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/ 44
SYLLABUS
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI
NON-DESTRUCTIVE OF TESTING AND EVALUATION
L{rTiP
Objectives: To stady and understand the verious Nea-Desmuctive
Excision end Testing methods, theory end their industial
Outcomes: Upon completion of this course, the students can able
to use the various Non-Destructive Testing methods for defects and
characterization of industrial components.
UNITI: OVERVIEW OF NDT 9 hours
NDT Versus Mechanical testing, overview of the Non-Destructive
Testing methods for the detection of manufscturing defects as well
‘as material characterization, relative merits and limitstions, various
physical characteristics of materials and their applications in NDT.
Visual inspection-Unaided and aided.
UNIT I: SURFACE NDE METHODS 9 hours
Liquid penetrant testing-Principles, types and properties of liquid
penetrants, developers, advantages and limitations of various
methods, testing procedure, interpretation of results.
Magnetic particle testing-Theory of magnetism, inspection
materials, magnetisation methods, interpretation and evaluation of
test indications, principles and methods of demagnetization,
residual magnetism.
UNIT II: THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT
TESTING 9 hours
Thermography-Principles, contact and non-contact inspection
methods, techniques for applying liquid crystals, advantages and
limitation, infrared radiation and infrared detectors,
instrumentations and methods, applications. Eddy Current Testing-Generation of eddy currents, proper
eddy currents, eddy current sensing elements, he
instrumentation, types of arrangement, applications, advan
limitations, interpretation, evaluation. ts,
UNIT IV: ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT) AND ACOUSTIC
EMISSION (AE) 9thoun
Uleasonic Testing-Principle, Transducers, transmission and ply.
‘echo method, straight beam and angle beam, instrumentation, day
representation, A/Scaa, B-scan, C-scan. Phased Array Ultasou
Time of Flight Diffraction.
Acoustic Emission “Technique ~ Principle, AE parametey,
Applications.
UNIT V: RADIOGRAPHY (RT) Shown
Principle, interaction of X-ray with matter, imaging, film and fm
less techniques, types and use of filters and screens, geometic
factors, Inverse square, law, characteristics of films-grainines,
density, speed, contrast, characteristic curves - Penetrametes,
exposure charts, radiographic equivalence — Fluoroscopy, xe
radiography, computed radiography, computed tomography
Total Number of Periods: 45
qa
}
CONTENTS
UNIT — 1: OVERVIEW OF NDT vrrwereennmr—
ion to Materials Te
of Materials Tests
1.4. Overview of Destructive Tests
1.5. Overview of Non-Destructive Testing Meth
1.6. Comparison of Various NDT Methods
1.7. Engineering Brief on Discontinuiti
1.8.
A9-_Nissal Inspection - Introduction
Bao ‘Basic Principle of Visual Inspectior
Key Terms You Should Rememt
Review Questions...
a)
(GUNIT - 2: LIQUID PENETRANT & MAGNETIC
PARTICLE TESTING
2.1-2.83
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Principle of Liquid Penetrant Testing.
2.3.7 Liquid Penetrant Test Process (Test Procedure of Liquid
~~~ Penetrant Testing)... 2 3.46 | Develope :
327 Equipment for Liquid Penetrant Tes
2.8, Penetrant Testing Methods
29, Applications of Liquid Penetrant Testing.
2.10, Introduction to Magnetic Particle Testing
2.11. Principle of Magnetic Particle Testing .
2,127 Magnetic Particle Testing Process
(Procedure of Magnetic Particle Testin
2.16, Equipment used in Magnetic Particle Testing
2.17, Equipment used in Dete
220. Applications of Magn
Review and Summary
Key Terms You Should Remembes
Review Question:
poses cee Naess ere
UNIT - 3: THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY i
CURRENT TESTING... ve
3.2. Basics of Infrared Theo!
3.3. Basie Principle of Thermography Testing
344, Elements of Infrared Detection Stestin
36. Thermography Testing ~ Passive Approacl
3.7. Thermography Testing - Active approach
3.20, Factors Influencing Eddy Current Testing (Parameters of
Contents
3.8. Active Thermography Techniques (Types of Acti
‘Thermography Testing)
3.9. Pulsed Thermography (Flash thermography) ..
.10. Lock-in Thermography (LT).
11. Vibro Thermography Testi
ing in Thermography Testing..
i ins of Thermography Testing
.16. Introduction to Eddy Current Testing...
. Basics of Eddy Current Testing,
. Working Principle of Eddy Current Testing....~.
.19. Eddy Current Testing Instrumentation..
Eddy Current Testing)...
Daf. Eddy Current Testing Probes.
3.22. Magnetic Sensors in Eddy Current Test
.291 Selection of Eddy Current Testing Probes/Magnetic
Sensors,
3.24. Display or Read out
System,
3.25. Evaluati
3.26.
327. ns of Eddy Current Testing,
Review and Summary..
Key Terms You Should Remember,
Review Question Non-Destructive Testing of Meyer
rials
UNIT ~4; ULTRASONIC TESTING & ACOUSTIC
EMISSION TESTING ...... ~Aagd
4.7. Ultrasonic Transducers.
48. Ultrasonic Inspection Tec!
|. Applications of Ultrasonic test
. Introudetion to Acoustic
Modes of Acoustic Emission Testin
4.17. Four Channel Data Acq
Testing.
4.18. Applications of Acou: ic Emission Test.
Review and Summary.
Key Terms You Should Rememb
UNIT - 5: RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
5.1, Introduction...
52.
$3.
54.
Advantages,
Radiography Te:
55.
56.
$7.
5.8, Development of X-Ray Fil
5.9. Interaction of X-Rays with Matter.
7
g
2
g
Intensity of X-Ra
Image Quality in
. Radiography Techniques
5.14, Fluoroscopy (Radioscopy) Testi
5.15. Xerography (Xero radiography)
5:36: Computed Radiograph
$77Computed Tomograp
Review and Summary.
Key Terms You Should Remember
Review Questions..
‘Two Marks Questions and Answer
Model University Question Papernnsm
wuMQ.t-MQ3
References samnnnnnnnnnmnntnnnnssnnnnenin re RAR
Index OVERVIEW OF NDT
SYLLABUS |
NDT Versus Mechanical testing, Overview of the
Non-Destructive Testing methods for the detection of
manufacturing defects as well as material characterisation.
Relative merits and limitations, various physical characteristics of
materials and their applications in NDT. Visual inspection -
Unalded and aided.
AACINTRODUCTION SNe VE
4.4.4. What Is NDT?
¥ NDT stands for Non-Destructive Tes
¥ As its name implies, non-destructive 1
‘materials without destroying them.
YA non-destructive tes
will not produce any kind of damage or destruction to the
sample.
Y Definitions: Some of the commonly used definitions of
NDT are given below:
@ Non-destructive testing Is the process of inspecting,
testing, or evaluating materials, components or
assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in
characteristics without destroying the serviceability of
the part or system. In other words, when the inspection or
test is completed, the part can still be used.
(i) “NDT is an examination that is performed on an object
of any ype, size, shape or materlal to determine the
presence or absence of discontinuities, or to evaluate
‘other material characteristics”. which covers the inspection
13)
qualitatively measure
some
‘ap NDT refers to technology that allows a component to by
inspected for serviceabiliy, without impairing "ig
usefulness.
The other terms commonly used for NDT ag
Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) and Non-Destructive
Inspection (NDI).
‘The NDT methods are becoming popular because these can be
carried out without damaging the parts in use.
