the left, which has
its under side toward you.
As the spores ripen, the spore cases spread out and
often cover all the under side of the leaf. One writer
29
 FERNS
says that those leaflets \\ith their edges turned over
are thought to look very much like tiny, half-open
snuff-l^oxes. For this reason the plant has been
called the snuff -])ox fern. 'Die fruited fronds are
heavier than the earl}^ sterile ones. The spores ripen
in September.
In deep woods the marsh fern grows tall and slen-
der, but has little fruit. In the sun it has much fruit,
])ut the fronds become thick and 3^elloA\ish and are
often tmsted. Sometimes the ends of the fronds turn
half-way around, while the tips of the leaflets bend
toward each other.
After the first sharp frost the fronds that are in
exposed places generally wither. In sheltered situ-
ations they green for a month or more longer.
may keep
Never shall we them def3dng frost and sho^^dng
find
their green plimies amid the ice and snow of winter.

THE BRACKEN
One of the conmionest of American ferns is the
bracken. grows to be several feet in height.
It often
Its smooth, black rootstock is deep in the earth and
has many branches. The crosiers are covered with
silvery-gray down. They come up singly at intervals
of from six inches to six feet. The three di\dsions,
unrolling separately, look somewhat like the claws
of a large bird.
30
 THE BRACKEN
The picture shows you a branch of a full-grown
frond. It is coarse and spreading. The color is a
dark, dull green. All fronds are about the same shape.
The edges of the spore-bearing ones are bent over to
form a covering for the spore cases. Allien young
this covering makes a silvery- white edging on the
under side of the frond. As the
spores ripen, they push it back
and peep out. Then they turn to
a deep, rich brown and make the
frond look as if it were em-
broidered.
Other names for this plant are

brake, uml:)rella fern, upland, and

eagle fern. The last name was
probably given because of some- Crosiers of the
thing eaglelike about the plant. Bracken.
Perhaps it w^as the clawUke crosiers,
or it may have been that the broad fronds looked
hke an eagle's wings.
There are many superstitions about the bracken.
At one time it was thought to protect one from
goblins and witches. In the seventeenth century it
w^as the custom to burn the bracken when rain was
needed.
The bracken the fern that w^as supposed to bear
is

the ''mystic fern seed." According to the legend,

fern seed could be obtained from this plant on mid-
31
 FERNS
summer eve only.
At dusk the fern
was supposed to
put forth a tiny
bhie flower. This
soon gave place to
a small, shining
seed that ripened
at midnight. If it
fell from the stem
of its own accord
juid was caught
in a white napkin,
it was thought to
give its
possessor
The Bracken. the power to be-
come invisible.

^'It boasteth a name of mystic fame,

For who findeth its magic seed
A witching and weirdly gift may claim,
To help him in his need ;

Unseen, unknown, he may pass alone

Who knowcth the fern seed's spell;
Like the viewless blast, he sweepeth past.
And walks invisible."
The bracken is one of the useful ferns. Fruit, fish,
and vegetables are sometimes packed in it to keep
32
 THE RATTLESNAKE FERN
them from mildew and decay. The young crosiers
may be cooked and eaten Hke asparagus. These are
often sold in the Japanese market. In some places
in Europe the roots have been ground and mixed with
fiour inmaking bread.
Houses have been thatched with the large bracken
fronds. In some parts of the world they are used as
a bedding for cattle. The fresh plants are sometimes
of service in tanning light leathers, as they contain
much tannic and other acids. In Scotland they used
to be burned when green. Then the ashes were made
into balls to be used instead of soap.
The bracken is- very hard to transplant and start
in a new place; but when once started it is just as
difficult to root it out.

THE RATTLESNAKE FERN

One of the ferns that growls in the woods is the
rattlesnake fern. It does not like the sunshine. It
seems to delight in dim, moist hollows, but soon dis-
appears from a place when the trees are removed.
Early in May you will find the hairy leaf buds
just unfolding. Let us see how this fern grows.
A tangle of thick, fleshy roots extends horizontally
a few inches under ground. From this comes a single
frond. If you look at the picture, j^ou will see that
33
 i^M.
'.V

The; Itattlcsiiakc Fern.

34
 THE RATTLESNAKE FERN
this is divided into two parts, one of which bears the
spores. The green spreads out in a broad, fiat
l:)lade

triangle. It is much
cut and divided and quite thin.
If you can get some of these fronds and press them

3^ou will find that they have a very delicate appear-

ance, and show beautiful shades of
color.
The spore-bearing part of the
frond rises several inches above
the green blade. As the spores
ripen the spaces between the parts
lengthen. There is finally a long,
slender cluster with the parts (called
branchlets) nearly parallel to the
stalk.
The bright-yellow spores ripen
in June. They escape from the Spore Cases of the
spore cases through a narrow slit Rattlesnake Fern.
across it.
In a hollow at the base of the stipe is a bud for
next year's leaf. Within its tiny stem may be found
a still smaller bud, and this in turn incloses an-
other. So we say that this plant has its cloth-
may
ing prepared years ahead.
three The spore cases
also begin to grow a year or more before the spores
are shed.
There is a great difference in the size of these fern
plants. Some that are not more than three or four
35
 FERNS
inches high boar fruit chisters. There are others that
are five or six times as largo.
The name of rattlesnake fern was proba})l}' given
to this plant because of a likeness which was thought
to exist between the spikes of fruit and the rattle of
the snake. It is sometimes called the grape fern, be-
cause its clusters of spore cases look like bunches of
grapes.

THi: EBOXY SPL1:E\\V0RT

The fern whose picture you see on the opposite
page belongs to a large family called ^^spleenwort."
A great many members of this family live in the United
States. We shall read al)out one only, the ebon)^
spleenwort. The home of this fern may be the woods,
the fields, or the roadside; ])ut in a stony soil, for it is

a true rock lover.

Notice in the picture how it grows. The rootstock
is small and the leaves grow in tufts. See how differ-
ent the fronds are. The short ones that spread out
close to the ground have no spores. Their leaflets are
close together. The fronds that bear the spores are
much longer and their leaflets are farther apart. They
generally spring up from the center and stand erect.
This helps them to scatter their spores to a greater
distance.
You can see spores on two of the fronds. The}' al-

36
 THE EBONY SPLEENWORT
ways grow in doiil:)le rows on each leaflet, some distance
from the edge. When young they have a white covering,
which soon withers
away. Then the spore
cases spread out and
cover most of the un-
der side of the frond.
The ebony spleen-
wort takes its name
from its dark, shin-
ing stem. It is some-
times called the
screw fern. This is
because the spore-
bearing leaflets grow
upon the stem in such
a waythat they look
like the threads on a
screw. You cannot
see this very well in
the picture. It may
be easily noticed in a The Ebony Spleeuwort.

growing plant.
This fernfound in the United States as far west-
is

ward as Colorado. The plant from w^hich the picture

was made came from the fields of Long Island.

37
 FERNS

THE MAIDENHAIR FERN

AFEUX that is often seen at the florist's is the
maidenhair. But you will not find such large plants
in the greenhouse as are found "under the open
sky." Even out of doors there
a great difference
is

in the size of the plants. The larger ones grow in

moist, shaded dells. They love "a quiet glen shut
in from all intrusion by the trees." On dry slopes
the plants are smaller. In the sunlight they are quite
small.
If you have once seen a maidenhair fern you will
be apt to know it
again. It is not shaped like an}^ of
the other ferns that we have been reading about.
Neither does it grow like them. The outline of the
whole frond is circular. The stem is very slender and
is hidden as you look down upon the plant. This
makes the fern look as if it were top-heavy. But if a
ground breeze comes along while you are looking at it,
you almost forget that you thought so. The mass of
green is all atremble. The shining, dark stipe is no
longer hidden, but glistens as the soft green top waves
to and fro.
The rootstock near the surf [ice of the ground.
is

It is slender and creeps about for a long distance, giv-

ing off many l)lack, wiry roots. Before the leaves

push up out of the ground, they are protected by
38
Maidenhair Fern.
 FERNS
cause the fine, black, wiry roots resemljle the hair of
a maiden.
This fern is sometimes used for medicine. It is

said to be good for throat and lung diseases.

There is a fern in Europe and in the southern part
of our own country that looks somewhat hke the
maidenhair. It is called the Venus's hair fern. If you
look at the little sprays of these two plants you will
see the difference^ in the shape of the leaflets. The
Venus's hair branches alternately along the stem in-
stead of forming a circle of branches at the top of the
stipe as the maidenhair does.

THE OSMUNDAS
The Os-mun'-das are ferns that everybod}^ ought
to know, because they are so common and so showy.
From the time their crosiers peep out of the groimd
in the spring until their leaflets fall in the autunm,

they are a familiar sight. Their roots are the largest,

their crosiers the wooliest, their fronds the tallest, and
their fruit the earUest of any of the ferns.
Tlie three best known members of the Osmunda
family are the cinnamon fern, the interrupted fern,
and the flowering fern.

Early in the spring, ]:)efore the grass has turned

green, the young crosiers or ''fiddleheads" of the cin-
40
 THE OSMUNDAS
namon to appear in wet ground.
fern begin The
spore-bearing fronds are seen first, but before they are
full grown the other fronds spring up and grow so

fast that they are soon taller than the earlier ones.
These two sets of fronds grow in separate circles.

The -
fruit bearing
ones form the outer
circle, but during
their growth the
others bend out-
ward, so that when
full grown those
with spores appear
to be growing in
the inner circle.
The fruiting
fronds are stiff and
clublike, as seen in
the picture. At The Cinnamon Fern.
first they are bright
green. In the latter part of May they begin to turn
to thecinnamon brown which gives this fern its name.
The spores are now ripe and a touch sets them free.
The fronds then wither and die. The other leaves re-
main green during the summicr.
The thrush and the brown thrasher like to build
their nests in the center of these great ferns.

Though an early riser in the spring, the cinnamon

41
 FERNS
fern cannot ,2;et ahead
of the interrupted fern. This
is the first of the Osmundas to appear. It starts as
soon as Mother Nature calls and never waits to take
another nap. At first it looks
so much like thecinnamon fern
that it is not easy to tell them
apart.
The interrupted fern does
not care so much for moisture,
but it likes the roadside and
pasture. Both kinds of fronds
begin to grow at al)()ut tlie same
time. The stip(\s ai'c slenderer
than those of the cinnamon fern.
They are also less downy. AMien
the buds uncoil, the small fronds
are wholly green, but in the
taller ones this color is inter-

/ rupted by a few pairs of leaflets

that bear spores. At first the
spores are dark green, almost
cW black, and look ver}' pretty in
The Interrupted Fern. the midst of the yellow-green
of the rest of the frond. Later
thev turn l)rown. the w[iy in which the spores
It is

grow that gives this plant the name of interrupted

fern.
The tliird member of the Osmunda family, the
42
 THE OSMUNDAS
flowering fern, loves the water. The uncoiling fronds
have dark-red stipes and reddish-green or pinkish
blades. As these uncurl,
the green spore
bright
cases may be seen peep-
ing through the leaflets,
which clasp them closely.
Notice in the picture
how different the leaves
are from those of other
ferns. They grow very
tall, often reaching a
height of six feet. All
the fronds are alike ex-
cept that spores are
borne on the upper part
of some of them. This
fruiting part at the end
of the frond looks some-
what like a bunch of
small flowers. Like the
other Osmundas, the
spores are a bright green
until they ripen.
In all the Osmundas The Flowering Fern.
the buds for several
years to come
are found nestling in the midst of the
circle of fronds. This central part is called the heart
43
 FERNS
of Oyiiuiii(l.It is crisp and tender and is good to eat.
It tastessomewhat like raw cabljage.
While all members of the Osmimda famil}' are so
common in America, only one, the flowering fern, is
found in Europe. It is one of the handsomest of Brit-
ish ferns. One of the EngHsh authors speaks of this

plant as the ''flower-crowned prince of British ferns."

THE LADY FERN

The picture showsyou a fc^-nfound in all parts of
our country. Sometimes it is seen growing among a
tangle of wild things in
the pasture, sometimes
by the roadside, and
again in the low moist
woodland.
The fronds spring up
in circles from a large
rootstock, often reaching
a height of thi-ee feet or
more. Notice how deli-

cate and lacehke the}^

look.
If you visit the haunts
of (he lady fern in May,
The Ladv Fern. \'ou will find the earliest
44
 THE LADY FERN
fronds just awaking from their winter's sleep. The
stipes have a reddish color and light, thin scales.
These contrast prettily with the yellow green of the
uncoiling blades.
Go again in June where

''The Lady Fern flourishes graceful and tall/'

and you find beautiful fronds of delicate green. In

late summer you see these fronds in tints of brown
and gold. Some of them have become blotched and
broken, but others are still beautiful.

''But not by burn in wood or vale

Grows anything so fair
As the Lady Fern when the sunbeams turn
To gold her delicate hair."

