MODULE 6

Geotechnical Engineering

EXPLORE

Watch the following videos:

What is Geotechnical Engineering.mp4
4 importance of Geotechnical Engineering.mp4
Geotechnical Engineering.mp4

ENGAGE

Geotechnics is an engineering
discipline that deals with soil and
rock behaviour in an engineering
perspective. It also involves
assessing slope stability and the
risk of landslides, rock fall and
avalanches.

Knowing that Geotechnical Engineering deals with soil, name Civil Engineering
structures that are at one point connected to soil.

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2. ________________________________________
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 EXPLAIN

“Soil Mechanics arrived at the borderline between

science and art. I use the term “art” to indicate
mental processes leading to satisfactory results
without the assistance of step-for-step logical
reasoning…To acquire competence in the field of
earthwork engineering one must live with the soil.
One must love it and observe its performance not
only in the laboratory but also in the field, to
become familiar with those of its manifold
properties that are not disclosed by boring
records…”
- Karl Von Terzaghi

Karl von Terzaghi (October 2, 1883 – October 25, 1963) was an Austrian mechanical
engineer, geotechnical engineer, and geologist known as the "Father of soil mechanics
and geotechnical engineering".
Geotechnical Engineering has advance so much since the time of Karl Terzaghi, but we
wouldn’t be here enjoying them if it weren’t for the findings by our predecessors.

From a scientific perspective, geotechnical engineering largely involves defining the soil's
strength and deformation properties. Clay, silt, sand, rock and snow are important
materials in geotechnics. Geotechnical engineering includes specialist fields such as soil
and rock mechanics, geophysics, hydrogeology and associated disciplines such as geology.
Geotechnical engineering and engineering geology are a branch of civil engineering.

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 The specialism involves using
scientific methods and principles of
engineering to collect and interpret
the physical properties of the
ground for use in building and
construction. Its practical
application, e.g. foundation
engineering, has come to require a
scientific approach. The term
geotechnics is currently used to
describe both the theoretical and
practical application of the
discipline.

Basically, every type of structure known to man is at one point connected to soil. Making
Geotechnical Engineering one with paramount importance in today’s society.
A few of the structures directly in contact with soil are retaining walls, foundations, and
roads.

ELABORATE

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains
and decayed organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces
between the solid particles. Soil is used as a construction material in various civil
engineering projects, and it supports structural foundations. Thus, civil engineers must
study the properties of soil, such as its origin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain water,
compressibility, shear strength, and load-bearing capacity. Soil mechanics is the branch
of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of soil and the behavior of
soil masses subjected to various types of forces. Soils engineering is the application of the
principles of soil mechanics to practical problems. Geotechnical engineering is the
subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves natural materials found close to the surface
of the earth. It includes the application of the principles of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining structures, and earth structures.
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 Typically, soil is classified into 4 main types.

1. Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small
particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils are one of
the poorest types of soil for growing plants
because it has very low nutrients and poor water
holding capacity, which makes it hard for the
plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil is
very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is
usually formed by the breakdown or
fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone, and
quartz.

2. Silty Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles
compared to the sandy soil and is made up of rock
and other mineral particles which are smaller than
sand and larger than clay. It is the smooth and quite
fine quality of the soil that holds water better than
sand. Silt is easily transported by moving currents,
and it is mainly found near the river, lake, and other
water bodies. The silt soil is more fertile compared
to the other three types of soil. Therefore, it is also
used in agricultural practices to improve soil
fertility.
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 3. Clayey Soil
Clay is the smallest particle amongst the other
two types of soil. The particles in this soil are
tightly packed together with each other with very
little or no airspace. This soil has very good water
storage qualities and makes it hard for moisture
and air to penetrate into it. It is very sticky to the
touch when wet, but smooth when dried. Clay is
the densest and heaviest type of soil which does
not drain well or provide space for plant roots to
flourish.

4. Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination
of sand, silt, and clay such that the beneficial
properties from each is included. For instance, it
has the ability to retain moisture and nutrients;
hence, it is more suitable for farming. This soil is
also referred to as an agricultural soil as it includes
an equilibrium of all three types of soil materials
being sandy, clay, and silt, and it also happens to
have humus. Apart from these, it also has higher
calcium and pH levels because of its inorganic origins.

From a general perspective, “soil” is a very broad term and refers to the loose layer of
earth that covers the surface of the planet. The soil is the part of the earth’s surface, which
includes disintegrated rock, humus, inorganic and organic materials. For soil to form from
rocks, it takes an average of 500 years or more. The soil is usually formed when rocks
break up into their constituent parts. When a range of different forces acts on the rocks,
they break into smaller parts to form the soil. These forces also include the impact of
wind, water and the reaction from salts.
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 There are three stages of soil:
1. Solid soil
2. Soil with air in the pores
3. Soil with water in the pores
Soil can be classified into three primary types based on its texture – sand, silt, and clay.
However, the percentage of these can vary, resulting in more compound types of soil such
as loamy sand, sandy clay, silty clay, etc

OVERVIEW OF SOIL
The ground on which we walk is never quite the same; it keeps on changing. Sometimes,
it is made up of millions of tiny sand granules and other times; it is a hard, rocky surface.
Other places have the ground covered with moss and grass. When humans came along,
the landscape slowly changed with the introduction of roads and rails.