1.1.2, Objectives of NDT
¥_ NDT can have several objectives which includes:
Materials sorting;
Materials characterization;
Property monitoring (for process control);
Thickness measurement,
Defect detection/location; and
Defect characterization,
Howe
ie i major task of NDT is to detect and identify the
feat ean Detects cn include production flaws such &
treatment cracks, grinding cracks, inclusions (of many,
» Wypes), voids . z
service) ids (pores), and fatigue cracks (generated during
| component or assembly by met), Oversiew of NDT
inhich do not afect its ultimate serviceability ‘au}| 4.4.3. Uses of NDT methods |
(in) NDT is the ‘examination of art object the technol t e NDT methods are most commonly used to achieve the
ar does not affect the object’ future usefulness, "|| following purposes:
(NDT means the use of non-invasive techniques jy } 1, Flaw detection and evaluation.
7c the. integrity of @ material, component oy Leak detection.
Location measurement.
Dimensional measurements.
Structure and microstructure characteris
Estimation of mechanical and physical properties.
Stress-strain and dynamic response measurement.
Material sorting.
‘Chemical composition determination.
the basic concepts of NDT, and overview of various
fiscussed in detail.
f
—_
7.2. INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS TESTING : z
4.2.1. Purposes of Materials Testing
(Why are Materials Tested?)
Materials are tested for one or more of the following purposes:
(To dete of materials both
quantitati
(ii) To detect and evaluate the surface or sub-surface defects in
raw materials or processed parts.
(¥) To predict the strength and serviceability of the materials. fo. Non-Destructive Testing of ha
|_ —_—_———_ a
22 Properties of Engineering Matorials
’ ‘tere ae many thousands of differet engineering mp,
‘ble today. But they can be placed into one or othe
lei
TO th
Overview of NDT 15)
capacity, th
ses, thermal fatigue,
[Thermat
lproperties
3, Ceramies and inorganie glass, ang
2, Polymers, 4. Composites,
[rechnotogical weldability
inability,
properties /
many different properties and
rovide a basis for predicting g
behaviour under various conditions.
‘An engineer must have wide knowledge of materials and thi,
properties so that he may select a suitable material for ji,
product.
¥ Some of the most important properties of materials ar
grouped, as shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1. Material properties and qualities
<
Properties
Physical
properties
[Chemical
[properties
[Mechanical
[properties
[Stength, elasticity, _plasticit
brittleness, hardness,
resilience, creep.
toughness,
electrical
ropertes
[Magnetic
properties
conductivity, capac
constant, dielectric strength,
[Relative permeabi
lAesthetic,
lproperties
|Appearance, texture and ability to accept special
finishes.
IRaw material and processing costs, availability.
lEconomic
lproperties
lother
lproperties
43. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS TESTS
‘The materials test may be grouped into two classes as:
1. Destructive tests, and
2._Non-destructive tests.
‘acoustical, and physiochemical
loptical,
properties.
4.3.4. Destructive Tests
¥ _ Inthis type of testing, the component or specimen to be tested
is destroyed and cannot be reused.
V After being destructively tested, the component or specimen
either breaks or remains no longer useful for future use.
Y As the name suggests, destructive testing (DT) includes
‘methods where the component or specimen is broken down in
order to determine physical and mechanical properties such
as strength, toughness and duct
Y Destructive testing is generally more suitable and economi
for mass produced objects, as the cost of destroying a sm:
number of pieces is ney is usually not econor
do detructive testing where only one or very few items are to
be produced. Non-Desrctive Testing of Mae |
ete Destructive
8 meta |
|
a
Y Bxamples of destruct ct
rechanical testing, macro and micro t aS vellg
and metallographic examinations. Somme o¢
|
t
|
destructive tests include:
Tensile test
Compression test
Shear test
Hardness test,
Torsion test
Chemical analysis, ee
Y Benefits of destructive testing: Some of the benefits of
destructive testing areas follows:
+ To verify properties of a mat
+) To determine quality of welds.
© Toreduce failures, accidents and costs.
+ Toensure compliance with regulations.
132. Non-Destructive Tests
Y Inthis ‘i
Jn this ype of testing, the comporient or specimen to be tested. |
17 netdestoyed and can be reused afer the test
components or specimens witho :
oe wiiet ae ut destroying them.
ies of
erronc s for disconti
Sversnees in characteristics without destroying’ tH
As its name in
its name implies, non-destructive testing means testing f |
Overview of NDT 7
serviceability of the part or system. In other words, when the
inspection or testis completed, the part can stil be used.
Y Now-a-days, NDT tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication
and in-service inspections.
Y Applications of NDT: The non-destructve tests are used:
= Toensure product integrity and !
= Tocontrol manfacturing processes.
* To lower production costs.
* To maintain a uni ity in quality level.
¥ NDT tests can be performed on part:
(during manufacture, or
(ii) after manufacture, or
) even on parts that are already in service.
Y Features of NDT:
Using NDT, an entire production lot can be inspected, or
selected samples can be inspected.
* Also different tests can be
either simultaneous or sequen
be repeated on the same specimen for additional
verfication.
+ It may be added that the NDT equipment is often
is permits the use of NDT methods: for
in most locations.
Y Because NDT does not permanently alter the specimen being
is a high valuable technique that can save both
time and money in product evaluation, trouble shooting, and Non-Destructive Testing of iy
tei
.
1 tests make COmponents More relaty, al
*
¥ Nondestrus |
and economical. |
The main objectives of non. k
NDT: destrcig|
1 objectives of
tests include
To detect intemal or surface flaws. |
‘Tomessue the dimensions of the specimen,
Base elements of non-destructie testing: The four ba |
elements in any non-destructive testing areas follows,
os]
i) Source or probing medium |
+ Source can be some probing medium that can be used to| |
inspect the specimen under test.
magnetic particle, ultrasonic wave, radiations, etc,
* This probing medium must be changed or mo
result of which the discontinuities with the specimen can
be studied.
ii) Detector
* A sensitive detector or sensor which is capable of
Aetecting the changes in the probing medium.
ii) Recorder
A recorder or indicator is used to indicate or record the
response from the detector.
phan fiom the detector’ =
5s) Interpretation
Various means. of
interpreting the recorded results
thouth peaks, graphs
, bar diagrams, etc.
Overview of NDT 19)
Y Non-destructive testing methods: There are number of NDT
methods are being employed in practice. Some of the most
commonly used NDT methods are:
1. Visual inspecti
2. Liquid penetrant testing
4.Thermography
6. Ultrasonic
8, Radiographic testing,
10. Leak testi
4.3.3. Comparison Between Destructive and Non-Destructive
Tests
Table 1.2 presents the comparison between destructive and non-
ighting their advantages and limitations.
Table 1.2, Destructive tests Vs. Non-destructive tests
. | Comparison | Destructive Tests | Non-Destructive
Item Tests
In this type of testing, | In this type of testing,
ie component or | the component or
specimen to be tested | specimen to be tested
is destroyed and | is not destroyed and
cannot be reused after | can be used after the
the test
4) Tensile test
Visual inspection
Liquid penetrant
test
Examples
Compression test
‘Shear test
‘Magnetic particle
testing
-v) Impact test sothermogtpty
vi Fatigue test ¥) Eddy current
vii) Creep test testing
iv) Hardness test vili)Bending test
ix) Torsion test
x) Chemical
analysis, ete
Non-Destructive Testing of iy
la
Lit
DTis generally
performed when the
‘component oF
specimen can no
longer be used in
service or is readily
replaceable.
Provides a direct
and reliable
measurements.
Provides
quantitative
‘measurements.
Result
interpretation is
cay.
Can be performed
without very high
skilled personnel.
Corelation
between test
‘measurements and
material
Properties is,
direct,
same specimen.
5. Can be performed
‘on components
which are in-
service.
Litle or no
specimen
preparation is
required.
1. The test
equipment is often
portable.