The spores of the lady fern are good ones to plant

because they grow so easily. Pick fronds that are
heavy with fruit dots. Dry them in a paper bag for a
day or two, until the spores are set free. Then plant
them as you learned in an earlier chapter. The pro-
thallia and young plants of different sizes are easily
foiuid on moist earth where this fern grows.
An English author calls it the Queen of Ferns,
but we have many that retain their beauty longer
than this one.

45
 FERNS

THE SENSITIVE FERN

August is a good lime to wander through the fields
ill search of ferns. Along the banks of the streams
one may find large, coarse-looking plants that grow
in dense clumps. These are sensitive ferns. Go
nearer and examine them carefully. Hidden away at
the bottom of the mass of fronds are some tiny coiled
crosiers for next year's leaves. Here and there are
stems that look exactly like the lower part of the
stipe, ])ut they end in a point. They have no leaves
and are never more than t\\'o or three inches long.
The rootstock is about as large as a pencil and
creeps along under the ground, sending out many
branches. The fronds come up from these at differ-
ent times during the summer. See how Inroad these
coarse leaves are. They are triangular in shape, and
the edges are very deeply cut.
Does it not seem strange that the name ''sensi-
tive" should l)e given to a plant Avith such large,

coarse fronds? It was pro])a])ly called b}' that name

because the early frosts so quickly kill it. Or it may
have been because it withers so soon after ])eing cut.
Look now at the clusters of spore cases. These
are fronds of another kind. 'I'hey are shorter than
the others. you cxMminc th(>m carefully you will
If
see that they are made up of leaflets just as the large
46
The Sensitive Fern.
 THE SENSITIVE FERN
green fronds are. These leaflets look like
little green

berries strung along the stems. They are so closely

rolled that one author in speaking of them says that
most ferns hold their spore cases in the open hand,
but the sensitive fern grasps them tightly in the
clenched fist. When the pods are ripe they burst
little

open and the spores escape. But the fronds remain

erect until the next summer.
If we had walked along the banks of this stream in
the spring we should have seen our ferns in a very
different dress. A mass of tawny pink crosiers would
have nodded to us as much as to say, ''How do you
hke our looks?" If you had then picked some and
examined them, j^ou would have wanted to reply, ''I
like 5^our looks very much," for you would have found
much beauty in the uncoiling pink blades.
The sensitive fern loves the sunshine.
^^T^ile it

will grow in the woods it very rarely bears spores

there. The plants that we have found in the shade
have had small fronds. They looked quite different
from the large, coarse plantsgrowing in the sun.
Some very old books speak of this fern as drag-
on's bridges. Isn't that a queer name ? No one
seems to know why it was so called.
The sensitive fern is found in nearly all parts of the
United States east of the Mississippi Eiver, and in a
few places west of it. It also grows in Japan.

47
 FERXS

THE CHRISTMAS FERN

Do you remember reading about the evergreen
ferns that remain in the woods amid the ice and
snow of winter? One of these is called the Christmas
fern. Its thick leaves are a dark, glossy green. These
fronds are used in holiday decorations. Millions of
them are sold each vear
in all of our great cities.

A large plant this of

fern is very beautiful,
both on account of its
rich color and because
of the way it grows. It
is found on rock}^ slopes
in the woods, and in
the damp along the
soil

banks of shaded streams.

The Christmas fern
is one of the earliest.
AMien the roloin and the
bluebird come, last

The Christmas Fern. 3^ear's fronds are still

fresh and green. Low

down among these can be seen the young fronds com-
ing up in circular clumps.
This is the kind of fern whose young crosiers are
48
 THE CHRISTMAS FERN
covered with silky white scales. These soon turn
brown and, curled as they are, make the unfolding
leaves look like taw^ny caterpillars. When first un-
coiled the fronds are a delicate grayish green. They
have a queer backward bend that is not seen in other
ferns.
The fronds that bear spores are not like the others.
See how much taller they are. The spore cases are
found only on the upper third or half of the frond.
At this point the leaf suddenly becomes smaller than
it is below. The spore cases begin to form before the
frond uncurls. They ripen early in July. Sometimes
a second growth of fronds comes up in August. These
shed their spores in September.
There are several forms of the Christmas fern. They
generally grow in the same locality. The fern which
you see here was picked in the woods of northern
New York during the month of August.

''When frost has clad the dripping cliffs

With fluted columns, crystal clear.
And million-flaked the feathery snow
Has shrouded close the d3dng year;
Beside the rock, where'er we turn.
Behold there waves the Christmas fern.

No shivering frond that shuns the blast

Sways on its slender chaffy stem;
49
 FERXS
Fiill-veincd and lusty green it stands,
Of all the wintry woods the gem ;

Our spirits rise when we discern

The pennons of the Christmas fern.

^Yith holly and the rimning pine

Then let its fronds in wreaths appear,
'Tis summer's fairest tribute given
To grace our merry Yuletide cheer;
Ah, who can fear the winter stern
While still there grows the Christmas fern."

SPINULOSE WOOL) FERN

As you may see from its name, this fern grows in

the woods. It the shelter of rocks and large
likes
trees. There are several different forms. All of these
have stiff brown scales or ^'spines" along the stipes.
These give the fern its name of ^^spinulose."
The fronds are a rich green. They spring up in
circles from fallen trees and decayed stumps, as well
as from the groimd. The leaves are so finely cut that
they give a delicate lacelike look to the plant. When
young they are often very sticky on the under side.
The spore-bearing fronds are apt to be somewhat
taller than the others. You can see the fruit dots on
the back of the longer frond in the picture. If you
50
 SPINULOSE WOOD FERN
were to look at this leafthrough a magnifying glass,
you would were in double rows on
find that these dots
each of the leaflets. They are round, but they have
a kidney - shaped
covering. The
spore cases are
peeping out from
under the edges of
this.
All forms of
the spinulose fern
are evergreen. The
fronds turn brown
early in the spring.
One variety is
much used by flo-
rists inmaking up
designs. They use
this and the Christ-
mas fern more than The Spinulose Wood Fern.
any others. A New
Orleans florist says that they are sent South b>^ mil-
Hons and kept in cold storage until wanted.
Another form is very common in Alaska. Its
rootstock is the first vegetable food that the Alaska
Indians are able to get in spring. They dig it before
the fronds spring up and bake it in pits lined with hot
stones. It is said to have a sweetish taste, but that

51
 FERNS
white people do not like it It is too
smok}-
. :iiid lustes
too much like tobacco to suit theui.
This plant is wry easy to cultivate. It grows
beautifull}^ in the house amoiig other ferns.

THE COMMON POLYPODY

Among all our ferns there is probabl}^ none more
common than the polypody. It will grow almost any-
where. It likes best, however, the top of a shaded
ledge of rocks where the soil is somewhat dry.
You can see in the picture how slender the brown
rootstock is. This creeps along near the surface of
the soil. It w^as because this rootstock had so many
branches that the fern received the name of pol}'podv,
which means ^'many feet." The spreading branches
seem to bind the plants together as they almost hang
over the rocky ledge. These ferns, thus bound to-
gether, have been compared to people who are climb-
ing the mountains and are kept from falling by a rope
which ties them together.
The young fronds appear in the spring. Others
come up during the early summer. They are from
four to ten inches long. You can see in the picture
how the leaf is divided. The deep-green frond is thick
and leathery. This helps the fern to live through long
periods of dry weather. Even in niidsununer the
52
 THE COMMON POLYPODY
leaves keep
their freshness
and color.
Sometimes
they curl up if

there is no rain
for a long time.
A good shower
will soon re-
vive them.
The polypody
seems to make
the most of

every drop of
moisture.
About the
middle of June
the bright yel-
1 o w - b r o w n

fruit dots be-

gin "to appear.
A month later

they are well The Common Polypody.

grown. You
can see them upon the back of one of the fronds.
They are generally near the margin, and mostly on
the upper part of the frond. These fruit dots are
round and very large. They have no covering.
53
 FERNS
A\lien winter comes the poh'pod}^ still carpets the

rocks with its cheerful evergreen fronds. If, at this

season, you visit the woods where it grows, you will

find it green and full of life, as if defjdng the frost.
The poet says :

^'And there, though shaken by ^^dnd and storm,

The glint of her fronds is seen
As she wreathes about the lichened stone
A circle of delicate green."

The picture that you see is from a plant found on

Long Island during the month of December.

THE RUSTY WOODSIA

While wandering about through the woods at
Roger's Rock, Lake George, we found a number of
dainty little ferns. Among them was the rusty
woodsia. Tufts of this fern grew on the top of the
gray rocks overlooking the lake. There was not
much depth of soil, so the plants had little moisture.
Scattered trees here and there allow(>d the sun to
peep in.
This little fern loves to grow on rocks. The dense
tufts or masses in which it grows help to give it

moisture. A])out an inch a])ove its l)ase the stipe is

54
The Rusty Woodsia.

55
 FERNS
joijitod. When a frond dies it ])reaks off at this joint.
The bases of the old slipes, standing together, make
a trap to eateh all the particles of soil that are
brought along by the wind. These, together \\ith the
masses of rootstocks and rootlets, holtl the moisture
as long as they can.
The leaves, also, are made to keep moist for some
time. They are smooth above, but on the under side
of the frond, \\'here the breathing pores are situated,
there is a scrdy covering. This prevents the moisture
from going too rapidly.
off In IVIay, when the fronds
uncoil, the scales are almost white; but they soon
turn to the color that has given the fern its common
name.
The Their covering consists
fruit dots are round.
of a few slender hairs which curve over the spore
cases when they are young. On old fronds the imder
side is so woolly that the fruit dots are almost con-
cealed.
This is a pretty little member of the rock-loving
famih' of ferns. Look for it on the rocks when you
visit the ^\'oods. It is well worth searching for as it

stands
^'Content abov^e the world to brood
"
In silence and in solitude

56
 THE EVERGREEISr WOOD FERN

THE EVERGREEN WOOD FERN, OR MAR-

GINAL SHIELD FERN

Another Lake George is shown in

fern found at
the picture. an evergreen wood fern. As it
This is

grew on the rocks where the soil was not deep the
fronds are rather
smaU. Notice
what a large root
there is for so
small a plant. No
other wood fern
has heavy a
so
rootstock. Do
you see the long,
chaffy scales along
the stem and on
the rootstock?
These are always
found on this
kind of fern.
The fronds are
thick, almost like Evergreen Wood Fern.
leather. They are
of a dark bluish-green color and are lighter on the
under side. As is shown by its name, these fronds
remain green through the winter. But they do not
57
 FERNS
8tand oreet. In tho the stipes get weak at the
fall

base, and the fronds bend over to the ground.

The fruit dots of this fern are on the margin of the
leaflets. See how close to the edge they cling. Often
they look as if pushing out beyond it. Because of this
the plant is sometimes called the marginal shield fern.
When the fruit dots are young, the}" are hidden by a
white or gray covering. This does not wither as soon
as it does in most ferns.
This is an American fern. It is found from Canada
southward to Alabama and Georgia.

FERNS IX STOXE AND COAL

If vou were to visit some of the coal mines of our
country, you might find pieces of coal upon which
there were very distinct fern-leaf shapes. These same
forms are often seen upon stones that are taken out
of quarries. The}^ are called fossils. Here is a picture
of a piece of stone that has some of these plant forms.
You can none of the fronds are perfect. Very
see that
seldom is an imbroken leaf found.
How do 3"ou suppose that ferns got inside of these
masses of coal and rock? Men have learned that coal
is made upof plant material. From this, they know
that coal beds are not like other rocks; but that at
some time there was a mass of plant life here. As
58
 FERNS IN STONE AND COAL
many fern fossils are found, there must have been a
great number of those plants. Some of them were
very large, much larger than they grow now.
must have taken a long time for the coal to
It
become such a hard mass. It was certainly thousands
of years ago that these ferns grew. Let us see how
they changed, and why
the forms of these plants
can be so distinctly seen.
Did you ever step
into soft, wet mud and
find that the shape of
your foot was left there?
That was because your
foot was harder than the
mud. This is what prob- A Fern changed to Coal.

ably happened to the

masses of plants. They formed at first a thick mat
of rushes, ferns, and trees. Then water flowed over
these beds, and mud, sand, and gravel settled there.
At length these formed thick layers on top of the
plants. They gradually pressed down close upon the
mass below, and there hardened into stone. The ferns
and other plants left their forms upon this rock wher-
ever they were pressed against it. Under this layer of
rock the plant mass, packed down, and kept warm,
but without Hght, gradually changed to coal.

59
 FERNS
''In a valley centuries ago
Grew a little fern leaf green
and slender,
Veining delicateand fibers tender,
Waving when the wind crept down so low;
Rushes tall and moss and grass grew round it.
Playful sunbeams darted in and found it.
Drops of dew stole down by niglit and crowned it.

But no foot of man e'er came that way

Earth was young and keeping holiday.

Monster fishes swam the silent main.

waved their giant branches,
Stately forests
Mountains hurled their snowy avalanches.
Mammoth creatures stalked across the plain;
Nature reveled in grand mj'steries;
But the little fern was not of these.

Did not number with the hills and trees.

