Electromagnetic

Theory

The author
Notes for
Del Operator B.Tech. Physics Course (PH 1007)
Gauss’s 2020-21
divergence
Electromagnetic Theory
Stoke’s theorem

Fundamental
Laws

Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
Equation

Continuity
Equation

Maxwell
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
December 22, 2020
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Outlines

Electromagnetic
Theory
1 Del Operator
The author
2 Gauss’s divergence theorem
3 Stoke’s theorem
Del Operator

Gauss’s
4 Fundamental Laws of Electromagnetism
divergence 5 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equation
Stoke’s theorem
6 Continuity Equation
Fundamental
Laws 7 Derivation of Maxwell’s equations
Poisson’s and 8 Displacement Current
Laplace’s
Equation 9 Physical Significance of Maxwell’s Equations
Continuity 10 Electromagnetic wave equation in free space
Equation

Maxwell
11 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
Equations
12 Vector & Scalar Potential
Electromagnetic
wave equation 13 Wave Equation in terms of scalar and vector potential
Transverse 14 Electromagnetic energy density
Nature
15 Poynting Theorem
Vector & Scalar
Potential
 Del or Nabla Operator

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author The del or the nabla operator is given by

Del Operator ~ = î ∂ + ĵ ∂ + k̂ ∂
∇
Gauss’s
∂x ∂y ∂z
divergence
The del operator is a vector operator. But,
Stoke’s theorem

Fundamental ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
Laws ∇2 = + 2 + 2
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
Equation
is a scalar operator.
The del operator can be used in the three different ways on the scalar and vector
Continuity
Equation functions, i.e.,
Maxwell 1 Gradient
Equations

Electromagnetic
2 Divergence
wave equation
3 Curl
Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Gradient of a scalar

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author The Gradient is always calculated for a scalar functions. We can never find the
grad of a vector.
Del Operator
The grad of a scalar function φ(x, y, z) is given by,
Gauss’s
divergence
 
~ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇φ(x, y, z) = î + ĵ + k̂ φ(x, y, z)
Stoke’s theorem ∂x ∂y ∂z
Fundamental ∂ ∂ ∂
Laws = î φ(x, y, z) + ĵ φ(x, y, z) + k̂ φ(x, y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
Equation The gradient of a scalar function is always a vector.
~
Physical significance: The magnitude of the ∇φ(x, y, z) at any point gives the
Continuity
Equation rate of change of φ along the normal to the surface at that point.
Maxwell Questions:
Equations
1 Find the gradient of the function f (x, y, z) = 3x2 y5 + 7yz4
Electromagnetic
wave equation 2 Find the normal of the function φ = 3x4 + yz3 at the point (1,1,2).
Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Divergence of a vector

Electromagnetic The Divergence is always calculated for a vector functions.

Theory
The div of a vector ~A = îAx + ĵAy + k̂Az is given by the dot product of the del
The author operator and the vector.
Del Operator
  
~ ~A = ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇. î + ĵ + k̂ . îAx + ĵAy + k̂Az
Gauss’s ∂x ∂y ∂z
divergence
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
Stoke’s theorem = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Fundamental
Laws
The divergence of a vector is always a scalar.
Poisson’s and Physical significance: It signifies the outward normal flux of the vector field
Laplace’s
Equation from a closed surface.
Continuity Important Note: If the div of a vector is zero, then that vector is called a
Equation solenoidal vector.
Maxwell
Equations ~ ~A = 0 ⇒ ~A is a solenoidal vector.
∇.
Electromagnetic
wave equation Questions:
Transverse
Nature
1 Find the divergence of the position vector ~r = îx + ĵy + k̂z

Vector & Scalar 2 Find the divergence of ~

F = îy3 z2 + ĵz7 x + k̂2xy9 .
Potential
 Curl of a vector

Electromagnetic The Curl is always calculated for a vector functions.

Theory
The curl of a vector ~A = îAx + ĵAy + k̂Az is given by the cross product of the del
The author operator and the vector.
  