Labour costs are
usually low.
1. Most NDT
methods are quick.
|. Tests are
performed only to
a sample and the
sample may not
bea
representative of
the group,
9. Tested parts are
destroyed during
testing.
. Usually cannot
repeat atest on
the same
specimen,
|. Usually cannot
use the same
|. Measurement are
indirect.
Reliability isto be
verified.
‘Measurements are
often qualitative
or comparative.
. Result
interpretation is
often difficult.
._ Skilled personnel
are required for
testing and result specimen for
multiple
destructive
testing.
May be restricted
for costly or few-
in-number parts.
their useful life.
Extensive
machining or
preparation of test
specimens is often
required
10.Tests often
require more time.
AL. Test equipment is
usually not
Non-Destructive Testing oy
Portable.
Mee
Overview of NDT 113]
4:4, OVERVIEW OF DESTRUCTIVE TESTS:
The overview of major destructive tests are briefly presented
Maximum tensile strength,
Breaking strength,
Percentage elongation,
Percentage reduction in area, and
lly carried out with the help of a
“Universal Testing Machine’ (UTM).
14.1.1. Arrangement
| ¥ The material to be tested, also known as a specimen, is
machined to standardised dimensions, as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Y A typical specimen has a diameter of 12.6 mm and gauge
length of 50 mm, Overview of NDT 115
Frodders | by means of the movable cross head, till the specimen
L Diameter ane
Coverall length
extensometer is used to measure the elongation of the
specimen between the gauge marks when the load is applied.
| © Then the different values of load and elongation at different
| intervals are recorded and tabulated. By using the tabulated
| data, the stress-strain curve can be plotted.
|
f
1.4.2. Compression Test
¥ The compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the
the force is compressive.
Y Since brittle materials are unsuitable for tension test, therefore
they are tested for compressior
Movable Y Brittle materials such as cast iron, concrete, mortar, brick and
——— ceramics are commonly tested in compression.
Y The compression test is also conducted on a.universal testing
Chea Extensometer’ machine.
sd 1.4.3. Hardness Tests
1 Y Hardness defined: Hardness may be defined as the ability of
a material to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting or
ue sevcraton
So oO ;
aS a The hardness test is performed on a material to know its
Fig. 1.2. Schematic arrangement of a UTM
¥ The pecimen is elongated by the moving cross head; 094%!] 1 4.3.1. types of Hardness Tests
= Fecal measure the magnitude of the applied #) "The three most commonly used hardness tests are:
‘elongation respectively. 1, Brinell hardness test,
IAL2 Testing Procedure 2. Vickers hardness test, and
v i eine Gogo ue end-javs 3. Rockwell hardness test.
Now the load is applied gradually on the sP&=™
‘Fig. Ll Standard tension specimen
YA sehematic working arrangement of a universal tesig|
racine is shown in Fig. 1.2 1
|
ca
resistance against indentation and abrasion. Non-Destructive Testing. of ia,
rig
tes have the SAM basic pring,
u
«is pressed into the surface of the mater
g known load, and the extent of the rey
ured mechanically or optically,
Yao dete
and asmall impression indicates a hard nat
4. Brine Hardness Test t
tn the Brine test, hardened steel ball indenter is forced ing
the surface of the metal to be tested. The diameter of i
hardened steel (or tungsten carbide) indenter is 10 mq
Ssandard loads range between 500 kg and 3000 kg in $00
increments, During atest, the load is maintained constant fy
10to 15 seconds.
4 ABrinell hardness testing machine is depicted in Fig. 13,
Specimen
‘Anvil
Hand wheel
‘Screw
Fig. 13. A Brinell hardness testing machine
y Py
ee Hardness testis performed by pressing # #
Fe i ‘own as indenter, into the specimen, as show”
|
Overview of NDT
Measurement of diameter
of indentation by a microscope
D
‘ ReH
Specimen poy
‘Specimen
(a) ©)
Fig. 14, Brinell hardness test
Y The diameter of the resulting impression is measured with the
help of a calibrated microscope.
— Brinell Hardness Number (BHN): The measured diameter is
converted into the equivalent Brinell hardness number using
the following rela
Load on the ball.
‘Area of Indentation of Steel ball
P
D
Flo-Vo=a]
Load applied on indenter in kg,
Diameter of steel indenter in mm, and
Diameter of ball impressi
v If the BHN value igher, than the material is said to be
harder, If BHN is less, then the metal is soft.
2. Vickers Hardness Test
¥ The Vickers hardness test is similar to the Bri
square-based diamond pyramid being used as the
BHN =
v
uud fat 1.19
of a static load fort) Overview of NDT
iber: The diamond-pyramid hardness
ickers hardness number (VHIN or VPH) is
applicd load divided by the surface area of
Ve) vy vekers hardness 1
number (DPH)
angle defined as
indent
a square pyramid shape with ay
2
ca Applied load ety
= Surface area of Impression ~~ D?
1.8544 P
load in kg,
tween the opposite faces of
diamond = 136°, and
D = Mean diagonal length in mm.
3. Rockwell Hardness Test
Y The Rockwell hardness
methods of hardness t
probably the miost widely used
Pp
Ballindenter - Cone or
brale indenter
Depth of Depth of
impression impression
Fig, 1.6. Rockwell indenter
le of the Rockwell test differs from that of the
f the depth of the impression is related to the ‘Non-Destructive Testing of Meter
a the diameter oF diagonal ¢ &
performed to study the behaviour
ba Joad ice., suddenly applied load
npc sent defined: The capacity of @ metal 10 withsang |
Fees without race is known as impact Strength oy
imac resistance.
Theimpactest indicates the toughness of the
amount of energy absorbed by the material during plastic
deformation.
The impact test also indicates the notch sensitivity of a
taterial. The notch sensitivity refers to the tendency of some
ronal ductile materials to behave like brittle materials inthe
presence of notches.
1 Principle In an impact es, a notch is eut in a standard tt
piece which is struck by a single blow in a impact testing
machine. Then the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen
¢anbe measured from the seale provided on the impact testing
machine,
Y The schema
shown
“
“
rangement ofthe impact testing machine
Overview of NDT
121
‘Specimen,
‘Specimen support
Fig, 1.7, Impact testing machine
1.44.1. Types of Impact Tests
Based on the types of specimen used on impact testing
machine, the impact tests can be classified into:
1. Izod test, and
2._Charpy test.
it can be noted that the impact testing machines are designed so
that both types of test can be performed on the same machine
‘with only minor adjustments.
4.lz0d Test
Y Tend test uses a cantilever specimen of size 75 mm x 10 mm x
10 mm, as shown in Fi (a). The V - notch angle is 45°
and the depth of the notch is 2 mm.
‘The Izod specimen jis placed in the vise such that it is a
5. 1.8(b).
cantilever, as shown va!
| |
Fig. 1.8. Specimen for izod test |
2. Charpy Tost
¥ The Charpy test uses a test specimen of size $5 mm x 10na
x 10 mm, as shown in Fig. 1.9(a). The V-notch angle is 45)
and the depth of the notch is 2 mm.
Y The Charpy specimen is placed in the vise as a simp)
‘supported beam, as shown in Fig. 1.9(b).
4
7 0 im
55mm aot
(a)
40mm
® 3
a
stikng edge
Fig. 1.9. Specimen for Charpy test
Overview of NDT
1.4.4.2, Testing Procedure
‘The general procedure to conduct an impact testis given below:
1. The specimen is placed in the vice of anvil.
2. The pendulum hammer to known standard height
depending on the type of specimen to be tested.
3. When the pendulum is released, its potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy just before it strikes the
specimen.