Only grew, and waved its wild sweet way;
No one came to note it day by day.
Earth one time put on a frolic mood,
Heaved the rocks, and changed the mighty motion
Of the deep strong currents of the ocean;
Moved the plain and shook the hauglit}' wood.
Crushed the little fern in soft moist clay,
Covered it and hid it safe away.
Oh, the long, long centuries since that da}'!
Oh, the changes! oh, life's bitter cost!
Since the useless little fern was lost.
•

60
 FERNS IN STONE AND COAL
Useless? Lost? There came a thoughtful man
Searching nature's secrets far and deep;
From a fissure in a rocky steep
He withdrew a stone o'er which there ran
Fairy pencilings, a quaint design,
Leafage, veining, fibers clear and fine,
And the fern's life lay in every line."

61
 MUSHROOMS
We are now
going to read about mushrooms, or
toadstools. Perhaps you will like them the best of any-
thing in this book. It seems almost strange to call
—
them plants the}^ have no separate root, stem, or leaf.
They are not green, nor are they the shape of other
plants. Such plants are called fungi. People who have
studied them, however, find that fungi grow somewhat
as other plants do, and that they bear spores from which
we get new plants.
Like the ferns and mosses, mushrooms are found
ever}^vhere. In the woods, you maA^ see bright-red,
orange, or yellow toadstools peering out from among
the dead leaves at your feet. Tall gray, brown, or white
ones are seen here and there growing around the roots
of trees and stumps. Dense clusters of them grow out
like brackets on the trunks of standing trees. Others
may be seen on the fallen logs which lie across the path.
Some looking like branches of dainty coral light up the
wood with their pink or golden coloi'ing.
In the cattle pastures and along the roadside they
are the companions of the ferns, the mosses, and the
flowering plants. On the lawn we find them springing
62
 MUSHROOMS
up in clusters or circles, especially in damp weather, or
after a heavy rain. Even the garden is not free from
them, and they are often found in damp cellars and
mines. Sawdust is also a favorite place for fungi to grow.
It is not their coloring alone that makes mush-
rooms so pretty. They are found in all sorts of odd
shapes, as umbrellas, balls, nests, cups, clubs, stars,

Different Shapes of Mushrooms.

shells,and hemispheres. The picture shows you some

of these. But there are other forms that are less
pleasing. The mildew on linen, the mold on bread,
the rust and smut that spoil grain and corn, are forms
of fungi which we do not like.
The mushrooms found in the woods and fields feed
upon decaying wood and leaves. They must have food
on which to grow, just as we must have food to make
63
 MUSHROOMS
us large and strong. They liave no leaf green, so they
must feed on material which has been made by green
plants.
People who have
studied fungi have placed them in
three classes. The
a col)we]jb3' plant, and in-
first is

cludes the bread mold, the potato

rot, and the fungus w^hich grows on

Spores on Little Stalks

Standing in Large
Cells. 1, Spore
Cases;2, Stalks on
/I
J^Ki which Spore Cases
The Bread Mold. 1, Fine Crow; 3, Cell out
Threads that form the ofwhich the Stalks
Plant; 2, Spore Cases. Spores in Sacs. Grow.

fishesand makes them die. I'irst we see fine white

threads which form the plant. Later there are spore

eases holding tiny black spores. As their number in-
crease's,they form a disagreeal)le ])lack mass which
destroys the life of that upon which it lives.
The second class form spores in delicate sacs.
Among these is the yeast plant by which our bread is
raised. The fungus which makes the peach leaves curl,
64
 PARTS OF A MUSHROOM
and puts black knots on cherry and plum trees, is of this
kind.
In the third class are all the fungi which bear their

spores on little stalks

standing up in large
cells. This class con-

tains most of the

mushrooms that we
find in the woods
and fields.

PARTS OF A
MUSHROOM
Many mushrooms
look like uml)rellas.
The handle is the
stem, or stipe. The
open top is the cap,
or pileus. The cap
is often bright-col-
ored, and is from an
Mushrooms Hliowing Difference in Shape of
eighth of an inch to Caps. 1, Stipe or Stem; 2, Cap.
sixteen inches or
more The outside may be smooth, or covered
across.
with scales. Sometimes it shines like satin.
The cap is held in place ])y the stem which grows up
out of the ground or out from a tree or stump. In
65
 MUSHROOMS
case there is no stem, tlie
cap grows squarely against
the surface of a tree or stump. Some stems are solid,
while others are hollow, like a piece of rubber tubing.
The stem often breaks easily, but in some plants it is
impossible to divide it evenly in breaking.
When the plant is young, the edge of the cap lies
close to the stem.
""'' In some mush-
rooms, the cap
spreads out with-
out ever Ijcing fas-
tened to the stipe.
In others, threads
grow from the

M' edge ofcap the

and from the outer
.^6
layer of the stem.
These interlace
Parts of a ^Musliroom. 1, The Cap or Pilous; and form a deli-

2, The Gills Where Veil is Torn; 3, The cate veil which

Veil; 4, Part of VeilRemaining on Stem. closes the space
This Forms the Ring or Annulus; 5, The
between the cap
Stem, or Stipe; G, The Volva or Cup.
and stipe. The
veil remains firm for a while but is finally torn by the
opening cap. Its remnants are left for a time as a

ring on the upper part of the stem, or else parts of it

hang in flakes from the edge of the cap.
Examine a mushroom of this kind, and you will see
66
 PARTS OF A MUSHROOM
that on the under side of the cap, reaching from the
stem to the edge, there are thin plates or gills. A\Tien

l^m 1^ ^^\ f*^

( \
Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom with
with Teeth. with Gills. Tubes, or Pores.

the plant is young the cannot be seen. They are

gills
hidden under the veil. As soon as this breaks they
come into sight. It is on the surface of the gills that the

spores are formed. When they

are ripe they fall to the ground
and grow into mushrooms, as you
will learn in the next chapter.
If you wish to see these spores,
cut off the stem of the mushroom
and place the cap, gills downward,
upon a piece of paper. Choose
a plant with dark gills and use Spore Prints.
white paper. Cover with a glass
so that the wind cannot touch it. In a few hours re-
move the glass and lift the cap carefully. You will
67
 MUSHROOMS
probably find the spores on the paper in the form of
the gills, as }'ou see in the picture on page 67.
There are some mushrooms that have in addition to
the cap, gills, stem, and ring, a part somewhat like a
cup. This is at the lower end of the stem. Yrom it
the stem appears to spring. This is the volva. It is
^
sometimes called the ^poison cup" because it is found
on some of the most poisonous mushrooms.

HOW MUSHROOMS GROW

You have already learned that all forms of fungi are
spore-bearing plants. But how do these queer-looking
plants grow from spores?
A spore has but one cell.
This cell can absorl^ food
through its walls. When
the spore falls in a warm,
moist place, it begins to
take in food and grow.
How ^Mushrooms Bv^m to Grow. 1, A Then it divides into two
Single Spore or Cell; 2, A Spore, or cells. Each new cell di-
Cell, Grown Larger ; 3, ASpore Di- vides again, until long
vided into Two Cells; 4, A Chain of
chains of cells are formed.
Cells; 5, A Tangled Mass of Cells

(called Spawn).
These look like threads.
Soon they form below
the surface of the earth a tangled mass called the
my-ce'li-um, or spawn. The nwcelium feeds on the
68
 HOW MUSHROOMS GROW
decaying vegetable substance around and spreads
through the soil somewhat as the rootstock and rootlets
of ferns do.
After a while the threads mat together at certain
places and form Httle balls. At first these are about as
big as the head of a pin. They grow larger until they
are the size of a shoe button. If the ball is to be-

come a toadstool
a stem appears.
The stem and the
button keep on
growing and soon
the button comes
out of the earth.
Then it expands
and we see our
acquaintance, the Spawn, or Mycelium. Shows Button Stage and
toadstool. Young Mushroom with Parts Complete.
If the button
is to be what is known as a puff ball no stem appears.
It grows into a round ball covered with a skin or rind.
Sometimes the part that springs out of the earth stands
erect and sends out many branches. Then it looks
like a piece of coral. Or it may be shaped like an
Indian's club. This plant is four or five inches tall
and is ]3lunt and rounded at the end.
Some fungi grow in trees instead of in the ground.
The mycehum gets into the tree through wounds where
69
 MUSHROOMS
bmnchos are l)roken off. Here it lives and grows for
3^ears, graduall}' taking tlic life from the tree and caus-
ing it to decay.
\\^ien people wish to grow mushrooms they plant the
mycelium, or spawn. The growth from soawn is much
quicker than from spores.

THE COMMON MEADOW MUSHROOM

The common meadow mushroom is the best known
of the fungi. It is found for sale in many markets.
The picture shows 3^ou a cluster of these plants as they
grow among the meadow grass. Though this is their
favorite dwelling place, they are sometimes found on
the lawn, in the garden and pasture, and by the road-
side.
The thick, fleshy cap is rounded, and is usualh' white
or light brown. The surface is smooth and a little

silky. Sometimes it is torn up into scales. These

scales are often of a dark color.
The most important thing to notice in this plant is its
gills and their color. As the cap expands, and the veil
breaks, we find them to be of a delicate pinkish tint.
AVhen they grow older the}" change to a smoky brown.
This because of the great number of dark-colored
is

spores that are borne on their surface. No poisonous

mushrooms are known whose })inki,sh spores turn brown
70
 THE COMMON MEADOW MUSHROOM
as these do. The gills are close together and are
rounded at the stem end. They curve up to the cap.
The stem is short and is about the same size from
top to base. It is quite solid —perhaps a trifle softer in
 MUSHROOMS
will often wasli itaway. Somctimos pieces of the veil
hang around the edges of the cap.
The flesh is white, but it may become sHgli h- tinged I

with red when cut and exposed to the air. Its taste is
pleasant, somewhat like that of a nut.
This is generally spoken of as ^Hhe
the plant that is

mushroom." Prol^ably because it is the only fimgus

that has been cultivated to any great extent. Gener-
ally the mushroom or toadstool refuses to l^e coaxed
into growing an}'where except in its native place.
''They will not emigrate; they refuse to be educated,
and stand themselves upon their single leg, as the most
independent and contrary growth with which man has
to deal." But the common mushroom, when carefidly
transplanted and cared for, will reward its cultivator
with an aljundant crop.
There is a plant known as the horse or field mush-
room that is ver}" much like the common meadow
mushroom and grows in about the same places. It is
somewhat larger. The stem is hollow, and larger at
the base than at the top. Near the cap is a douljle
ring or collar the lower part of which is thicker than
the upper. good to eat, there is no harm done
As it is

if we cannot always tell it from the common mush-

room.

72
 THE FAIRY-RING MUSHROOM

THE FAIRY-RING MUSHROOM

Here 3^011 see a leathery little toadstool that shrivels
up when dry, but becomes soft again when moistened
by rain or dew. It is common in grassy places, such as
lawns, roadsides, and pastures. The plants may be
seen from May until October.
The cap of this mushroom is from one to two
inches broad. When young it is tawny or reddish,
but it becomes paler as it grows older. A^Tien dry it
isusualty a light yellow or buff. In the older plants
the center of the cap is often raised in a distinct tiny
mound. You can see this in the picture.
The are somewhat broad and far apart. Their
gills
color the same as that of the cap, or lighter. The
is

spores are white.

The slender stem is from one to two and a half
inches long with a smooth surface. It is solid and

quite tough. The color is whitish or a creamy yel-

low.
This mushroom
usually grows in rings or circles.
It was once thought that the elves made the mushroom
rings for their moonlight dances. This is the reason
that it was called the ^'fairy-ring" mushroom.

Many are the tales which were told by the ''old

folks" in England and Scotland about
some parts of
travelers who were seized by the fairies and carried off
73
 MUSHROOMS
to join ill daiicos within {ho ''mystic circle."
tlu'ir On
pleasant nights these little people sat or danced on the
top of the toadstools. If a sudden shower came on

the}^huddled together beneath them. One old gar-

dener declared that he had seen the fnirios holding a

"
These are the tents of the fairies

That canii)e(l hist ni<j;lit on the Liwn.

Early this morning I found them,
But the sly fairies had gone."

toadstool over their faiiy queen for an umbrella, as

she tripped home in the rain.
74
 THE FAIRY-RING MUSHROOM
Another story is told of a fairy feast in which —
ii
A little mushroom that was now grown thinner
"
By being at one time shaven for the dinner

served for a table.

This is not the only fungus that appears in circles.
Several different kinds are said to grow in this way.
The reason that fungi grow in rings, is because of the
way that the mycelium grows. At first there is a
single mushroom. This uses up the soil so that the
plant will not come up in the same spot again. But
the spawn spreads, and the next year sends up plants
in a small ring outside the place where the one grew
the year before. Again the mycelium spreads and the
spores fall. In this way the size of the circle increases
each year.
For a long time the ''fairy-ring" mushroom has
been used for food. It is small, but in some places
bushels may be gathered in a day. It has an agreeable

nutty taste.
Mr. Hamilton Gibson said: ''I remember, as a boy,
summer after summer, observing upon a certain spot

upon our lawn this dense, and at length scattering,

ring of tiny yellowish mushrooms, and the aroma, as
they simmered on the kitchen stove, is an appetizing
memory."