EVALUATE

1. State the classifications of soil.

2. State the characteristics of sandy soil.

3. Explain the significant features of a silty soil.

4. Explain the characteristic of Clayey soil.

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 MODULE 7
Subsurface Explorations and Types of Foundations

EXPLORE
How is subsurface exploration relevant to other sub-disciplines of civil engineering, say
for transportation engineering?
ENGAGE
For structures which transmit heavy load on the soil, up to what nature and extent of
soil exploration is needed so as to provide data which will help in the selection of proper
types of foundation, its location and design of foundations.
EXPLAIN
What is Subsurface Exploration?
▪ Investigation of the underground conditions at a site for the economical design of
the substructure elements.
For most major structures, adequate subsoil exploration at the construction site must
be conducted. The purposes of subsoil exploration include the following:
1. Determining the nature of soil at the site and its stratification.
2. Obtaining disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for visual identification and
appropriate laboratory tests.
3. Determining the depth and nature of bedrock, if and when encountered
4. Performing some in situ field tests, such as permeability tests, vane shear tests,
and standard penetration tests.
5. Observing drainage conditions from and into the site.
6. Assessing any special construction problems with respect to the existing
structure(s) nearby.
7. Determining the position of the water table.
A soil exploration program for a given structure can be divided broadly into four phases:
1. Compilation of the existing information regarding the structure.
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 2. Collection of existing information for the subsoil condition.
3. Reconnaissance of the proposed construction site.
4. Detailed site investigation.
Generally soil exploration should be advanced to a depth up to which the increase in
pressure due to structural loading will have no damaging effect (such as settlement &
shear failure) on the structure. In other words, the depth at which soil does not contribute
settlement of foundation. This depth is termed as significant depth. Significant depth.
METHODS OF EXPLORATION
A. Open Excavations
Trial pits are applicable to all types of soils, which provide visual inspection of soil in their
natural condition in either disturbed or undisturbed state. Here depth of investigation is
limited to 3 to 3.5m. There are 2 ways:
1. Pits and trenches 2. Drifts and Shafts
B. Boring Tests
Exploratory bore holes are excavated in relatively soft soil close to ground. The location,
spacing and depth depends on type, size and weight of the structure. Bore holes are
generally located at:
▪ The building corners
▪ The center of the site
▪ The place at which heavily loaded columns are proposed
▪ At least one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum
When the depth of excavation is large, vertical boring methods are adopted. Samples are
extracted from bore holes and tested in laboratory. GWT is located and In situ tests are
carried using bore holes.

Boring Methods
▪ Auger Boring
▪ Wash Boring
▪ Percussion Boring
▪ Core Boring or Rotary Drilling

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 C. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Geo-physical methods are used when the depth of exploration is very large, and
also when the speed of investigation is of primary importance. The major method
of geo-physical investigations are: gravitational methods, magnetic methods,
seismic refraction method, and electrical resistivity method. Out of these, seismic
refraction method and electrical resistivity methods are the most commonly used
for Civil Engineering purposes. It is a non-intrusive method of “seeing” into the
ground. Geophysical methods include surface and down-hole measurement
techniques which provide details about subsurface hydrogeologic and geologic
conditions. These methods have also been applied to detecting contaminant
plumes and locating buried waste materials. Some methods are quite site specific
in their performance.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

▪ Area Ratio
▪ Inside clearance
▪ Outside clearance
▪ Inside wall friction
▪ Design of non-return valve
▪ Methods of applying forces
▪ Recovery ratio
ELABORATE

TYPES OF FOUNDATION
Following are different types of foundations used in construction:
1. Shallow foundation
▪ Individual footing or isolated footing
▪ Combined footing
▪ Strip foundation
▪ Raft or mat foundation

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 2. Deep Foundation
▪ Pile foundation
▪ Drilled Shafts or caissons
Types of Shallow Foundations
a. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing
Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation
used for building construction. This foundation is constructed for a single column
and also called a pad foundation.

The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads
from the structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load
on the column and the safe bearing capacity of soil.

Rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundation experiences

moments due to the eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces.

b. Combined Footing
Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough
and their isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated
footings, but their structural design differs.

The shape of this footing is a rectangle and is used when loads from the structure
is carried by the columns.

c. Spread footings or Strip footings and

Wall footings
Spread footings are those whose base
is wider than a typical load-bearing wall
foundation. The wider base of this
footing type spreads the weight from
the building structure over more area
and provides better stability.

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 Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and
bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground
surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the
structure over the base area of the structure.

These should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of a ground flow
of water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.

d. Raft or Mat Foundations

Raft or mat foundations are the types of
foundation which are spread across the
entire area of the building to support
heavy structural loads from columns and
walls.

The use of mat foundation is for columns

and walls foundations where the loads
from the structure on columns and walls
are very high. This is used to prevent differential settlement of individual footings,
thus designed as a single mat (or combined footing) of all the load-bearing
elements of the structure.

It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for the suitability of
spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is economical when one-half
area of the structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings are
provided.

These foundations should not be used where the groundwater table is above the
bearing surface of the soil. The use of foundation in such conditions may lead to
scour and liquefaction.

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 Types of Deep Foundation
a. Pile Foundations
Pile foundation is a type of deep
foundation which is used to transfer
heavy loads from the structure to a
hard rock strata much deep below the
ground level.

Pile foundations are used to transfer

heavy loads of structures through
columns to hard soil strata which is
much below ground level where shallow foundations such as spread footings and
mat footings cannot be used. This is also used to prevent uplift of the structure
due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces.

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the
ground surface is not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may
be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the ground surface.

Pile foundation resists the loads from the structure by skin friction and by end
bearing. The use of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of
foundations.

b. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation

Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has an action
similar to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ
foundations. It resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance

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 and/or combination of both of these. The
construction of drilled shafts or caissons are
done using an auger.

Drilled shafts can transfer column loads

larger than pile foundations. It is used where
the depth of hard strata below ground level
is located within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300
feet).

Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not

suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and
loose, water-bearing granular soils exist. It is
also not suitable for soils where caving
formations are difficult to stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer
exists.

EVALUATE

1. What are the objectives of Subsurface Explorations?

2. What are differences between isolated and combined footing?

3. When is Raft or Mat Foundations used?

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