4, Now the pendulum sti
that the Izod specimen
Charpy specimen will be
5. The pendulum, after rupturing the specimen, rises on the
other side of the machine.
6. The energy absorbed by the specimen during breaking is
the weight of the pendulum times the difference in two
height of pendulum on either side of the machine.
7. Now the energy i.e., the notched impact strength, in foot-
pounds or meter-kg, is measured from the scale of the
impact testing machine.
3.8., OVERVIEW OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS”
The overview of commonly used non-destructive testing
methods is briefly presented below.
the specimen. It may be noted
4.5.1. Visual Inspection
| 1S... What is it?
‘magnifying glasses, and microscopes. Non- Destruct
is commonly defined a8 “the
fen smelling the component bei
1g, and sometimes ev.
spection is common!
went other NDT methods.
detectors and computer technology have made it
spections. This is known
‘15.12. Characteristic Detected (Applicability)
sual inspection is commonly used:
}) To detect surface characteristics such as finish, scratches,
cracks or color.
i). To check stan in transparent materials.
'o inspect corrosion,
1S.1.3. Principle
Y Seeing is believing and the art of seeing is the visual
inspection technique.
Visual testing requires adequate illumination of the test
v
15.14. Advantages
Some of the advantages of visual testing are as follows:
(Simple and easy to use,
rive Testing of Materials |
‘component, or product for |
using light and the eyes, alone |
Jy employed 10 support’ |
of NDT
Relatively inexpensive.
Testing speed is high.
iv) Testing can be performed on components which are
in-service,
(¥) Permanent records are available when latest equipment is
used,
1.5.1.5, Limitations
Some of the
‘The test results depend on skill and knowledge of tester.
imited to detection of surface flaws.
Eye resol
Eye fatigue.
1.5.1.6, Applications
Typical applications of visual inspection include:
Checking of the surface condition of the component.
Checking of alignment of muting surfaces.
Checking of shape of the component,
Checking for evidence of leaking.
(v)_ Checking for internal side defects.
visual inspection method i elaborately discussed in Section 1.8
n is weak.
ofthis unit,
4.5.2. Liquid Penetrant Testing
1.5.2.1. What is it?
Y Liquid penetrant method is an effective method of detecting
surface defects in metals and other non-porous material
surfaces.
Y — It detects flaws that are open to the surface e.g., cracks, seams,
laps, lack of bond, porosity, cold shut ete. Y
Non-Dest
tructive Testi
g_—__—_—_ wa ME Of Mate Overview of NDT
/ eanbecfTesvely used forthe inspection of
) ferrous metals,
non-ferrous metals, and
ros, nonmetli¢ materials Such as eran,
pasties and glass.
Y This method is widely used for testing of non-magne,
ical sequence of operations for
Surace of sd
workpiece, penetrant Dewsenng _Dacntiay
ieeeve
no ee yt ay Qettent, Spuntens
materials.
1.52.2 Characteristics Detected (Applicat
Liquid penetrant testing is widely used:
(i) To locate cracks, porosity, and other defects that bre Fig. 1.10. Sequence of operations for liquid penetrant inspection to
the surfice as a material and has enough volume tty detect the presence of cracks and other flaws in a workpiece
and hold the penetrant material.
ae ' a , | 15.24. Advantages
(G) To inspect large areas very ef ly and will work o Some of the advantages of liquid penetrant testing are as
‘most non-porous materials. : follows:
1.5.2.3. Principle | ‘Sample and easy to use.
) Applicable to complex shapes.
ange surface areas or large volumes of parts/materials can
+ Penetrantis 3
id capable of testing the
a being drawn into the openings. Usually bright be inspected rapidly and at low cost.
lowed dyes or fluorescent materials are used 8
Penetrants,
penetrant testing are as follows:
Pecloper isan absorbent material capable of drawit =
‘traces
a ake Penetrants from the defects back onto M
tare open to the surface.
cannot be used on porous and very rough surfaces. Non-Destructive Testing o
@—_—_—__ May
ion (befor
ce preparation. (
ens can mask defects. So te
fre of all dit oll, grease, Paint,
(uy Deformed sures and surface coatings may pay
Overview of NDT 129]
re tes
Gi
¥ This method can be used
materials (such as iron, steel,
n.
reed to remove all penerant materials ater ey
handing precaution are necessary (toxic,
inexpensive and rapid technique.
shape, composition,
1.5.3.3. Principle
ars, crankshaft, cylinds
lstrates the basic principle of magnetic particle
ers, transmissions, aa] ¥
|
f field drilling rigs, drill pipe, castings, wl Y Magnetic
| ferromagné
cle inspection is based on the principle that
when magnetized, will have a
in the vicinity of flaws and defects, as
shown in Figs. 1d (b).
revealed by the a
minute magnetic par
powder in suspension as a
153. Mi
lagnetic Particle Testing strongly attracted to surface regions where .the flux is
153. ;
188 What concentrated.
eee ting aed forthe testing of mate) This wuld create a visa inden eprexinating te Sie
easily magnetized, and shape of the flaw (Fig. 1.11(@)). The parts have 0
ge
This method is capable of d demagnetized and cleaned after inspection.
| Magnetic
particle
5K indication
SS
Se
¥ Thus the tree procedural steps involved (Fig. 1.11) are:
(@) Magnetizing the test specimen,
(©) Applying magnetic particles on the test specimen, and
(©) Locating the defects,
1534. Advantages
Some of the advan
follows:
detectable disruptions if they are sufficiently close to the surface
i
{
f
|
|
,
ft
ages of magnetic particle testing a *
(iv) Applicable to complex geometries.
(¥) Applicable to any size of the component, as long as it can
induce uniform magnetic fields within the piece.
1.5.3.5. Lit
Some of the
follows:
ions of magnetic particle testing are as
Applicable only to ferromagnetic materials.
lignment of the flaw and the field affects the s
pections with different magnet
ect defects at or near surfaces.
ng, the part must be demagnetized and cleaned.
igh current source is required.
or other nonmagnetic coverings adversely affects
ions of the magnetic. particle testing method
Inspection of fans and blowers in thermal power plants.
Inspection of weld cracks.
Inspection of connecting rods.
Underwater inspections such as offshore structural welds,
jon and ship structures.
ing method is presented, in detail, y Testing
isa nondestructive | z it
ve tecknique tat allows: the visualization of heat
imaging
an obj /
“ conns ve also called as thermal imaging of infrared
hy. :
thermore es the thermal profile of material or
4 in a graphic form which allows a
‘working temperature assessment
vations in the material or component temperature are
identified, using which the flaws/defects can be detected.
4 Them: ion involves using contact and or non-contact
type heat sensing devices to detect temperature changes.
1.54.2. Principle
The basic principle of thermal inspection involves the
measurement ot mapping of surface temperatures when heat
flows from, to, or through a test object. Temperature
differentials on a surface, or changes in surface temperature
with time, are related to heat flow pattems. These heat flow
pattems can be used to detect flaws of the test object.
For example, during the operation of a heating system, a hot
spot detected ata joint in heating duct may be caused by a hot
sir leak.
Usual when the temperature differentials are greater, then
shift will be larger and closer to the surface.
ae ten ree! ‘such as cracks, debonded regions in
aes a nd poor joints, cause a change in
as sing the temperature differentials and
Patlems, the defects are detected
Overview of NDT
133)
15.4.3. Advantages
‘Some of the advantages of thermography testi
(i It can be carried out during normal operating conditi
without stopping the system.
(v)_ The results are available
no processing needed.
is of the equipment and defects
ious problems. ‘
jtations of the thermography testing are as
follows:
(@ Interpretation of results needs a certain experience and
knowledge.
(ii) Higher accuracy on detection of defects can be difficult
due to varying emissivity of the different materials.
ly cost of the equipment is high.