75
 MUSHROOMS

THE i^oj.irri

If you look on the under side of this mushroom for

gills you will not find them. It is one of those plants

that have their spores inside of tubes or pores. All
such mushrooms are called poFy-po-ri, or '^many
pores."
A great number of these fungi are found on the
trunks of trees, where they grow larger and larger each
}Tar. But this mushroom did not grow on a tree. It
came up out of the ground, just as the common meadow
mushroom and the fairy-ring did. Instead of springing
up in the grass it grew under the trees in the woods,
where we found it during the month of July.
\Miile this fungus belongs to the order of the Poly-
j)ori, it is also called the boletus. If we speak of
a number of these plants together w^e call them the
boleti.
The cap of a l)oletus is soft and thick, like a cushion,
and feels like velvet to the touch.
The plant in the picture is known as the edible
l)oletus. It is white and firm and somewhat sweet.
The young plants taste like raw chestnuts.
The upper surface of the cap of the edible boletus
is brown. The tube part is white when the mush-
room is \oung. Later it becomes yellow or a yellowish
green.
76
The Edible Boletus.
 INK CAPS
The stem is long and largest at the l)ase. It is

pale brown in color and generally has a network of

pink lines. As it is apt to be tough and stringy, it

should be cut out when the plant is cooked.

These mushrooms are often dried and used for flav-
oring. They are also eaten raw with pepper and salt.
be very cautious about the use of these
It is best to

plants. None that has not been pronounced safe by

good authority should ever be eaten.
Sometimes the boleti are crimson, green, or yellow.
A strange thing about them is the wa}^ that they change
color when In some, the flesh
cut, broken, or bruised.
becomes red immediately, while others turn blue or a
bluish green.

INK CAPS

On some summer or autumn morning you may

find, on the lawn, a crowded mass of odd-looking mush-
rooms. A few hours later the stems may be stand-
tall

ing, but the caps are broken or melted away. An inky

fluid is, perhaps, still dropping from them.
These plants are ink caps and are sometimes called
'4nky toadstools." The stem slender, smooth, and
is

hollow. The cap is of a gray color. The gills are broad

and lie closely packed side by side. AVhen young they
are a creamy white, but later they turn to a pinkish
77
 MUSHROOMS
gray. AMioii the spores begin to ripen they turn black
and the color of the gills changes. The cap now begins
to expand and to turn into an inky fluid, first l)ecoming
dark and then melting into a black liquid. This melt-

Ink Caps.

ing mass forms into drops whicli fall from the margin of
the cap. The extreme outer surface of the gills does
not dissolve so freely,and the thin remnant curls up-
ward and rolls up on the top of the cap.
78
 THE AMANITA FAMILY
We had a number of these plants in the garden, and
several efforts were made to keep them. The results

may be seen in this pic-

ture. The only way in
which thev could be
kept was to put them
behind glass, where
nothing could touch
them.
Does it not seem
strange that such black-
looking things should be
good to eat? Yet, they
are pronounced excel-
lent b}^mushroom lov-
ers. They should be
picked when very young
and cooked as soon as
Ink Caps Dried.
they are brought into the
house. A very fine catchup is made from these plants.
The black fluid is sometimes used for ink, but it is
not considered a very good article.

THE AMANITA FAMILY

Did you ever find a beautiful plant or some pretty
and hear mamma say that 3^ou
bright-colored berries,
must not touch them because they were poisonous?
79
 THE AMANITA FAMILY
Tlic picture on llic opposite page shows you four mush-
rooms of the Am-a-ni'ta family. These, Hke the poi-
sonous berries, should be let alone. Though they are
among the most beautiful of fungi, most of them con-
tain a deadly poison.
Notice the tall, light-colored one. This is sometimes
called the Death Cup or The Destroying Angel. It
contains the same
poison as that
of the rattlesnake
and other venom-
ous animals.
This plant is
found from Jime
to O c t o b e r It .

looks so much like

some of the mush-
rooms that are
good for food, that
Yovini^ Plants of the Amanita Family.
it is often picked
and eaten by mistake. Look at the base of the stem of
a mushroom before picking it. If it belongs to the
Amanita famil}^, there A\ill be a cup or socket either
just above the soil or hidden luider the ground. This
is known as the poison cup, and all fungi having
it should be avoided.
not safe even to handle these mushrooms. Mr.
It is

Palmer, who was well acquainted with all kinds of fungi,

80
Members of the Amanita Family.
 MUSHROOMS
taking a large bunch of Amanitse to an artist
tells of

friend. He carried them in his hand and, though

wrapped in a paper, they made him feel quite ill. At
another time he had all the symptoms mushroom
of

poisoning from smelling of two fine specimens sent him

by a friend.
The beautiful orange mushroom is also quite com-
mon. It is found mostty in open woods or groves where
the soil is poor. The bright coloring of the cap in
•contrast with the white stem and gills makes it a very
showy plant. It is sometimes called the fly mush-
room. There is something about it that attracts flies,
but to taste its juices means death to them. Dead flies
are often found on the ground under it. It has been
used for many centuries in making fly-poisons.
From earliest times the poisonous character of this

plant has been well known. The Roman emperor,

Claudius, was given poisonous mushrooms to eat and
died from the effects.
Notwithstanding its poisonous character this mush-
room is eaten by people of Russia and Siberia. It is

thought that in those places there is something about

the plant that prevents it from being so poisonous as it
is here. Instead of killing the people, it intoxicates
them.
Another poisonous Amanita is seen in the brown
mushroom. The gills are white, as in other members of
the family, but the stem is light brown.
81
 TREE MUSHROOMS
The last of those four inushrooius has be(;n known
for a long time. It is not poisonous. The Greeks and
Romans were very fond of it. They called it food of
the gods. Caesar's mushroom and the imperial mush-
room are other names for it.

TREE MUSHROOMS
Among the fungi growing on decaying stumps and
trees is a form kno\\n as the o}'ster mushroom. It was

given this name

because its shape
is much like that
of the oyster shell.
These m. u s h -

rooms grow in
clusters and some-
times overlap each
other. They are
often irregular in
shape because of
this crowding. A
single mushroom
may be five or
six inches broad,
grow side-
"^lliey

The Oyster Mushroom. ways from the tree

82
 TREE MUSHROOMS
and have little or no stem. If there is a stem, it is

fastened to the side of the cap. The upper surface of

the fungus is light brown or buff. The gills are a dirty
white and they bear white spores.
These plants are found from June to November.
They are more abundant when the weather is wet. For
a long time they have been known to be good to eat, but
the flesh is rather tough.
Another fungus which grows on trees is the elm
mushroom. It is called by this name because it is
found mostly upon the elm tree.
Sometimes there is a single .

plant; again a dense mass is

seen covering several feet of the
trimk or branches. The stem of
the plant is generally longer than
that of the oyster mushroom,
and it is attached to the cap be-
tween the center and the edge.
Elm Mushroom.
The upper surface is yellow or
buff. ^Tien young it is smooth, but it becomes
broken and spotted with age. The flesh and spores
are white.
On account of its pecuHar flavor this fungus is some-
times called the fish mushroom. It looks somewhat
hke fish, too, when cooked. Some people have called
it the tree fish.

There is a third member of the family of tree fungi

83
 MUSHROOMS
that isquite different from those that we have been
reading al)out. It is not as common as the ovster and
ehii musliroonis. It is of a dark-red color, and is very
soft and juicy. One Avriter in describing it says that it
looks like a Ijig red
tongue sticking
out from the tree
trunk.
This fungus is
called the beef-
steak mushroom.
Of course we can
tell wh V it received
The Beefsteak Mushroom. this name. But it

has other names,

too. Sometimes it is spoken of as the vegetable beef-
steak. AATiy, do you think, was it given this name? It
is often called the oak or chestnut tongue. This
is because it grows mostly on oak or chestnut trees.

Here it may be found in wet weather from June to

September.
The l)eefsteak mushroom usually has a short stem
which spreads out into the broad and thick cap. "WHien
young the upper side of the cap is velvety and of a
beautiful peach color. As it grows older, it loses its
velvety look and becomes a deep red with darker red
lines extending toward the edge of the cap, as you may
see in the picture of it.

84
 TREE MUSHROOMS
These are only a few of the many fungi that grow
out Hke brackets from dead or Hving trees, and from
the stum^ps that stand as monuments to mark the spots
where trees once grew. Some of these mushrooms are

Under Side of Bracket Furmi.

1. Showing the Gills. 2. Showing Pores, or Tubes.

very bright-colored, while others are so like that upon

which they grow and feed that they can scarcely be
seen a little distance away.

85
 MUSHROOMS

PUM^BALLS
Children like ])uffballs. It is such fun to squeeze
them between the fingers and watch the '^ smoke" come
out. This cannot be done until the puffball is okl and
dry. AMien young this fungus is grayish or brownish
on the outside and white ^^ithin. A few varieties are
dark inside. The firm, soft flesh of the inside is covered
with a skin or rind consisting of two kiyers. The outer
one is generally somewhat rough. The inner coat is
thin and papery.
Let us see how these puffballs grow. The myce-
lium forms a network of white threads. Then little
buttons are seen coming out on these white threads.
Like other mushrooms they grow larger and larger, l)ut
there is no stem. Neither do they spread open and
show gills or tul3es. The}^ remain wrapped in their
light-colored coats.
AMiere do you think that the spores grow? If you
were to look at the inside of a puffball with a micro-
scope or magnifying glass, you would find it full of little
cells. A\'ithin these are dustlike spores. Often there
are elastic threads among the spores. These help to
push out the spores when the}'' are fully ripe.
AMien a puffball begins to grow^ larger, the inside
becomes so filled with moisture that water may be
squeezed out of it. The color changes from white to
86
 PUFFBALLS
yellow, and then to a greenish brown. Later, the wet
mass becomes dry and powdery. The outside grows
darker as the puff ball dries. The spores are now ripe
and the skin opens by a small hole so that they can
escape. Such puffl^alls are often seen lying on the
ground or clinging to old stumps or dead trunks of trees.
A^Tien the boys
and girls pick
them up and
squeeze them to
'^
see the smoke,"
they are really
helpingthem to
scatter their
spores so they
may grow into
new plants.
There are
many kinds of

puffball, but we
will talk of but Pear-Shaped Puffballs.
two of them.
The first and the giant puffball.
largest is It is from

eight to fifteen inches across. The skin is thin and

nearly smooth —
whitish at first, but yellowish as it

grows old. It is found in grassy places during August

and September.
Before matches were made, the dry, spongy inside
87
 MUSHROOMS
of this piiffhall was used as tinder to catch the sparks
wliich flew from the flint when it was struck for fire.
The spore dust of this fundus has sometimes been used
to stop tlie i\o\\ of l)k)od from a wound.
Another variety that is cjuite common is tlie pear-
shaped puffbalL These are found everywhere in the
workl. The}^ grow on okl timber or on the ground in
groups. Those that you see in the picture were grow-
ing on the ground along a country roadside. The
group from wliich they were taken was about two feet
in extent. When they were picked the inside was white
and firm. Now they have turned dark. The spores
are ripe and are of a greenish brown. Some of them
have the hole in the skin, and a little pressure will scat-
ter the spores.
All of the puffballs that have white flesh are good to
eat, as long as the flesh continues white. If, when cut,

the knife leaves a stain of yellow, the mushroom is too

old to cook. Puffballs that are dark inside when young
are not thought to be fit for food.

THE CORAL FUNGI

If you have ever seen coral, you can guess why
these are cjdled coral fungi. There are a great many
beautiful j)lants among them. All of them stand up

straight, or nearh^ so. Some are single, others are

.
88
 THE CORAL FUNGI
clustered; some are joined by their bases, and others are

very much branched .

Among the different colors seen
are white, yellow, violet, red, and l3rown. Some have
*
red at the tips only.
One of the handsomest of them is the j^ellow one
which is to be seen on this page. It grows from
four to six inches high. There is a stout stem which
goes down deep
into
From
the
this
ground. m
grow
the branches, at
first stout ones,
and then slender
and longer ones.
These end in many
tips. When young
the branches are
red, pink, or
orange. As the The Elegant Clavaria.

plant grows older

the color fades to a yellowish or creamy
light
buff. The spores are on the outside and probably
give the fungus its color. The whole plant is

very brittle. Therefore, it has to be handled with

great care.
This plant grows in the woods among the dead
leaves and decayed logs. The dimness of the forest is
lighted up by its bright-yellow branches. You see
89
 MUSTTPvODMS
Mother Nature is fond of color and gives us touches of
it everywhere.
None of tlie coral fun<;i, or clavarias, is poisonous,
but some of them are so bitter or* tough as to be inifit

for food. The flesh of some

isvery tender. The}' often
grow in such large and dense
clusters as to make one
think of huge cauliflowers.
The time to get them is in
the fall.