Del Operator
~ × ~A = ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ î + ĵ + k̂ × îAx + ĵAy + k̂Az
Gauss’s ∂x ∂y ∂z
divergence

Stoke’s theorem
î ĵ k̂
Fundamental ~ × ~A =
⇒∇ ∂ ∂ ∂
Laws ∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s The curl of a vector is always a vector.
Equation
Physical significance: It is the tendency of the vector to swirl around.
Continuity
Equation Important Note: If the curl of a vector is zero, then that vector is called an
Maxwell
irrotational vector.
Equations
~ × ~A = 0 ⇒ ~A is an irrotational vector.
∇
Electromagnetic
wave equation
Questions:
Transverse
Nature 1 Find the curl of the position vector ~r = îx + ĵy + k̂z
Vector & Scalar 2 Find the curl of ~
F = îy3 z2 + ĵz7 x + k̂2xy9 .
Potential
 Gauss’s divergence theorem

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator

Gauss’s
divergence Relation between surface and volume integral
Stoke’s theorem It states that the flux of a vector field ~F, over any closed surface S, is equal to the
Fundamental
volume integral of the divergence of that vector field over the volume V enclosed
Laws by the surface S.
Poisson’s and Z Z
Laplace’s
Equation
~ =
~F.dS div~F.dV
s V
Continuity
Equation

Maxwell
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Stoke’s theorem

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator

Gauss’s
divergence Relation between line and surface integral
Stoke’s theorem It states that the surface integral of the curl of a vector field ~A, taken over any
Fundamental
surface S is equal to the line integral of ~A around the closed curve forming the
Laws periphery of the surface.
Poisson’s and Z   I
Laplace’s ~ × ~A .dS
Equation ∇ ~ = ~A.dl ~
s
Continuity
Equation

Maxwell
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Fundamental Laws of Electromagnetism

Electromagnetic
Theory 1 Gauss’s law in electrostatics: The amount of the electric flux from a
1
The author
closed surface is equal to the ǫ0
times the charge enclosed by the surface.
I
Del Operator ~ = q
~E.dS
ǫ0
Gauss’s
divergence
2 Gauss’s law in magnetostatics: The rate of change of magnetic flux
Stoke’s theorem through a closed surface is always equal to zero.
Fundamental I
Laws ~ =0
~B.dS
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
Equation 3 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: The rate of change of
Continuity
magnetic flux in a closed circuit induces an emf which opposes the cause.
Equation
dφ
Maxwell e=−
Equations
dt
Electromagnetic 4 Ampere’s law: The line integral of magnetic flux is equal to µ0 times the
wave equation current enclosed by the current loop.
Transverse I
Nature ~ = µ0 I
~B.dl
Vector & Scalar
Potential
 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equation

Electromagnetic Gauss law in electrostatics is given by,

Theory
ρ
The author
div~E =
ǫ0
Del Operator

Gauss’s
The electric field and the potential are related to each other as,
divergence
~
~E = −∇V
Stoke’s theorem

Fundamental Therefore,
Laws

Poisson’s and div~E = ρ

ǫ0
Laplace’s
Equation
⇒ ~
div(−∇V) = ρ
ǫ0
Continuity
Equation ⇒ ~
∇.(− ~
∇V) = ρ
ǫ0
Maxwell
Equations ⇒ ∇2 V = − ǫρ0
Electromagnetic
wave equation This is Poisson’s equation.
Transverse
For a charge free region, ρ = 0 ⇒ ∇2 V = 0. This is Laplace’s equation.
Nature Laplace’s equation is applicable where the entire charge resides on the surface of
Vector & Scalar the conductor or concentrated in the form of point or line charges.
Potential
 Continuity Equation

Electromagnetic The electric current can be defined as the rate of flow of charge,i.e.,
Theory
dq
The author I=−
dt
Del Operator If dq is the charge enclosed in a volume element dV and leaving a surface having
Gauss’s area dS, then
divergence Z Z
Stoke’s theorem I = ~J.dS~ and q = ρ dV
S V
Fundamental
Laws Hence current can be given by,
Poisson’s and dq
Laplace’s I=−
Equation Z dt Z
~ =−
~J.dS ∂ρ
Continuity ⇒ dV
Equation S ∂t
Z Z
Maxwell ∂ρ
Equations ⇒ div ~JdV = − dV
∂t
Electromagnetic
∂ρ
wave equation
⇒ div ~J = −
Transverse
∂t
Nature
~ ∂ρ ~ ~J + ∂ρ = 0
⇒ div J + = 0 ⇒ ∇.
Vector & Scalar ∂t ∂t
Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s First Equation

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator

Gauss’s
divergence

Stoke’s theorem

Fundamental
Laws

Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
When a dielectric is placed inside a uniform electric field, its molecules get
Equation polarized. In a uniform electric field, a dielectric has two types of charges.
Continuity
Equation 1 free charge (ρ)
Maxwell 2 polarized charge (ρp )
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s First Equation (cont.)