Applications
ations of the thermography testing include:
Detection of defects in composites.
inspection of impact damages in CFRP (carbon fibre
reinforced polymer) panels. Non-Destructive Testing of Materign
Detection of cracks in turbine components.
‘The thermography testing method is presented, in detail, separately
in Sections 3.1-3.20, Unit 3.
4.55. Eddy Current Testing
1SS.LWhat is it?
Eddy Current Testing (ECT), is an electromagnetic
non-destructive testing technique.
Y This method can be used only on all electrically conducting
materials.
Y The eddy current testing is also known as inductive testing.
1.5.5.2 Characteristics Detected (Applicability)
‘This method is widely used to:
conductivity,
and physical dimensions.
‘magnetic permeability, grain size, hardness,
(iv) To measure the thickness of a nonconductive coating on @
‘conductive metal (or the thickness of a nonmagnetic metal
coating on a magnetic metal.
(¥) Tomeasure case hardening depth,
|
135]
Overview of NDT
1.5.5.3, Principle
Y The eddy current testing works on the basis of electromagnetic
1B
12(a). These eddy current
The defects in the test object impede and change
the voltage of which is monitored to determine the
presénce of defects.
Inspection coil
Direction of
Inspection coil
Crack:
Eddy
current.
flow
Pipe:
‘Section BB
Inspection col
Pipe:
section AA
Fig. 1.12, Effects of @ crack on the pattern of eddy
current flow in a pipe
cffect of a crack on the patter of -Destructive Testing of Materials
a ee
+The pipe travels along the length ofthe inspection coil as |
shown in Fig 1-12(2) .
+ Fig. 1.12(6) shows section A~A which has no erack and
hence the eddy current cal.
+ Fig, 1.12) depicts section B-B, where a crack present
and the eddy current flow is impeded and changed in
direction,
1S.54, Advantages
Some of the advantages of eddy current testing are as follows:
can detect both surface and near-surface iregulations.
quick to use and provides immediate results of
inspection.
versatile, as it can detect flaws, variations in alloy or
‘treatment, variations in plating or coating thickness,
wall thickness and crack depth.
(Gv) No physical contact required.
() Itean be automated.
(ii) Pre- and post-treatment of the test object is not required.
1S.S.S, Limitations
Some ofthe limitations of eddy current testing are’as follows:
(® Response is sensitive to a number of variables, 50
interpretation may be difficult.
Only applicable to conductive materials,
‘such as metals.
Reference standards are needed for compatison,
iv) Highly killed operators are
(0) It is not reliable on
sub-surface flaws and
Tequired to perform inspection.
carbon. steel for the detection of
alsonot suitable for large areas.
Overview of NDT
137
(vi) Its depth of penetra
(vii) Constant separation distance between coils and specimen is
required for good results.
(viii) No permanent record.
1.5.5.6. Applications
Typical apy
ions of eddy current testing include:
(i) Detection and measurement of flaws in steering
mechanisms, airplane landing gears, engine parts, reactor
and steam generator turbines, aircraft wheels, aircraft wing
st , condenser pipes, turbine blades, et,
Detection and determination of the severity of various
surface cracks, (stress, hardening, grinding, ete) weld
seams, laps, pits, scabs, porosity, voids and inclusions.
ii) Measurement of coating and plating thickness.
(iv) Detection and measurement of flaws in seamless,
hot-rolled steel tubes; welded tubes; fastener holes, etc.
(v) Measurement of dimensional differences in machines,
formed, or stamped pars.
(vi) Determination of the hardness and depth of case hardening
in bearing rings and other parts.
(vii) Determination of the carbon content of various steels and
alloy composition of ferromagnetic materials based on
permeability.
‘The edéy curent esting method is presented inde, cpanel in
321, Unit3.
Sections 3,
1.56. Ultrasonic Testing
1.5.6.1. What ls it? 7
is one of the popular non-destructive testing
‘energy to determine the integrity
of the test objects. Non-Destructive Testing of Moterigy,
138
Y Even fom carly days, sound has been used £0 provide ay
1 of podut quali. A cracked bel will not ring ie
but a fine crystal goblet will have a clear ring when tappey
y. This basic phenomenon is employed in ultrasonie
testing.
Y In ultrasonic testing, the very short range, high frequency
ultrasonic waves (whose range les between 0.5-20 Mit) arg
used for detection of surface and sub-surface flaws in the fey, |
objects.
Y The ultrasonic waves are usually generated by the
piezoelectric effect which converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. A quartz rystal is used for this purpose,
4.5.6.2, Characteristics Detected (Applic
The ultrasonic testing method is used:
For detection of fla
For measurement of thickness,
) For the determination of mechanical properties and grain
‘structure of materials.
4.5.6.3. Principle
In udrasonic inspection, an uitrasonic beam travels through
‘the test object. An internal defect, such as crack, interrupts the
Dear and reflects back a portion ofthe ultrasonic energy. The
amplitude of the energy reflected, and the time required for
return, indicate the presence and location of any flaws in the
test object.
Fig. 1.13 illustrates as
flat plate,
* The ultrasonic inspection
Probes namely transducer
‘pical simple ultrasonic inspection of a
employs sending separate
and receiving transducer, as
Overview of NDT 7]
re
and
defect,
‘Sending Race!
bee ving
Pee puanssicer Echo om
BB] tnvodueea fone
28] 7 PUSe Echo tom
85 defect
Be
8s
Test specimen Time
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.13. Ultrasonic inspection of a flat plate
1.5.6.4, Advantages
Some of the advantages of ultrasonic testing are as'follows:
(iv) Portable device.
(v)_Itcan be automated and recorded.
nin most important materials (upto 60 ft in
jcates both flaw size and location.
requires access to only one surface of the test object.
t presents no radiation or safely hazard.
(%)_ Repeatability of the ultrasonic te igh. Non-Desructive Testing of Matei
sceessible to tran
Surface must be
Rough and uneven scanning surfaces can reduce q
effectiveness ofthe tes.
Gili) A couplant is required to promote the transfer of soung
energy into the test specimen.
(iv) Trained and experienced operators are required.
(s) Defect orientation affects defect detectability,
(ji) Unfavorable geometry of the test object causes problems,
1.5.66. Appl
Typical appli
() Inspection of large castings and forging, for internal}
‘soundness, before carrying out expensive machining |
operations. |
(ii) Inspection of moving strip or plate for laminations 3]
regards is thickness. |
coutne inspection of locomotive axlés and wheel pins fat)
fatigue cracks.
(iv) Inspection of rails for bol-hole breaks without dismant!
rail-end assemblies.
‘The ultrasonic testing method is presented, in deal separately it
of ultrasonic testing method include.
1.8.7. Acoustic Emission Testing
JS.71.What is i
Y The Acoustic Emission (AE) test is a Non-Destructive Te
(NDT) method generally used 10 detect and local
imperfections in mechanically loaded structures
‘components.
Overview of NDT
Tat
The acoustic emission testing is based on the fact that solid
materials emit sonic or ultrasonic acoustic emissions when
they are mechanically or thermally stressed the point where
cleformation or fracturing occurs. By detecting these sounds
through the use of elecironic devices, the flaws can be
detected.
The acoustic emission in the sound form is to the ears what
Visual inspection is tothe eyes.
1.5.7.2. Characteristics Detected (Applicabiliy)
‘The acoustic emission is used:
(To detect and locate imperfections to mechanically loaded
structures and components.