There is another form

that is sometimes called the

t rue coral fvmgus. Its color

is white. In shape it is
very much like the yellow
one seen in the picture. It
smells like the common
Little Tongue Clavaria.
meadow mushroom, and has
a pleasant taste. This fun-
gus is much used in Germany, Italy, and Switzer-
land, where it is dried for winter use.

Here is a picture of an odd-looking plant. It is

called the Little Tongue Clavaria. When 3^oung it is

yellow, but as it grows older it turns to a light, pink-

ish brown.

90
 MOSSES
It seems as if nature filled up all her vacant spaces
wdth tiny flowerless plants. Where nothing else can
grow, these find a home and make the earth more beau-
tiful. Of these plants the mosses are the loveliest,
all

but they are not showy. Did j^ou ever notice their
delicate coloring, their variety of form, and their fine,
lacelike leaves?The careless passer-by sees nothing of
their real beaut v.But Ruskin, who loved them, said :

^^No words that I know of will say what these mosses

are. None are delicate enough, none perfect enough,
none rich enough."
Ferns and flowering plants require soil for their
roots, but mosses thrive where there is but little. Some
grow upon the ground ;
l3ut many like best the rocks or
trunks of trees. grow on decayed wood,
Others
stumps, or fallen trees. Ponds and small streams, too,
have their share, for many of them are water lovers.
Indeed, mosses are hardly absent from any place except
salt water.
In the arctic regions where there is little plant life,
they carpet the ground, giving a beautiful greenness to
the mountains and valleys. On the hot plains of Africa
91
 MOSSES
and around hot springs in dif'feront parts of the world,
ihcy flourish and continue green under a heat tlmt is
fatal to all other vegetation except lichens.
They love best the moist places, but do not refuse
to grow where the soil is dry. Tufts of ihcm may 1)e
seen here and there on the sandy desert.
We find them on the mountain tops amid liowling
winds and driving storms, as well as in the calm and
silent woods where scarcely a ]:)reath of wind can stir
their leaves.
There is, in fact, no spot on earth so dry or wet, so
cold or hot, so stormy or so quiet, that these tim' flow-
erless plants do not find a dwelling place. They are,
however, most abundant in the temperate zone. Here,
too, they have their favorite haunts. At the foot of the
mountains, in rocky dells, with streamlets murmuring
through them, and the trees making a dim t^\•ilight, they
form their soft, green carpets.
In mosses, as elsewhere in nature, uses and beauties
mingle together. To them is given the task of prepar-
ing the way for higher forms of plant life. Before we
can have the wheat for our daily bread, or grass for our
cattle, or cotton and linen for cloth, mosses and lichens
prepare the soil for these useful plants.
Mosses protect the roots of trees and plants from
heat and cold. They make a home for insects. In
mountainous regions the thick mats of moss help to
soak up the rain and prevent floods from sudden storms.
92
 MOSSES

By holding this moisture until needed they aid in sup-

plying the stream during dry weather.

"Fringeless or fringed, and fringed again,

No single leaflet formed in vain;
What wealth of heavenly wisdom lies

Within one moss cup's mysteries !

And few may know what silvery net

Down in its mimic depths is set
To catch the rarest dews that fall

Upon the dry and barren wall.

Voices from the silent sod,
Speaking of the perfect God."

Man has found many uses for mosses. We shall find

that these plants add much to our comfort and happi-
ness.
Some mosses ripen their spores after a few months
and die. Others live from year to year. Among a few
kinds, the lower part dies and the tips keep on growing
until there is a mass that is of great thickness.
These plants may be studied at all times of the year.
When the flowers and most of the ferns are gone these
humble companions still cheer us with their bright,
fresh looks.

93
 MOSSES

THE PAKTS OV TUK MOSS PLANT

AVe often hoar people speak of moss as if there were
hut one kuuL Perhaps you will be surprised to learn
that over ten thousand kinds are already known.
Some of them are slender and hairlike; others look
like small trees; a number ofthem resemble feathers.
All of them have roots, stems, and leaves, Hke other
plants.
The roots are very delicate, yet they take as firm a
hold of the soil, in proportion to their size, as many
trees. They consist of small, threadlike fibers, or long,
creeping, underground stems, like the ferns except that
thev are smaller. In most cases these serve onlv to
attach the plant to its growing place, for every part
of the moss takes in its own share of nourishment.
Man}' of the mosses have long stems that branch and
brjuich again. Others have scarcely an\' stem. Thev
seem to send up from the root a mere tuft of leaves.
The stems are solid and are made up of many cells.
They have no woody fibers running through them as the
ferns and flowering plants have, so they cannot stand
up erect. These stems are of a reddish color, or of
green or brown. If you look at a moss stem carefully
you will find that the leaves grow around it on all sides.
The leaves of mosses are the part that we notice first.
If 3^ou examine them with a microscope you will see
94
 THE PARTS OF THE MOSS PLANT
that some have notched edges, while others are plain;
some are long like pine needles, others are oval or
round; some have a nerve or vein which runs through
the center.
During the winter and spring the mosses begin their

Different Shapes of Moss Leaves (Much Enlarged).

work of spore-bearing. A large number of hairlike

stalks rise out of the bed of green leaves. They are
from one to three inches tall. When young their color
95
 MOSSES
is pink, l^iit later the}^ turn to red, orange, or brown.

They make the moss look like a green pincushion well

filledwith pins.
After a time small sacs appear at the top of these
hairlike stalks. At first they are but little thicker than
the stalk. Soon they grow larger and take different
shapes. Some are pear-shaped, and some are nearly
round; others urn-shaped; or they may be long and
slim. A few are like cubes or cylinders. One form
looks much a closed parasol; another resembles a
like
small bug. These are the capsules that contain the
spores.
Until nearly ripe man}^ of the capsules are covered
with caps having high peaks and long laps. These
little

protect them from the sunshine and rain until they are
fully grown. Then the hood or cap is torn from its
support and carried to the top of the capsule, where it
stays until the spores are nearly ripe. At length it
falls off altogether. Then we find that under it there
is a little lid which covers the mouth of the capsule.

A\Tien the lid comes foimd around the

off there is
mouth of the capsule a fringe of single or doul)le rows of
teeth. These open in sunshine and close in rainy
weather. If 3^ou were to examine the inside of the cap-
sule with a microscope, you would find that the spores,
inclosed in little bags or spore cases, grow around a
column or pillar in the center.
AMien the spores are ripe, it is a curious sight to see
96
 THE PARTS OF THE MOSS PLANT
the stalks gradually bending over and turning the tops
of the capsulesdownward, so as to empty out the spores.
If the soil on

which the spores

fall is moist
enough, they
will begin to

grow in a few
days. A
tiny,
threadlike plant
appears much
like the pro-
thalliimi of the
fern. Soon buds
of young moss
Forms of Capsules (Enlarged).
plants appear.
Show Caps that Fall when the
On these the 1, 2, 3, 6, off

Spores Ripen.
plants grow and
produce spores w^hich in their turn ground fall to the
and grow into new plants.
Roots will grow from any part of a moss plant that
is kept dark and moist. Often roots and new plants will
grow from a leaf that is broken off. Mosses thus spread
very rapidly.
TREE MOSSES
Do 3"ou remember that we said there were mosses
that looked hke small trees? The picture shows you
some of these. See what long roots they have. Do they
97
 MOSSES
not look like the slender creeping rootstocks of some
ferns? The little treeUke plants come up from this

underground stem in the same \va}' that fern fronds

Tree Moss.

spring up from their rootstocks. Because this moss is

so much like little trees it is called tree moss.

Notice how the stems bearing the capsules come out
from among the green leaves at the side of the stem.
There are quite a number of our mosses whose capsules
grow in this way. The tree mosses are among the larg-
est of these. The capsules nearly always stand up
straight at the ends of their long stems. AA'hen young
the capsules are green, but as the spores ripen they turn
brown. The beak at the top has a long point. When
98
 PEAT MOSS
the spores are fully ripe, this beak drops- off and allows
the spores to escape.
The tree mosses are common in wet woods. They
are also found in moist, grassy places, but they do not
often bear fruit when growing there. Even in the
woods their capsules are not very plenty. Some years
we have looked in vain for plants with fruit. At other
times patches of the moss were found on which there
were many capsules.
There are several kinds of tree mosses. Most of
them stand up straighlf, like those in the picture. One
kind, however, creeps on the ground. It rarely looks
like a tree. This form is very plenty in the swamps of
Long Island.

PEAT MOSS
In some countries peat is almost the only fuel of the
poorer people. In the United States there is an abun-
dant supply of it. But we have so much fuel that is
cheaper and better that little peat is used.
Peat is formed of peat moss which grows in and near
water in swamps. The plants grow at the top and die
below. Sticks, leaves, and other substances are washed
in among the decajdng stems. The whole mass, being
full of water, decays slowly, packs closely, and becomes

a hard, dark-brown or black substance known as peat.

The life of this moss seems to be endless. The
99
 MOSSES
mosses which we see growing in a bog now are the tips of
phmts which began hfe perliaps thousands of years ago.
These have formed great beds of peat whicli may be
from hfteen to twenty
feet thick.
The peat mosses are
among our largest moss
plants. They are usually
pale green, but may be
a dirty white, a dark
red, a pale pink, or a
3^ellow. Those seen in
the picture were found
am.ong the White Moun-
tains in New Hampshire,
where there was an
a])undance of red plants.
Both leaves and stems
suck up the water like a
sponge, so that the whole
mass is full of moistin*e.
Peat Moss. There is little or no
root. On the 3'oung
plants only are root hairs found. The plants seem to
float in an upi'ight position, unattached. As they grow
closely packed together thoy help (^ach other to stand
erect. There are many branches. The shorter ones at
the top are often much crowded.
100
 PEAT MOSS
The leaves have no midrib, but grow around the
stem in a spiralmanner. They are fastened to it by a
broad base and taper to a point. You can see this in the
picture.
The on which the capsules are borne are not
stalks
Uke those of other mosses. See how short and thick
they are. The branches at the top extend upward to
form them. A capsule is shaped somewhat like a vase.
^^Tlen ripe opens by a circular lid.
it

Peat mosses are of more value than any others. If

you were to visit Ireland you would find great tracts of
land covered with peat bogs. Vast amounts of fuel are
obtained from these. In the Highlands of Scotland
peat forms the largest part of the fuel of the inhabi-
tants.
This is also the principal moss north of the arctic
circle. Great quantities of it grow in Lapland. Here
it is used for beds. The Laplanders also use it for their
little babies instead of clothes, packing their cradles

firmly with it. In seasons of scarcity they make a

wretched kind of bread out of this plant. Florists
everywhere use this moss for packing flowers, because it
holds moisture for so long a time.
We owe our coal to the remains of ferns, and our
—
peat to the mosses two of the simplest of our plants
providing fuel in large quantities.

101
 MOSSES

FERN MOSSES
lilvEKYi^ODY iidniires fern mosses. Their hraiiclies
grow very regularly, just as the parts of the fern frond
do. They often send out
branchlets that are also very
regular.
The common fern moss
grows in damp, shady
places, spreading over
stones, decayed logs, and
waste places of the earth.
It reminds us of Ruskin's
'^
words Avhen he says, Crea-
tures full of pity, covering
,^;
with strange and tender
honor the scarred disgrace
of I'uin —laying quiet finger
on the trembling stones, to
teach them rest."
Another common fern
moss is found growing on
poor soil in dry places.
Common F(>rn ^loss.
This is called the wiry fern
moss. It is rather stiff mikI grows in thick mats.
Tlie mountain fciii moss is a wvy Ix-nutiful kind.
It is larger than the others. One thing about its growth
102
 HAIR-CAP MOSSES
is peculiar: Every year each of the main shoots of the

year before sends out a single fernlike branch from the

middle, instead of branching out from the side of
the shoot, as most mosses do.
This plant grows in great
quantities in cool, moist moun-
tain woods, and on stones and
old logs. If you study the pic-
ture of this moss you will probably
know the plant when you see it

in the wood.
There are not many capsules
in proportion to the number of
Mountain Fern Moss.
plants. Sometimes, however, a
patch of this moss may have an abundance of fruit.
All fern mosses are easily known from their fernlike
forms. They are found

''
.
Springing in valleys green and low.
And on the mountain high.
And in the silent wilderness
Where no man passes by."

HAIR-CAP MOSSES
The hair-caps are our largest common mosses.
Some grow in old fields and meadows, or along the road-
side, while others seem to want the shade and moisture
103
 MOSSES
of the woods. Farmers do not like the common hair-

cap because itspreads rapidly and takes the place of

grass in their meadows.
Near our home was an old held where tliis moss
grew in man}' places. We have often seen the children
gather it in handfuls and, seating them-
selves upon the ground, begin to make
''rings" of it. They did this by bending
the stems and fastening them together at
the end of the capsules. These were then
placed upon their fingers and worn home in
triumph.
The leaves of the conmion hair-cap are
very thick and strong. Notice their thin,
clasping base and notched edges. Their
appearance very different when dry from
is

what it is when wet. They spread out

^^•hen moist and are fresh and green, but
a lack of moisture causes the leaves to
Leaf of Hair
fold up against the stem. This is to pre-
Cap Moss.
vent rapid evaporation. When left dry
for some time the plant turns brown. If placed in
water for a little while, regain freshness and
it will

color. Wv have some mosses two or three years old

that can be made nearly as beautiful as they were at
first by letting them remain in water for a short time.

