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• Pictures of journals, newspapers, books etc

Sources of research data

JA Timbuak, PhD

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But first….
• After the research problem and research Let’s define research data-
design are identified and drawn respectively, • Research Data - numerical and non-numerical
the task of data gathering becomes the next facts collected in a systematic manner to
most important step. validate original research findings.

• This is because every research is based on • It is the lowest unit of information from which
data which is analyzed and interpreted to get other measurements and further analysis can
information. be done.

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Sources of Data Primary Data

Quantitative data • Primary data means original data that has
Primary data been collected specially for the purpose in
Qualitative data
mind. It has not been changed or altered in
Data
anyway.
Journal articles
Books • This type of data is fresh, reliable, authentic
Secondary data
Conference proceedings
Government/corporate reports
and objective and has not been published yet.
Newspapers/magazines
theses and dissertations
• It could be Quantitative or Qualitative
e-materials and the internet

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Primary data contd. Primary data contd.

Quantitative data Qualitative data
• These are based on values, figures or numbers. • Non- numerical, in-depth, insightful and provides more
They do not reveal why, when or how detail. It tells why, when and how?
– e.g. Only 10 % of Nigerian postgraduate students
graduate within the stipulated time. • Usually obtained from open-ended questionnaires,
unstructured interviews and unstructured
observations.
• Basically, quantitative data:
– are Numerical
• Qualitative data is typically descriptive data and as
– are Statistically reliable
such is harder to analyze than quantitative data.
– Can present a larger population

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Sampling for primary data Sources of primary data

• Random sampling: Anyone or thing has an • Questionnaire
equal chance of being included in the • Schedule
research. • Interview (one on one, telephone)
• Observations
• Stratified random sampling: Samples on the
basis of a representative strata or segment to
give more focused and relevant information.

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• A questionnaire - consists of a number of • The form of the questions may be either

– closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’)
questions printed or typed in a definite order
– or open (i.e., inviting free response)
on a form or set of forms.
• Before using this method, it is always advisable to
• The questionnaire is distributed directly or conduct a ‘pilot study’ for testing the
questionnaires.
sent (usually by post) to the persons
concerned with a request to answer the • In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is
questions and return the questionnaire. felt very much.

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Essentials of a good questionnaire

• Should be comparatively short and simple.
• Schedules: are very much like the collection of
• Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from data through questionnaire.
easy to more difficult questions.

• Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end. • A schedule is a proforma containing a set of
questions but filled by an enumerator.
• Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different
interpretations should be avoided. • Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the
investigation and also remove the difficulties
• Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple which any respondent may feel in answering the
choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
– The open-ended type of questions are often difficult to analyse and questions.
hence should be avoided to the extent possible.

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Differences between questionnaire

and Schedules
• Questionnaires are cheaper • Interview: this involves presentation of oral-
• Non- response is high with questionnaires.
• Identity of the respondents is usually not known for
verbal questions and reply in terms of oral-verbal
questionnaire. responses.
• Questionnaire are usually slower to fill, so take up research
time.
• Questionnaire method requires respondents to be literate. • This method can be used through personal
• The risk of collecting incomplete and false information is interviews and, if possible, through telephone
more with the questionnaire.
• The quality and appearance of a questionnaire determines interviews.
its success while for the schedule, it lies with the – It entails the use of a set of predetermined questions
enumerator. and highly standardised techniques of recording.

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• Observation: is systematically planned and

recorded. It is subjected to checks and
controls on validity and reliability.

• The information is sought by way of the

investigator’s own direct observation without
asking from the respondent.
– observation can be participant or non-participant
observation.

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Sources of Secondary data

• Data gathered and recorded by others for a
purpose other than the current project. This is
data has already passed through analysis and
is being re-used.

• It only involves compilation hence, less cost,

time and effort.

Jane Goodall
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Sources of secondary data

• Journal articles • Journal articles: These are good especially
• Books for up‐to‐date information.
• Conference proceedings
• Government/corporate reports • They offer a relatively concise, up to‐ date
• Newspapers/magazines format for research, and because all
• theses and dissertations reputable journals are refereed (i.e. editors
• e-materials and the internet publish only the most relevant and reliable
• etc research).

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• Books: tend to be less up‐to‐date as • Conference Proceedings: These can be useful

it takes longer for a book to be in providing the latest research, or research
published than for a journal article. that has not been published.

• They are also helpful in providing information

• But they do offer a good starting on which people are currently involved in
point from which to find more which research areas, and so can be helpful in
detailed sources. tracking down other work by the same
researchers.

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• Government / Corporate Reports: Many • Newspapers: Since newspapers are generally

government departments and corporations intended for a general (not specialized)
commission or carry out research. audience, the information they provide will be
of very limited use.

• Their published findings can provide a useful • Often newspapers are more helpful as
source of information, depending on your providers of information about recent trends,
field of study. discoveries or changes, e.g. Announcing
changes in government policy,

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• Theses and Dissertations: These can be useful • Magazines: intended for a general audience (e.g.
sources of information. Time) but usually magazines are not useful for
your research except as a starting point by
• However there are disadvantages: providing news or general information about new
discoveries, policies, etc. that you can further
– 1) they can be difficult to obtain since they are not research in more specialized sources.
published, but are generally only available from the
library shelf

– 2) the student who carried out the research may not • Specialized magazines may be more useful (for
be an experienced researcher and therefore you might example business magazines for management
have to treat their findings with more caution than
published research. students)
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Before using secondary data, they must possess following characteristics:

1. Reliability of data:
The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
Internet: The fastest‐growing source of (a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they
collected by using proper methods (d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there
information. any bias of the compiler?(f) What level of accuracy was desired? (g) Was it achieved ?

• More and more refereed electronic journals 2. Suitability of data:

The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be suitable in another
(e‐journals) are appearing on the Internet ‐ if they enquiry. In this context, the researcher must scrutinise the definition of various terms
are refereed it means that there is an editorial and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source.
board that evaluates the work before publishing Similarly, the objective, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be studied.

it in their e‐journal eg. Elsevier, ASN Journal, etc 3. Adequacy of data:

If the level of accuracy achieved is found to be inadequate for the purpose of the
• so the quality should be more reliable (depending present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the
researcher.
on the reputation of the journal).
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References
• Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education.
• C.R. Kothari (2004). Methods of data collection. In: Research
methodology, method and techniques New age international
(p) limited, publishers 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New
Delhi – 110002
• Good, Carter V., and Douglas, E. Scates, (1954). Methods of
Research—Educational, Psychological, Sociological, New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.,.

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