To detect the formation of cracks in materials during
production operations.
le
I materials will emit high frequency sound (acoustic
missions) when stressed, deformed, or undergoing structural
Changes, uch asthe formation or growth of a crack or defect
These emissions can now be detected and provide an
‘of dynamic change within the material.
strates the process of generation and
detection of
Signal
> Detection and
>= measurent
Prearpier "eecrnics
Fig. 114. Baste principle ofthe acoustic emission method
| = Non-Destructive Testing of Mater
1a,
the source produces a stress. wa
radiates out into the structure an, |
ive piezo electric transducer. As the stress
jneresed, many of these emissions
nals from one or more sensors are ampli
and measured to produce data for display and interpretation,
1.5.74, Advantages
‘Some of the advantages of acoustic emission testing method are
(The entire structure can be monitored with near.
instantaneous detection and response. t
Inthis method, only ‘active’ flaws can be detected. |
Defects inaccessible to other methods can be detected.
‘can be performed in severe environments,
(0) Real time evaluation and remote scanning is possible.
(i
4
G
« ofthe liittons of acoustic emission testing method are
© Only growing flaws can be
of defects isnot detectable)
There is no indication of
detected (i, the mere presence
‘the size or shape of th
Influence of ambien so pe ofthe flaw.
F result in por oun 14 *enuation of signals may
iv) Sophisticated ae recess
roces Fi
(9) Poor repeatab “Swe devices are required.
(wi) Experience is required to
required tiny ;
(i) Size and shape of te compa Be
zp po.
emission sionals thatreach he dane oe eRe OF tHE
Overview of NDT
1.43]
tested using AE method include
towers, tanks, pipes, cranes and heavy
(Bae) Tre acoustic emision testing metho is presente in dtl, in
Sections 4124.18, Unit
1.8.8. Radiography Testing
5.8L. What is it?
Radiography testing is one of the most important, ve
and widely accepted of all the non-destructive exami
methods.
The radiographic testing method is commonly used for the
smal flaws such as cracks and porosity in
many different materials and configuration.
Y In radiography testing, X-ray or gamma ray
determine the internal soundness of the metal; hence it
called as X-ray or gamma ray testing.
Y Radiographic inspection employs the same principles and
techniques as those of medical X-rays,
1.5.8.2, Characteristics Detected (Applicability)
The radiography testing method is used:
(i) To inspect almost any material for surface and sub-surface
defects.
i) To locate and measure
i) To confirm
(iv) To measure the thickness of
features.
jidden parts in an assembly.
terials. SASSO
‘now Destractve Test of Materiqy
~m—
Radiogrephy wo eshte test object and is capture)
caida
i fi
After processing the
obtained. Using the images
iden trough density chanees 5 3
= isilusates the basi principles of radiography testing
an image of varying densit
rage, possible imperfections ap)
[fasion ser tb)
ays
Pat tobe inspected
Radiation sensitive fim
More exposed area (Detect)
‘Less exposed area
FS” Ff -dieaty exposed area
Hl | ofthe film (Highly exposed)
View ofthe developed fim
Fig 11S. Principe of rei y
radiography test
S84. Advantages any
Some of the a
vantages of radiography testing method are #
Overview of NDT [14s]
(v) Both surface and subsurface defects can be detected.
(vi) Provides permanent record of ins
(vii) It can inspect complex shapes and m
without disassembly.
syered structures.”
1.5.8.5. Limitations
Some of th
follows:
tations of radiographic testing method are as
assess the defects.
impossible without
parts,
fabricated structured
116. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS NOT METHODS
1.64. Summary of NDT Methods
8 detected, advantages, I Table 1.3. Summary of principles,
advantages, lmltations and applications of varlous NDT methods
charactertstes detected,
wormens | meee aR pear ma cocwmnen | Teme
Sen 2 Eiteyrepmme | | SESE
7 ier | Ge | Se
Base sce + Save none
= Tigra 7 Saag aeons ||
: es I A a z
: Seetetn|” Reaeietien ||
= : cael
= Seam |” meres | Eee |
fecswveryomconsy | 7 © Snuraca costs =
toworurmamran: | 7 1 Poncasanng i 2
4 Requires mutiple co
sooner
‘onteledcoritors. gs
+ Surattraiag
oy 5
Seo ton &
; bern 2
‘Characeiatin Detected “lel Appears | 3
rotates |i sae a ee
a. magnetic | When terro- | 7 Usedto detect surface: ‘Relatively simple and |“ Only ferromagnetic 7 spection of tans and g
wore | Meouertaert th] “ences “a came ioteden
SE [Meketeeeate| | Saviicws™"| - Ceamacnwene | wor 2
sSeomeet | tice, |“ tagewe | Perrammtct |v Rmcenctentena) SS
SeeTgec eatin | Soe grenmmen | omemoms | fiangemas||
scenes | ecttprcrwmen| ¢ Etcepeecin | Seaceomes ees
Tocenetuwente | Seat cerca |. eset | Soenamrtmecons
iitemtoee Sistmneeeaen” |“ tacetreniom |“ wchiwenson
+ Expats | bs TERETE pene
Seomee | Baw | Reena
| Sem] oe
cers
Epccpenl teseecainecd 7 mecmmemasin | 7 Gab wited 17 reremna |v comamisemas
Tey" [Seeowacmarn | Mewar] “Sogn” Ren |*
rate artvg Siowgneomun, | secant |¢ Grescemetnet
foe - femmes |. eee
‘Sores one toro tmoteantwuies |“ deinconataaecrcas | Ericton oeracts
pore, Teva heat how + Nisufeteatne’ | Sivueersensyet | + Bocesonsteoronen
Eomebielenta ‘etreos | poems, |v See
Sana Ser
ei - Seema |) SEES ee
Femapenrearss |“ Geueopemniatan | Sada ome
aT ‘stn
‘any materi ocang
rote pane oe
‘icine ot mre,
open of meta!
Ersodon sound wlohy
sndetenmon
‘messironans
‘onan entnae,
‘op epee at a
‘Cambo sorad ond
Says ns ce |
Uma aac ence
Sofas en eutace
dooce,
+ Seeanatobe
‘odie ant
‘meen ara,
rare.
+ Gradiocatim ne
Bransosney
sag wn
Povcamyy fo Supses a
LON fo 9184959 =
3 8
gab fb
Table 14. Applicability and capably of vartows NDT methods ee
‘S.No ] NDT Method | Materials | Detection | Depn ‘Access | Remote | Automata] G = &
Applicable | Capsbiity | Sisog Probiem | Detection “ercedon | =
|| [vinoainapecion] —AMl__[_ Surace | No Unie’ | ve | ve | 845
Liquid penterant| qu, Surface | No Yes 0 io gos
a ar rE es BE 7
3] Magnetic pari Swrfece, | No | No Yea [Wo Wo g
[ sin neice a2
| Termosraphy | AT wo | ve wo | va | ve B=
texting 2
5. | Bday curent | Conducting | Surface, | Yes | Veo Ye | ve | ve Se
testing neat.surace 33
6 [reson tes A | Votuneiie | Yes “| Yer | Umea [va ve ea
7. ‘All | Volumeicie | Yes | No No | ver | Yes Ze
8
8. ‘All__[Volumeisic [ Yes | Yes yes | No xs &
Table 1.5. Relative cost and other characteristics of various NDT methods a Bo §
s52 5
“estat gee 2
oot = z-E ¢
jel Tat] Seas “etumonanty | "SM, | cumneone "Bae maoomem| oS
Weeaton | * PSone | Erde eile oro 5 =
1 comme [te te wo [aus [ware [war [oe Jee §
ee i vw | wom [mam [om 5 8B
me [en | de ed ee a)
3 | fewetmaas = Bee
Tear | awe | nate waco | wn | » ee ae
‘ sy | wmonce | seen sou | trowent | wrt | ee g28
=| tae | come | SS vent |e 23
ua ee tow toe Mos 9h 8 wean | wosum | BF
seer |e g
a
5 = i won| sem [van me [ome | Se
a women [rome [ieee [rent | meen [meee | meen | SS
jo 7 ae |
ee vo [oe [em |e | me ee | Oe
mat sean
ay cme] tems | ee | wy | wr =[~= | gz
| Sect [me ro 29
ey ase pow | tm ene ome | ome om | 23
rwaton | come | Odean | ounce | ary’ [Creates tcrmtom] Taare |
| commie | ss" | as or | te = 28
aN
Nesopopy fo Suysay aerate
een scontinultes?
vee ace in the homogencity of Propertic,|
rhenever there ib 2
materi invariably be attributed 10 thy
within materi
vce of discontinuities or imperfections
pres
material.