The reddish-brown stems are from two to eight

inches long. At the end of each is a capsule of the same
104
Hair-Cap Moss.
 HYPNUM MOSSES
color. This capsule is almost like a cube in shape and
has a lid at the top of it. The lid has a very short beak.
The grayish -brown hairy cap that entirely covers the
capsule gives the moss name.
its

The capsule June or early July. Then the

ripens in
cap falls off, the lid drops, and the spores escape.
If you were to pick some of the hair-cap moss when

ripe and pull off the cap, you would find under it the
beaked capsule. With a pin or a penknife remove the
lid and let the spores fall upon a piece of dark-colored

paper. They are quite a bright yellow and may be

easily seen with a lens. Without the lens they look like
a mass of fine yellow powder.
The common hair-cap moss is found in all parts of
North America, in Europe, and in Asia. In England it
is sometimes used for brooms. The Laplanders use it
to stuff pillows and beds.

HYPNUM MOSSES
Many of our common mosses belong to the Hypnum
family. Its members usually grow in dense mats on
the ground, stones, bark of trees, and rotten wood. The
most of them are slender and lie nearly flat. Some are
creeping, with branches rising up from the mass of green.
There are many kinds of hypnums, but we can study
only a few of the common ones.
When you find a bright yellow-green moss growing
105
 MOSSES
in dense cushions you nuiy make up 3^our mind that
you have some kind of a h^^pnum. Examine it closely
with a ma.2;nifying glass. If it is quite large and has
bright-red stems showing through the leaves, it is a
Schreber's Hyp-
num. This is a
beautiful moss
which grows in
abundance in pas-
tures and open
woods. We have
seen almost the
entire surface of
decaying logs
covered with its
dense green cush-
ions. If you gath-
er some of this, it
will keep for a
long time. When
Schreber's Hyp num.
placed water in
the fresh, green look will return, and the red of the
stems will be quite bright again.
The stems of thismoss are often from four to six
inches long and nearly erect. They crowd very close
together. The capsules ripen in the fall. One would
think that such large plants would have many capsules,
but they do not.
lOG
 HYPNUM MOSSES
A hypnum that is easily recognized is the phime
moss. Doesn't it look like a feather? This is common
on decayed wood and stumps, in
cool, moist woods in New Eng-
land and New York, It is most
beautiful in the mountain forest,
where it covers the decaying
trunks of fallen trees with its deli-

cate, light-green plumes.

The pinnate hypnum is com-
mon in lowlands. It
grows al-
most entirely on rotten wood, in
moist, shady places. It is a
darker green than the plume moss
and lies flat upon the logs in close, Plume Moss.
dense mats. The branching does
not extend to the tips, as in theplume moss. Notice
this in the pictures of the two mosses. It is one of the
ways by which you can
know the pinnate hyp-
num. These plants have
i

many capsules. They

ripen in winter, but re-
main in good condition
Pinnate for a long time.
Hypnum.
Another common hyp-
num is the shaggy moss. It grows on shaded banks
that are neither very wet nor extremely dry. The name
107
 MOSSES
Tl has a ragged
''shaggy" (loscribos the plant well.
look. The branches an^ irregular and the leaves stand
out straight from the stem. A picture of this does not
give a very good idea of the
plant. It should be seen,
and when once recognized
it is not easily forgotten.
The stems are elastic, or
springy." For this reason
they are sometimes used
for packing china ;uid glass.

Shaggy Moss. Hooked Moss.

Hooked mosses also belong to the Hypnum

family.
They may be easih^ known because the leaves at the
ends of the branch(\s curve so as to look like little hooks.
These mosses grow on rocks, earth, and rotten wood, in

108
 WATER MOSSES
shaded swamps, and along shores of lakes and edges of
streams.
Some
of the hypnums grow on stones in the beds of
brooks, where they are under water except when it is
very low. All but the youngest part of the plant is very
dark, almost black.
None of the hj^pnums that we have described,
except the hooked mosses, has a midrib. A magnify-
ing glass will show you that these have.
The members of this family are so much alike that
it isnot easy to tell them apart. If j^ou learn to know
the ones we have been talking about it is enough for the
present.

WATER MOSSES
"
Mark ye the ferns that clothe the dripping rocks.
The crosier-headed ferns most fresh and rare;
And velvet mosses, fostered by the flow
Gain a luxuriance all unknown elsewhere."

In mountain regions there are many small streams

which wind their way down to the valleys. Sometimes
they make sudden leaps over the rocks, as if in a hurry
to get to the end of their journey.
The picture shows you one of these mountain
streams just at the place where it is taking a long
109
A Mountain Stream at the Puint where it Takes a Tluiige Downward.
110
 WATER MOSSES
plunge downward. This stream is among the Catskill
Mountains. All along the sides of the rocks, kept moist

The Giant Water Moss.

by the spray, are many beautiful ferns and mosses. But

'the mosses that we are going to talk about now do not
grow here.
In the streams above these falls the water is clear
and cool. Here grows the giant water moss. This
plant is fond of cool streams where the water flows
swiftly. It grows on stones and sticks which lie in the
bed of the brook, or on the roots of overhanging trees,
and it has beautiful shades of coloring. It looks just
111
 MOSSES
like this in the water. 'Hie plants are large, the branch-
es being sometimes a foot or more long. This makes it
very easy to see. It has thick three-cornered stems and
branches. These spread out in the water and float
along with the current. This plant is called the giant
water moss because it is the largest of them.
There is one strange thing about this moss. It is
very difficult to burn it, even when it is completely dry.

The Common ^\;ltcI• I\Ioss.

Because of this it is used in some parts of Europe for

lining chimneys. It prevents the woodwork about the

chinmey from taking fire.

You see here another kind of water moss. This is

much more common than the first. It, too, has ^'ery
beautiful coloring, and a soft, silky look. Sonicliines it

is called the delicate water moss. This moss grows in

112
 OTHER COMMON MOSSES
thesame locality as the giant water moss. Both of
them are found in streams among the White Mountains
in New Hampshire.
There are many other kinds of water mosses, but
these are among the most beautiful.
Sometimes pieces of moss are broken off and carried
along b}^ the current. Perhaps they will fasten them-
selves to some object farther down the stream. There
is no knowing where will be their next home.
They
themselves do not know.

''Soft green moss that floats along,

Down the bright stream
With current so strong,
Tell us, oh, tell us,
Where now do you go?"
Soft is the answer,
''I do not yet know."

OTHER COMMON MOSSES

We will now glance at a few more of the common
mosses. One is an odd little plant called the Web'-e-ra.
Its leaves are quite smalland form a broad mat of dark
green. Nestled in this green mass are the capsules, that
look like Httle bugs. They have very short stems.
113
 MOSSES
The Wcloora grows on moist banks where there are few
tall plants. A lichen isalmost alwa3'S found with it.
Another common moss is the Geor-
gia, named an English king,
for

grows on rotten stumps, or on the

banks of ))rooks. On the western end
Wcbera Moss. pt t, r ^ 'a. i
•
^
•

01 Ijong island it is round in abun-

dance. This is a small moss, but it may be easily,
known by its capsules. At the end of each there are
four long teeth. These may be seen with a lens, and
if one has good eyes it is not diffi-

cult to see them without a glass.

It is the only common moss plant
with this number of teeth.
Some very common mosses
in the woods are the Di'-cra'-
nunis. Of these there are a num-
ber of kinds. The}^ are generally
a bright yellow green and grow
in wide, thick tufts or mats.
The broom moss belongs to
the Dicranum family. Its like-
ness to a tiny broom gives it its ^ .
„
All lu Georgia Moss.
name. All the leaves turn +to-
1 i^

ward one side, but they are not crisp when dry, as some
of the Dicranums are. It has single^ curved cai)sules.
These are long and slender. This plant is often used by
florists to form banks of green in their show windows.
114
 OTHER COMMON MOSSES
The wavy Dicranum is the and most beautiful
largest
of all this family. It grows on the ground and on
rocks. Its leaves are very wavy, and have a beautiful

silky gloss. Like the broom moss they look as if the

wind had blown them all in one direction. The curved
capsules grow in clusters instead of singly, as the broom
mosses do.

Dicranums.
1, Broom Moss; 2, Wavy Dicranum; 3, Drummond's Dicranum.

Everybody has seen the white moss. It grows in

tufts looking like great pincushions. It is of a light

grayish-green or whitish color. There are few capsules,

but these are not needed totell us the kind. The color
and manner of
growth show this. It looks much like
the peat mosses, and the cushions take up and hold
water in the same spongelike way.
115
 MOSSES
A plant known as the cord moss is found everywhere.
When the spores are fully ripened the moss may be eas-
ily recognized, because the capsule,
with its mouth on one side, has such
a strange look. Before it is ripe the
capsule stands up erect. Tlien a^ou
may not know it. The spores ripen
early in June.
Bv the roadside and in the fields
you will find a moss that looks like
this one. It is called the lu-n moss
W'liitc Moss.
because of the shape of its capsules.
Sometimes seen on the earth at the florist's. By
it is

the side of the paths in the parks of Greater New York

it grows in quantities. You can get it in the best con-
dition in the month of ]\Iay.
'J'liis moss is a near relation to the
cord moss, though it looks very
unlike it in most ways.
'^
The tiny moss, whose silken
verdure clothes
The time-worn rock, and whose
bright capsules rise
Like fairy urns, on stalks of
golden sheen."

Here is a Giant Bryuni. 1 )()n't /\ \\\\

you think that it looks a lit 1 1(> like Cord Moss.

IIG
 OTHER COMMON MOSSES
a small tree moss? There an underground stem.
is

The stems spring from this. See how naked they look
imtil the top is reached. Here the leaves form a ro-
sette from the center of which grows the cluster of cap-
sules. This plant is quite common, and forms large

The Urn Moss. Giant Bryum Moss.

mats on rocks or old rotten logs, or at the foot of trees

where the soil is rich.
Many of our mosses are like some twin boys whom
we once knew. They were so much alike that few per-
sons could tell one from the other. One day a friend
said to one of them, ^^I don't see how j^ou two boys can
tell yourselves
apart." He replied very quickly, ''Why,
when I see Johnny coming then I know I'm Jimmy."
When we know what a moss is not, it sometimes helps
us to find out what it is.
117
 MOSSES
Do not l3e discouraged if, after studying a]:)oiit these
plants, you do not know the names of all that you see.
There are pooi)le who have studied them for years who
even now find many of them that they are not sure
about.
A\Tien you find a new moss notice how and where it

grows; study the size, form; and growth of the leaves;

find out the shape of the capsule and when it ripens.
Then look in a book about mosses and try to find a
plant that answers this description. If it is not there
look for some one who can tell you about it. If you are
in earnest you will find some way of getting what you
want. But if you do not get all the names, you will
certainly get something, and that is, a great deal of
pleasure out of your study. One of our great English
writers has said, ''He that enlarges his curiosity after
the works of nature multiplies the inlets of happiness."
Try to find out what he meant.

118
 LICHENS
Lichens What are they? You have probably seen
!

them again and again, but did not know them. Not a
rock peeps above the surface of the soil but has these
small plants growing upon its

top and sides. Some, sprinkled

over stones and withered tufts
of moss, look like white and
yellow flowers; others are like
ink stains on the smooth tops
Lichen Attached by Black
of posts and fallen trees ; on the Fibers on the Under Sur-
bark of trees may be seen many face.

patches of bright green, while

long streaming tufts of grayish green hang from the
branches.

''Some are reddish, some brown, some gray, and some

black.
And they're puckered, edged, buttoned or fringed,
front and back;
Some are lying like leather close under your feet,
Some waving from trees in the forests you'll meet."

Lichens are composed of two parts. One gives nour-

ishment to the plant, and the other bears the spores.
119
 LTCIIENS

have a staiiinji; point of growth. From his

All liclions I

they spread on all sides in the form of a circle. Some-

times the central part is dead while the edge is growing.
This part of the plant takes the nourishment from the
air.

If voii examine the leafv lichens, you will see curious

round disks or shields of a different color from the rest
of the plant. The spores are wdthin the disks. When

Liclicii Atlached by a Single Lichens Attaehed Closely to

Knotlike Root in the Cen- the Rock, or the Bark of
ter. the Tree.

the entire shield the part that holds the spores

is w^et,

becomes bulged out above and causes a pressure which

finally bursts the spore cases. Then the spores are
scattered. If 3^ou exjmiine the spore cases of some
lichens with a magnifying glass you will be surprised
at their beauty. They are generally oval in shape.
Some are red or a golden ^t^Iow; others are deep
])riglit

blue, green, olive, or brown.

Man\' lichens never produce spores in this way. In-
120
 LICHENS
stead, the whole surface of the plant is covered with
powdery grains which grow into new plants wherever
they are carried by the wind.
a
Seeds to our eyes invisible can find
On the rude rock the bed that fits their kind. n

On some lichens there are spongy tops which look

like tiny trees. Then there are the cup mosses that lift
up their spore cases above the circles so closely fastened
to the rocks.
^ yi'^y.
1'i
These belong to < V,^ 1-' ^ "—,
the bushy lichens. •J ^^ ! C^
To the crusty 7 ^^Z(:"'l
•\-^
lichens belong
those plants that
look like crusty
patches on walls,
stones, and trees. Written Lichens.
One of this group
has very strange fruit vessels which look like Arabic
and Chinese letters. These lichens grow on the bark
of trees and are called written lichens.
lichens spring up and grow rapidly the first year
or two; but after a circular frond is formed, they grow
but little for many years. Some of those that we see on
trees and rocks must be very old. Every year these
plants show renewed life at the approach of winter.
121
 LiCllENS

seem to delight in moist and stormy weather,

Tlieii tliey
and put forth their s23ores so that we may have new
plants.
Lichens grow nearly everywhere on the glol^e. In
the Arctic region they form the largest part of the plant
life. Beyond their limits there is no vegetation.

*'But here, above, around, ])elow,

On mountain or in glen,
Nor tree, nor shrub, nor plant, nor flower,
Nor aught of vegetative power.
The weary eve mav ken.
For all is rocks at random thrown.
Black waves, bare crags, and banks of stone;
As if were here denied

The summer's sun, the spring's sweet dew,

That clothe with many a varied hue
The bleakest mountain side."

In some countries lichens provide food for man and

beast. Several kinds are used for dyestuffs. (^uite
a large part of the oxalic acid of the world com(\s from
the tiny lichens. They are also emplo^^ed in the mak-
ing of perfumery because they retain odors for so long
a time.
There are between two and three thousand lichens
already known in different parts of the world.

122
 REINDEER MOSS

REINDEER MOSS

The reindeer is the wealth of the inhabitants of

some cold countries. It patiently carries the people
from place to place. Its milk and flesh serve for food,
itsskin for bedclothes, and its tendons for bow strings.
These useful animals live entirely upon a small lichen
which is found in large
quantities on the great
plains that border the Arc-
ticOcean.
This lichen is called
reindeer moss. In the tem-
perate regions it grows in
small tufts, and is some-
times found on the sides
Reindeer Moss.
and tops of mountains, cov-
ering places where the snow lies the longest. Its dense
tufts are white as new-fallen snow. As you may see, it
resembles some forms of coral. It is always erect and
much branched. There are
tiny holeswhere the
smaller branches join the larger ones. The parts of the

plants which grow in large clumps usually mix together

and form one mass. This lichen is two inches or more
in height. The reindeer find it by scraping with their
feet, even when the snow is deep.
In the forests of Lapland the ground is often car-
123
 LICHENS

petod with it for many miles. Those are fine pastures

to the Ijapland(4', and a m;in who owns a tract of them
is thought to be rich, for he can keep great herds of
reindeer.
When the snow is frozen so hard that the reindeer
cannot get their usual food, the}' eat another curious
hchen called rock hair. This grows upon the trunks
and branches of trees. It hangs down in masses and in
long loops or garlands, waving in the wind. When the
winter is severe, the Lap-
landers cut down the trees so
that the reindeer can feed
upon these lichens.
You see from this that
these little lichens, which
^'

Rock Hair
Ruskin calls humblest of
the things that hve," pro-
vide food, clothing, and means of transportation for a
vast num])er of people in the cold regions. The peo})le
live upon the reindeer, and the reindeer upon the lichen.

ICELAND ^lOSS

You have just been reading al)out lichens that

furnish food for the reindeer. But in Iceland there is
a lichen which forms an important ai'lick^ of food for
the people.
This is the Iceland moss. It is found in all the
124
 ICELAND MOSS
northern parts of the world. It covers the ground
where it grows, and is from one and one-half to four
inches high. It grows largest on the lava near the
western coast of Iceland. Many people go there during
the summer to collect it. It is said that a person can

gather four tons of it in a week. It takes three years

for new
plants to grow
where the old ones have
been taken away.
The illustration on
thispage shows you the
shape of this lichen. It
is tough and leathery,

but somewhat soft. It

has a very bitter taste.
Where it is used for food
the chop
people it in

pieces and leave it in

limewater for several
days to remove this Iceland Moss.
bitterness. It is then
dried,powdered, and mixed with flour of the common
knotgrass, and made into cakes. These are eaten
with the milk of the reindeer. The poor people say,
^^A bountiful Providence sends us bread out of the
very stones."
Iceland moss is used all over the world. In some
countries it is an article of diet for the sick. The doctor
125
 LICHENS
often gives it to Ji
patient who is reeovering from a
severe illness.
The powder looks very much like starch, and, like

it, When cooled it l)ecomes

swells in boiling water.
a substance which is pleasant to the taste,
fine, jell3dike

especially when sweetened and flavored.

LICHENS AS DYESTUFFS

Does it not seem strange that some of our most

beautiful shades of red, violet, and yellow should be
obtained from the simple little
lichens that cover the rocks?
The plants that grow in such

places contain the best coloring

matter.
The orchil gives a beautiful

purple color. A
man of Flor-
ence, Italy, claims to have dis-
^,, ,.,,,.,
., ,
,
.
,
,
covered in the sixteenth centurv
iheOrcliil (A Hu.shv Lichen).
the art of preparing dye from the
orchil. In a short time he made a large fortune. The
secret was discovered, and the manufacture was carried
to Ilohaiid, where quite a trade in this lichen is still
carried on. It is believed by some that the use of the
orchil was known b}^ the people of ancient Greece.
In temperate climates the orchil is found in small
126
 LICHENS AS DYESTUFFS

quantities on rocks by the seaside. In warm coun-

tries grows in great abundance.
it It looks like a

very small shrub without any leaves. The color is

a whitish or blue gray, and the entire plant is cov-
ered with a mealy powder, or with scattered warty
spots. The men who get it ready for the dyer grind
it between stones, so as to bruise it but not make it

into a powder.
WTien beaten to a pulp and dried in little cubes about
the size of dice, the orchil is

called litmus. Paper wet with

this is the litmuspaper used in
chemistry. WTien put into an
acid, like vinegar, this paper be-
comes red. Place it in an alkali
(ammonia, or water with soda The Cudbear Lichen,
in it) and it turns blue again.
Another useful dye lichen is the rock moss, or cud-
bear. It is found in Sweden and Sicily. It is of a dirty

gray with large, irregular shields of pale flesh color.

When the plant is moistened it has a disagreeable odor.
The dye made from it gives any tinge of purple or
crimson.
The common yellow wall lichen contains yellow and
red coloring matter. In some places the children col-
lect it for coloring Easter eggs.
The Scotch tartans of theHighland clans used to be
dyed with a common gray lichen found on trees and
127
 LICHENS
walls. Many women in the remote parts of that coun-
try still dye with this plant.
\\'ithout doubt , many other Uchens could be used as
dyestuffs. The field is open to all, and i( is pro])a})le
that, before many years, some one will gain a knowledge
of the uses of these hchens that will be of great benefit.

A rE\Y COMMON LICHENS

One of the common lichens that we all admire is
shown in the picture. It grows on rocks or around the
roots of stumps. There is a filmy mass fastened close
^ to the growing place.

^y^ ^^t^ From this arise many

hollo^^' stalks. The
«T
T
f>^ '
^^\I
1 rj^f^ outside of these stalks
k4^
'^^J^ is often covered with
y light -green powdery
H,-*
, y grains. The edges of
Red Cup Moss. the little cups may be
whole or divided.
Sometimes there are bright-red fruit vessels on their
margins. Crabl^e, an luiglish poet, calls this the ''cup
moss with the scarlet tij)."
When dry the stalks arc quite brittle and easih'
crumble into dust.
This plant is a member of the same family as the
reindeer moss. They are often found growing together.
128
 A FEW COMMON LICHENS
Probably this is the ^'red cup moss" of which Mrs.
Hemans speaks in the following Unes:
'^Oh! green is the turf where my
brothers play
Through the long, bright hours of the summer day;
They find the red cup
moss where they
climb,
And they chase the bee
o'er the scented
th}Tiie."

A plant found ever}^-

where in North America
is the common dog lichen. The Dog Lichen.
When in a moistgrowing
state it is of a brownish-green color; if dried, it becomes a
light brown or ashy tint. The leaves are much wrinkled .

Notice the reddish nail-

like fruit vessels that grow
out from the edges of the
leaves; also the small fi-

bers given off from the

under side. These catch
into the soil and hold the
plant in place.
The name ^^dog lich-
A Lichen of the Parmelia Family. ^n " waS given it bccauSe
(See page 130.) of its use as a medicine.
129
 LICHENS
It was said that a person l)itten by a mad dog could
be cured by the use of this plant.
A black, leatherlike lichen with l^lack spots scat-
tered over its surface is often found fastened Ijy strong,
short fibers to rocks on the mountains. This is the
rock tripe. In the arctic region it covers the surface of
every rock with a dark, gloomy growth. These are bit-
ter lichens, yet they have kept alive hunters and ex-

plorers when no other

food could be found.
To ParmeUa
the
family belong some of
our most common
leafy lichens. They
are sometimes called
leaf lichens or Shield-
Rock Tripe.
edge hchcns. The
common yellow wall moss is one of these that is
abundant. It grows almost everywhere on rocks,

trees, and walls. It is often seen with much fruit on

roadside walls and fences.
A Uchen sometimes called beard moss, is found in

great quantities hanging from trees in the northern

part of North America. Longfellow compares trees
covered with it to old men ''with beards that rest on
their l)osoms." Another form is found along the coast
of California, where the oak trees are often co^Tred
with festoons several yards long. These hanging
130
 A FEW COMMON LICHENS
lichens are usually a grayish green or a brownish green
in color.
We cannot go into the woods and fields without see-

Beard Moss.
Here are old trees, tall oaks and gnarled pines,
That stream with gray-green mosses."

ing lichens. Let us keep our eyes open and find as many
different kinds as we can.
131
 SEAWEEDS
Who of us does not love the sea?
''On the surface, foam and roar,
Restless heave and passionate dash;
Shingle rattle along the shore,
Gathering
•

Under the
•••••••
boom and thundering

surface loveliest forms,

crash,

Featherv fronds with crimson curl,

Treasures too deep for the raid of storms,
DeHcate coral and hidden pearl."

It is not the sea that we are going to talk about, l)ut

the ''loveliest forms" under the surface that are tossed
up by the waves.
to us
"The feathery fronds" are not all "witli crimson
curl," There are the bright-green ones, almost the
color of the grass. These are very simple in form,
being among the lowest of all plant life. They are
made up entirel}^ of soft cells, some in rows and others
in layers. New plants are producedby the division
of these cells. One plant breaks up and makes two
or more plants.
132
 03

133
 SEAWEEDS
There arc also olive or l^rowii seaweeds. Among
them are a numl^er which have stem and leaf forms.
Many of them have spores from which new plants grow.
Some of these seaweeds are quite small; others grow
to be several hundred feet in length.
Last and most beautiful are the red seaweeds, in
color from a dainty pink to a deep purple. They are
not so large nor so leafiike in appearance as the brown
ones. Thc}'^ grow in deeper water, but are often
washed ashore. Many of them are beautiful feather-
like plants. Some, called corallines, are covered ^^^th
lim'e.

Among seaweeds the plant is called a frond. A

disk or conelike expansion at the base of the frond
takes the place of the root found in flowering plants.
This a holdfast by which the frond fastens itself to
is

any material under the water. Seaweeds that grow

on sandy shores or on corals have holdfasts that
branch like fil^rous roots. Holdfasts do not take in
nourishment for the plant, as roots do. Seaweeds get
theirnourishment from the w^ater aroiuid tlunn.
Some sea plants live but a year; others have a
long Hfe. Seaweeds vary much in different seasons.
If you live near the ocean, try to gc^t some each sea-
son and notice the differences. Those ^\'hich form
spores throw them off into the water. Here they
sink or are washed to some place where they soon
begin to grow.
134
 ULVA
Seaweeds give homes and food to millions of living
creatures. Iodine, potash, and other medicines are
made from them. Various kinds of food are obtained
from different species. Farmers along the coast every-
where use them to make the soil better. So j^ou see
that seaweeds have uses as well as beauties.

ULVA
You may often find along the beach a plant which
looks like the one in the picture. It is an ulva. Some-
times it is full of holes. Then
you may know that it is an
old plant, or that a snail found
it before you did.

The largest bright-green

plants in all seas belong to this
family. Its brilliant green is

darker when the plant grows

•

in deep water. Two species

of this seaweed are found on
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
One is called the widest ulva
because it is the largest of any
of these plants. The other looks
somewhat like a lettuce leaf, An Ulva.
and is known as sea lettuce. Notice the Holdfast at
The frond of the sea lettuce the Base.