Engineehng materials always possess some disco
although they may be very small and they may Or may not be |
acceptable.
Examples of discontinuities include: |
+ Voids
* Inclusions: |
+ Laps |
* Folds
+ Cracks
* Porosity
"Chemical segregation
% Local change in microstructure
Sharp transitions in surface homogeneity, conti
contour dre also considered to be “di
mponent surfaces. Geometric surface discon
sharp anges, notches, gouges, scratches,
pitting, and welding undercut,
Discontnuities in engineer
‘when the ee
by determining their
and type,
Overview of NDT 7)
eee ey
‘An understanding of the origin of discont
ito three general categories
based on the stage in processing'at which they are introduced as:
is one that is generated in the
ion of an alloy stock material,.
ties are usually formed when the metal is
molten. There are two further sub classifications:
relate to the melting
got before it is formed
discontinuities (Source: Lari é& Kumar).
Table 1.6. Inherent discontinuities
is a shallow.blow
generally found on
the flat surface after casting. Overview of NDT
is incomplete
fluid on the
ros: They ae Light weight
impurities appearing on the
Dirt: It is a female
projection on the surface of
casting when
embedded sand particles are
removed.
7. | Buckle: It isa long, fairly,
stallow, broad, v-shaped
epression on casted surface.
8 low projection
‘ear the gate on drag surface
‘of casted product
Which occurs when a portion
of mould face lifts and metal
flows undemeath ina thin
layer. i
. | Seabs It is a high projection
. | Rat tails: These are the
streaks on large flat surfaces.
enlargement of the mould
cavity after pouring.
. | Run out: It occurs due to
enlargement of the mould
cavity after pouring,
| Hot tear: It is a form of
rupture produced by tensile
stresses on the casting when
it is’ near the solidus
temperature,
Top view of cylindrical bitlet Non-Destructive Testing of Materia),
_
sing Discomtinuities
discontinuities are
1.7.2.2, Process
¥ (Processing
lusrates some of the common processing
(Source: Lari & Kumar).
Fabrication and Processing Discontinuities
Overview of NDT
Forging bursts or cracks:
1 occurs when a material is
forged at a temperature at
which it can't withstand at
high internal stress,
ae
Welding Defects
Crater crack: When a
1g are is broken, a
when compound such as
oxides, fluxes and electrode
‘coating material that are
trapped in the wel
Welding
ERA
Slag inclusion
1. | Seams: These are surface
‘scones and appears
4s ongitinal seratches or
| folds in the material
2. | Stragers: These are non,
‘Beallie inclusions in ‘slabs
ry
Seams
f
Stinger
~~ | fling of met in tin
Lap
Pte on the sua a ic
post
Welding
Woldng =, /-Undereting
Ea
Lamellar tears: It occurs
due to shrinkage of the
restrained members in the
structure during cooling.
Welding A
Een
Lamollar tear Non-Destructive Testing of Materia,
Distortion and wrapping?
They occur, ue
to differential thermal
expansion and contraction
of different regions of the
Overview of NDT
16.
surface of metal surface
layer giving @ flaking or
co
pa
in part pointing to gate and
welded assembly
" Jett
it looks like a worm in the "
part. It oce
Blush: It causes due to incorrect ee nn
Beas rs Sneorct gat placement or
molecules during injection 18, | Short
and may be due to small ust . | Short shot: It is a missing Short shot
ante comers or features
tint = having a smooth, rounded
13, | Barn: It is a discoloration appearance,
sually black, brown
or dark, _yellowrbrown : 1.7.2.3, Service-Induced Discontinuities
depending vp the Bum “The discontinuities that are created during the use ofa
= component are called “service-induced discontin
Cold flow: It is a wavy or
fingerprint or small waves
{ike waves on the surface of
water,
Contamiaation: Foreign
Particles embedded in the
part
Contamination
resistance) properties.
¥ Table 1.8 presents some ofthe common service induced
discontinuities.
Table 1.8. Service-induced discontinuities
1. Wear
~ It is the undesired removal of material caused by contacting
surface through mechanical action.
Y The different types of wear are abrasive, erosive, grinding,
gouging, adhesive and fretting. ~~ —— C—O
‘i
file could pass as
slong asthe pipe doesn't leak.
1.8. SELECTION OF NOT METHODS
fg 22 SELECTION OF NOT METROOS 4. HOTT Sa
v
¥ Factors influencing the selection of NDT method: The
various factors considered for the selection a NDT method
Discontinuity Vs. Defect Vs. Flaw
ough the terms discontinuity, defect, and flaw are used.
NDT method selection chart; Table. 1 pled th NOT.
‘method selection chait, which provides some guidance in the
selection of NDT methods far common flaw detection and
‘measurement, ive Testing of Material,
Non-Destrucii
crevice and erosion.
igue cracking E
ae Faigue ean cause the failure of a material ot component
‘under repeated, fluctuating stresses.
The main types. of fatigue are mechanical-fatigue and
thermal fatigue. i
[Rie] Pianar Vs. Volumetric Discontinuities: Discontinuities can also
categorized based on their shape as:
(a) Planar type (two-dimensional) discontinuities, and
} (©) Volunetie (hree-dimensional or non-plana) discontinuities.
47.3. Discontinuity Vs. Defect Vs. Flaw
Though the terms discontinuity, defect, and flaw are used
interchangeably in practice, technically they can be differentiated
as below.
v
Discontinuity is a lack of continuity or cohesion; it is an
intentional or unintentional interruption in the physical
Y ane oF configuration of a material or component.
law is an imperfection or discontinuity that may be
detectable by non-destructive ze :
‘ e testi is
ea ‘ing and is not neces:
Defect is one or more
i flay i
oie a whose aggregate size, shat
e a roperties do not
cceplace criteria andarergjecaay, °° NOt meet spec
Overview of NDT
v
v
1.61)
In other words, if the discontinuities turn out to be rejectable
according the criteri
then these as termed as ‘defects’.
A discontinuity will survive a field fast while a defect won't.
For example, a crack on a water pipe would be a defect since
the water will leak while an acceptable profile could pass as a
discontinuity as long as the pipe doesn’t leak.
the applicable documents,
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4.8.. SELECTION OF NDT METHODS rh
v
Each NDT method has-its own sets of advantages and
limitations, therefore some are better than other for a
particular application,
Factors influencing the selection of NDT method:
various factors considered for the selection a NDT method
over another include:
Type of discontinuity,
Origin of discontinuity,
Material manufacturing process,
ity of the componeit,
‘Type of equipment available,
‘Time available, and
Cost.
NDT method selection chart: Table. 1.9 shows the NDT
method selection chait, which provides some guidance in the
selection of NDT methods for common flaw detection and
‘measurement. SS"
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mpesracveTestr® PMalCPIA| OS orsiew of NDT
VISUAL INSPECTION
4.9, INTRODUCTION
4.9.1. What is it?
¥ As discussed in Section 1.7.1, visual inspection is the
simplest, fastest and by far the most commonly used
non-destructive testing method.