135
 SEAWEEDS
is paler and thinner than that of the ^vide.st ulva.
When young the sea lettuce is said to form an in-
flated bag, somewhat like a small to}^ balloon. I^ater,
this splits along the side and floats out, making a thin
leaf of but one layer of cells. This plant is not rpiite
so common as the larger one.
The ulva is one of the seaweeds that Hves but a
year. It is oftenfound on the beach in the winter,
but it is mxost abundant during the spring and summer
months.

FUCUS, OR ROCKWEED
The rockweeds are said to make up about one-half
of our seaweeds. Thev are of different kinds. Three
are found on our Atlantic coast, and one is common
on the Pacific coast.
The plants are large, tough, and leather}^ AMien
fresh, they have a distinct olive-green color, jjut they
become almost black when dr3^ The}^ grow in thick
bunches, attached to the rocks b}^ cone-shaped disks
or holdfasts. When the tide goes out they hang from
the rocks Uke long fringe. When it rises again, they
float and sway in the water like huge bouquets. Some-
times the spore cases are scattered over the entire
frond. In other plants they are found at the ends
of the branches.
The rockweed that is the most common is called
136
 FUCUS, OR RbCKWEED
the fu'-ciis ve-sic'-u-lo'-sus, because of its little bladders
or air vessels. These are oval and are imbedded in the
frond each side of the midrib. There are from one
to several pairs in each
frond.
You can find branches
with spores at the sea-
shore in winter or in early
spring. If you hold the
fronds between your eye
and the light you can see
the yellow fruit vessels.
Cut through the end of a
branch and you will find
a mass of hard gelatine
in which are the spore
cases.
Another common
A Rockweed. The Light - Colored
rockweed is the knotty Spots are Air Cells.
fucus. It gets this name
from the knots or swellings which the air vessels make
in the fronds. There is a very narrow frond of the
same width throughout. Its branches do not fork as
in the other kinds, but it puts out branches of different

lengths from the sides of the main stem. With these

are short branchlets whose wider ends thicken and
bear the spore cases.
The third rockweed found on the Atlantic coast
137
 SEAWEEDS
is known as the forked fiicus. This is wider and
shorter than the others. It has no air Ijladders.
This plant is found in deeper waters than are the
other forms of fucus. It is a seaweed seklom seen on
the coast south of Boston.
On the western coast of North America there is
another common form of rockweed. It has a cyhn-
drical frond aljout as big aroimd as a small wire nail.
It forks near the base. Then each part forks farther
and farther apart. There are generally six or seven
forkings. The plant grows to the height of three or
four inches. There are no air vessels.
If }'ou were tosome places along the coast
visit

you ^^•ould see women and children gathering the

fucus. They would tell a^ou that they were getting
'^kelp" for the garden. You might also see in some
of the near-by yards how they used the ^^kelp."
In Scotland and Norway where it is foimd the
fucus vesiculosus is eagerly eaten in winter bv the
cattle.

SARGASSU^AI, OR GULFWEED
The gulfweed belongs to the fucus family. It is
so different from the rockweed that it seems best to

place it in a chapter Ijy itself. It is also called sar-

gas'-sum, which isthe Spanish for sea lentils.

As you may see in the picture, it has a stem and
138
 SARGASSUM, OR GULFWEED
leaves, and looks veiy muchsome of the higher
like

foiTQS of plants. The stem is round and grows from

one to three feet in length. The branches are alter-
nate. The leaves are long and narrow with a midrib
and toothed edges. They
grow out from the stem on
short stalks. over
All
their surface may be seen

tiny dark spots. You can-

not see these in the pic-
ture, but they may be
found on a large plant.
On this smaller one they
are quite distinct when
seen with a magnifying
glass.
Notice the little round
balls all over the plant.
Thev look like little ber-
ries on stems. These are
the air vessels. Do you
remember where we found Sargassum, or Gulfweed.
them in the rockweeds?
There are many twiglike forms that come out where
the leaf stems do. These are the fruit vessels. Within
them are the spore cases with their dustlike spores.
The plant which is shown in the picture was found
at Cape Cod. It grows upon small stones and pebbles
139
 SEAWEEDS
along the coast, just l)olow low-tide marks. In Ijong
Island sound it is quite common.
There is another form of sargassum which you will
like to know a]:)out. Great ])anks or floating mead-
ows of it are out in the midst of the Atlantic ocean.
These are called the sargasso sea, on accoimt of the
floating plants which form it.
This place was first reported by Columlnis. His
sailors were frightened at the strange appearance and
wanted to turn back. They thought the vessel would
strike against the rocks. After sailing for fifteen da3's
they came into clear water. Since that time the Sar-
gasso sea has interested all sailors. Such an extent of

plants of one kind is known elsewhere.

not
Many animals live among this mass of seaweed.
Numerous air vessels make the plants light enough to
bear their weight.
Often the gulfweed surrounds a ship and liinders
its progress, and then again, hoiu's may pass mthout

a sight of the plant.

This seaweed is found attached to tlu^ rocks on the
coast of Florida and in the West Indies. Plants are
sometimes carried bv the current northward and are
found washed ashore. Perhaps this is the seaweed
that our poet Longfellow had in mind when he wrote
the following lines:

140
 EDIBLE SEAWEEDS
'^When descends on the Atlantic
The gigantic
Storm wind of the equinox,
Landward in his wrath he scourges
The toihng surges,
Laden mth seaweed from the rocks :

From Bermuda's reefs, from edges

Of sunken ledges
In some far-off, bright Azore;
From Bahama and the dashing,
Silver-flashing

Ever
••••••
Surges of San Salvador;

drifting, drifting, drifting

On the shifting
Currents of the restless main ;

Till in sheltered coves, and reaches

Of sandy beaches,
All have found repose again."

EDIBLE SEAWEEDS
There are a number of seaweeds that are used for
food. One of these is the car-ra-geen' or Irish moss. Its
extensive use by the peasants of the coast of Ireland
gave it this name. It is collected along the eastern
141
 SEAWEEDS
coast of the Unitod States. vVftor boino; dried and
l)leac]ied in the snn, it is taken to the groeer. He
sells it to his customers to make into ])lanc mange and
puddings.
The frond begins with a flattened stem. AMieu
about an inch high, this stem divides and sulxlivides
a great many times.
The frond is gener-

ally the shape of

a fan. It is thick,
tough, and leath-
er}-, and grows from
two inches to ten
inches in length. '
The size and
color of the plant

depend much upon

^^•here it grows. In
CaiTageeu, or Irish Moss.
shallow tide-pools
it is small and pale ;

under the shelter of rocks in deep water it grows

in dense masses, and is a dark purplish-red or a
reddish green. The very dark shades have changing
rain])ow colors when seen through the water with the
sun shining upon it. They turn quite dark when dry.
Another seaweed that is used for food is known as
dulse. In Xorway and Sweden this is eaten by the
sheep and goats. Among the peasants of the British
142
 EDIBLE SEAWEEDS
Isles it is a common article of food. In the United
States, it is found on the New England and the Cali-
fornia coasts.
The color of the dulse is a purplish red. It gen-

The Dulse".

erally grows upon the rocks, but it is sometimes found

upon the fucus and other seaweeds.
A third edible seaweed is the laver. This is com-
mon everywhere. It is known by its dark-purplish
frond. This is thin and somewhat elastic. It shines
like satin, especially when in the water.
143
 SEAWEEDS
The lavor is much used in Great Britain as an arti-
cle of food for a relish \\itli roast meat. The Chinese
use it for making soup.
It is —
an annual that is,
it lives but one year.

GIANT SEAWEEDS
The largest of all
known plants is a sea-
weed. This seems ^trange
\\hen we think of all the
great plants and trees that
are found growing on the
land. It is a queer-look-

ing plant, too. Let us

see how it grows. There
is a thin naked stem from

700 to 1,500 feet long. It

is only about one-fourth
Poi-jjliyra, or Laver.
of an inch thick. At the
end of this stem is a fern-like leaf that is about fifty
feet in length. Where it joins the stem each leaflet
expands into an air vessel as large as an eg^. These
air vessels hold up the great frond which floats on the

top of the water. This plant is found on the Pacific

coast of Xorth America.
144
 SEA TANGLE
There is another order of l^rown seaweed which
grows to be very large. Belonging to this order are
the oarweeds, tangle, and sea colander.
The oarweeds have stout, woody stems, and broad,
tough, glossy leaves of a dark olive green. The large
fronds float like streamers in the water, while the
fishes swim in and out among them.
The sea colander has a round stem which becomes
flattened in the leaf,and extends through it Hke a
midrib. The frond has wavy edges. Its whole sur-
face is covered with holes, which give the plant its
name.
In the sea tangle the leaf is narrow and ribbon-
like. Its length is from three to thirty feet. It grows
at the end of a solid stem that is from three inches to
four feet long. The edge of the frond is much waved.
Through the center there is a band of sunken spots.
This seaweed is found on the northern shore of both
the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. .Perhaps you
will like to read a poem about the little maid and her
sea tangle.

SEA TANGLE
'^'Go show your power!' the East Wind cried
to earth
Commanding; and the swift submissive seas.
In ordered files, like liquid mountains, glide,
Moving from sky to sky with godlike ease.
145
 SEAWEEDS
ik4o\v a.
cliff,where mused a little maid,
It struck. Its voice in thunder cried, 'IVnvare.'

But, to d(4i<!:ht her, instantl}^ displayed

A fount of showering diamonds in the air.
.... The wave passed on;
,

Touching each shore with silver-sandled feet,

But tossed, in flying, in the sun which shone,
A handful, to her lap, of sea blooms sweet.
More delicate than forms that frost doth weave
On window panes are Ocean's filmy brood;
Remembering the awfiil home they leave, •

Their hues to that dim underworld subdued.

Fair spread on pages white, I saw arrayed

These fairy children of a sire so stern;
Their beauty chamied me w^iile the little maid
;

Spoke of her new-found love with cheeks which burn.

'So grand, so terrible, how could I know

He cared for these?' she faltered, 'darlings dear!
That his great heart could nurture them and glow
With such a love beneath such looks severe? '

Lik(! God, the Ocean, too, the least can heed,

Yearn in a moon-led quest to farthest shores,
And fondle in delight its smallest weed,
Yet look to Him it mirrors and adores."
J. G. Appletox.
146
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147
 SEAWEEDS

SEA FJ.OWEKS
What a contrast to the giant seaweeds are some of
the dehcate Httle plants found along our coasts. The
soft, silky tufts of the cal-li-tham'-ni-on are of cobweb
fineness. Their brilUant red color with* the darker dots
along the branches make them look like flowers.

'^O call us not weeds, but flowers of the sea,

For lovely and bright and gay tinted are we;
Our blush is as deep as the rose of the bowers,
Then call us not weeds; we are Ocean's gay flowers."

The feather weed is another delicate red sea plant.

This grows under the rockweed or fucus on the sides
of the cliff near low-water
mark. It is often found
in summer and fall among
masses of seaweed left by
the waves. The fruit ves-
sels grow at the tips of
the feather}^ branchlets.
The grasslike seaweed
which you see on the next
page is of a l^right-green
color. It is common
Callithaniiiion. (A Beaiiliful Itcd
with Darker Dots alonjr the ever}' where. The fronds
Branches.) are fine, hair-like tubes,
148
 SEA FLOWERS
soft and densely tufted. The name is a long one and
may be hard to remember. It is an en-ter-o-mor'-pha.
This plant often grows on
the bottoms of ships. The
sailors call it grass.
Coarser than any of
these is the pitcher weed

or cer-a'-mi-um, a sea
plant that may be easity
known. The tops of the
branches bend toward
each other. At the last
fork they are so curved in
and hooked that they look
like two tiny fishhooks
turned point to point.
Enteromorpha (bright-green) .

If you look at these plants

through a magnifying glass you find that the stems and

branches are striped in dark and light colors. Some
of the small forms of the pitcher weed are often foimd

growing on the Irish moss

plants.
'^
Another pretty flower of the
sea" is the chenille weed. Out
of the water itlooks like a stringy
mass of pink or purple jelly.
Floating in the sea there is a
Pitcher Weed or Ceramiuin. delicate pink piece of chenille.
149
 SEAWEEDS
Much of this phiiit is found between Fort Hamihon .-ind

Coney Island. It extends northward to Cape Cod, but

HO farther.
These are only a few of the many seaweeds that
are found among the rocks or along the sand.

''
Search the shore,
Each rock pool has every tide
its treasure,

Strews on the yellow sand from Ocean's lap

Weed than our flowers more fair, and fitted more
To beautify the all^um's tasteful page."

Beautifid ferns with fronds so green.

In woods and meadows are often seen;
Beautiful rnushrooms in colors bright,
Hiding their spores from the strong sunlighto
Beautiful mosses with tiny leaves
Cover the rocks and the fallen trees.
Beautiful lichens in gray and brown
Remain with us when the snow falls dowTi.
Beautiful seaweeds out of the sea
Are cast on the sand you and me.
for
Beautiful })lants are these, large and small;
God has made them for us all.

150
 New York Botantcat Garden Library

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