Y As the name suggests, visual inspection relies primarily on
good eyesight and can be carried out with the naked eye
(inown as unaided visual inspection) or using some optical
ids (known as aided visual inspection) such as mirrors,
magnifying glasses and microscopes.
Definition: Visual inspection is commonly defined as “the
examination of a material, component, or product for
ms of non-conformance using light anc the eyes, alone
NDT method selection chart
Ives shaking, listening,
1g the component being
1 inspection often also
feeling, and sometimes even smel
inspected.
4.9.2. Other NDT Methods Rely on Visual Testing
Y Visual testing. is inherently part of all other NDT test method.
Visual inspection is commonly employed to complinen/
support other NDT methods.
Y Other NDT methods require visual intervention (0 interpret
u the examination. At some
New 00
eres
ome
\toeet eontetin: rm Fay wed: (C) Mat wel sited (0) wit not detect Nom Destructive Testing of Material,
fon
P require thatthe technician use
mak itniquss ,
ra Tabor the soundness of the object be}
judgement to deter
tested.
‘193 characteristics Detected (Applicabllly)
"The visual testing is commonly used: 2
etet surface characteristics such as finish, scratches,
ear , wear and corrosion.
) Tocheck alignment of mating surfaces.
i) To check shape ofthe components.
(i) To check for evidence of leaking.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF VISUAL INSPECTION ==) Jy,
1404. Prinelple
__“_Seving is believing and the art of seeing of visual inspection
techniques.
Visual testing requires adequate illumination of the test
_ Surface and proper eye-sight of the tester. The test specimen is
_ laminated and the test surface is observed and examined.
7 Woesever required, the optical aids such as mirrors
5 mating glasses, microscopes, video cameras and
ems mnbren canbe employed, The surface ofthe
nn
nes ee a form basis
Overview of NDT
[£65]
1.10.2, Advantages of Visual Inspoction
‘Some of the advantage:
‘sual testing are as follows:
i) Simple and easy to use,
Relatively inexpensive,
‘Testing speed is high,
B can be performed on components which are
ice.
(%) Permanent records are available when latest equipments
are used.
(vi) Almost all materials can be inspected,
1.10.3. Limitations of Visual Inspection
ions of visual testing are as follows:
Limited to detection of surface flaws.
The test results depend on skill and knowledge of tester.
Eye resolution is weak.
i) Unaided or direct visual testing, and
Aided visual testing. :
1.44.1, Unalded or Direct Visual Testing
v
with naked eye (and without using any op!
Y The most important instrument is visual
eye. aa Non-Destructive Testing of Material,
NDT. :
than many of
Y-thas greater precision and accuracy than
sophisticated cameras. It has ising capabi
has the ability to work in con)
that it can be trained to find sj
ina test specimen.
I has the ability to differentiate and distinguish between
colors and their tones/shades characteristics as well.
The human cye is capable of assessing many
characterises and identifying various types of discor
‘The eye can perform accurate inspections to detect
color, depth, brightness, contrast, and texture.
details or characteristcg
The brief description of the basic optical aids used in visual
‘1.412. Alded Visual Testing testing is given below.
1, Magnifying Mirrors
Y When inspecting areas not easily accessible, a magnifying
mirror can be us.
‘magnification of defects which
can
the unsided eyes, inutbe detected openings to a much larger mirror).
‘sisi inthe inspection of defects; and 2. Magnitying Glass
ae Visual checks or areas not accessible to |” 4 ™agnifving glass can be used for claser inspection of
ded eye,
suspicious looking areas.
al testing include:
BUSSES, eye Joupes,
‘measuring mapnifiers Mmultilens magnifiers —SS_
N pestructive Testing of Materials
se
8 consists of 8 CONNER tens. The object
and focus Iength of lens, so = an
image is formed. The = 7
Je subtended at
Cot e
ety ein Gos ase
(orEndoscopes)
4. Borescopes pica intr designed for remote
Borescopes: oe 1 the inside
objects. Tey ve wed 10 IP ofa
rnarove tebe, bore, oF Chamber aes
Borescopes is ® precision optical instrument with builtin
ituniaton. Steere
F Borescopes, aso called as ‘endoscopes’ °F ‘endoprobes
aor ot sper opal ystems and hgh intensity light
scores.
7 Some borescopes provide magnification option, zoom controls
cx axes.
Because of the variety of applications and multitude of
‘especion needs, boroscopes are manufactured in rigid,
‘extended, flexible, and micro designs.
5. Fitencopes and Videoscopes
Mader fiberscope and videoscopes, due to their small size
ed flebiliy, can provide access 10 internal areas
inaccessible to rigid Borescopes.
Using these, gil images ean be "
re ea mean captured and processed in
of laser lights, the area and depth of
many surface defects can also be deter
6. Telescopes
¥
Y Telescope is ox
diss obj a that collects radiation from 2
Cacti order to produce n image of it
optical telescope uses Visual adi
overview of NDT 1.69)
J The telescopes are used for providing visual examination of
the inaccessible surfaces.
7, Optical Comparators
1 comparators are the magnifying devices for visual
jon and measurement.
_Y Acomparator produces 2D enlarged image of an object on 8
large ground-glass screen.
J Optical comparators project the image of small parts onto a
large projection screen. The magnified image is then
‘compared against an optical comparator chart, which is a
magnified outline drawing of the workpiece being gauged.
8.Periscopes
Periscope is an instrument used for remote observation of
inaccessible areas.
In simple periscope, two right angle reflecting prisms are
utilized in combination with a series of lenses.
‘The periscopes are commonly used for remote visual
inspection in hazardous situation such as radiations areas,
toxic environment and for overhead viewing of areas
involving obstacles.
ee
4.13;_APPLICATIONS OF VISUAL INSPECTION,
“Typical applications of visual inspection include:
inspection of cleaning in machines.
(il) Checking for corrosion, erosion and deformities of
machine components.
(iii) Checking for ruptures, cracks and wear of parts in the
equipment.
(iv) Monitoring of manometers, pressostats and temperatures.
() Monitoring of oil level, greasing and greasing apparatus. ‘Non-Destructive Testing, of Materia,
1.70)
(vy Menitring of te erin condition of systems. g
vi) Monit
machines.
4494. iustation of Some Applications of Visual Testing
113.1. Visual Testing of Welds
form tasks in accordance ;
vedands atall tages of weldings ic, before welding, during
checking should take place without
weld for ust and dirt This is because,
discover any erack formation when the seam has not been
cleaned.
After the initial inspection, a more thorough cleaning of
, one should be
ies in the weld may look like
aware that many irregul:
cracks. In such cases, the cleaned welds can be further
investigated with dye penetrant or magnetic particle
method or using other methods such as ultrasonic and
radiography,
4.13 1.2. Visual Testing of Pumps
Y “For carrying out visual testing, dismant 1g of pumps should
be done following the manufacturers, instruction manual.
Y During the dismanti is
Fay ae smantling process, the following tasks may be
Diffuser elements for pumps 1 be vig
rosion and cracs,
jew of NDT
QverviewofNDP ae
should be tested to verify their
tolerance limits.
10 see its straightness by taking a
icator testing,
Bearing surfaces should be inspected for smoothness and
wear.
Pump casing should be visu:
washout.
sleeve bearings should be vis
pitting, finish, scoring, and dim
spected for erosion and
ly inspected for
hydraulic system is
* Check that the
* Check that the system is clean and dry.
Y The following points should be checked when the hydraulic
piping system.
"Check that the
that the temperature is correct.
intact (no leaks) and that the
of condensation.
1.13.14. Visual Testing of Belt Pulley
¥