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator If (ρ) and (ρp ) are free and bound charge densities, respectively, at a point in a
Gauss’s small volume element dV, then the electric flux from a closed surface using
divergence
Gauss’s law of electrostatics is given by,
Stoke’s theorem Z Z
Fundamental ~ = 1
~E.dS (ρ + ρp ) dV (1)
Laws
S ǫ0 V
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s where, ǫ0 is the permittivity of free space. (Permittivity of a substance is the
Equation
ability to store electric energy in an electric field.)
Continuity Since the bound charges are polarized,
Equation

Maxwell ρp = −div~P P is electric polarization

Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s First Equation (cont.)

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author Using this in equation (1),

Z Z 
~ = 1
Del Operator 
~E.dS ρ − div~P dV
Gauss’s
S ǫ0 V
divergence Z Z Z
1 1
Stoke’s theorem ⇒ div~EdV = ρdV − div~PdV
V ǫ0 V ǫ0 V
Fundamental Z Z Z
Laws
⇒ ǫ0 div~EdV + div~PdV = ρdV
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
Z   Z
Equation ⇒ div ǫ0 ~E + ~P dV = ρdV
Continuity ZV Z
Equation
⇒ divD~ dV = ρdV
Maxwell V
Equations
⇒ ~ =ρ
divD
Electromagnetic
wave equation ⇒ ~
∇.D~ =ρ
Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s First Equation (cont.)

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator

Gauss’s
divergence
In free space, the volume charge density is zero, i.e., ρ = 0
Stoke’s theorem ~ ~
Fundamental
⇒  ∇.D = 0
Laws ⇒ ~
∇. ǫ0 ~E + ~P = 0
Poisson’s and
⇒ ~ ~E = 0
ǫ0 ∇.
Laplace’s
Equation
⇒ ~
∇.~E = 0
Continuity
Equation

Maxwell
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s Second Equation

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator It is found from the experiment that the no. of magnetic lines of force entering
Gauss’s
any closed surface is exactly same as that leaving, i.e., the net magnetic flux
divergence through any closed surface is always zero.
Stoke’s theorem

Fundamental
Z
Laws φB = ~B.dS ~ =0
Poisson’s and Z
Laplace’s
Equation ⇒ div ~B dV = 0
v
Continuity
Equation ⇒ div ~B dV = 0
Maxwell ⇒ ~ ~B = 0
∇.
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s Third Equation

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author From Faraday’s law of EMI,

dφ
e=−
Del Operator dt
Gauss’s Also we know that the relation between the magnetic flux and magnetic
divergence
induction is given by,
Stoke’s theorem Z
Fundamental φ = ~B.dS ~
Laws
S
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s The induced emf is,
Equation Z Z
d ~ =−
~B.dS ∂ ~ ~ 
Continuity e=− B.dS
Equation dt ∂t
Maxwell
Equations Induced emf in terms of electric field is given by,
Electromagnetic Z
wave equation e = ~E.dl ~
Transverse c
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s Third Equation (cont.)

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author
Z Z
~ =−
~E.dl ∂ ~ ~ 
Del Operator ∴ B.dS
∂t
Gauss’s Zc  Z
divergence

~ × ~E .dS
~ =− ∂ ~ ~ 
⇒ ∇ B.dS
Stoke’s theorem S ∂t
Z  ~

Fundamental
Laws ⇒ ~ × ~E + ∂ B .dS
∇ ~ =0
S ∂t
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
Equation
For any arbitrary surface,
Continuity
Equation
~
Maxwell
~ × ~E + ∂ B = 0
∇
Equations ∂t
~
Electromagnetic ~ × ~E = − ∂ B
∇
wave equation
∂t
Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s Fourth Equation

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author The Ampere’s law is given by,

~
~B.dl
H
Del Operator = µ0 I
Z
Gauss’s
~
⇒ ~B.dl = µ0 ~J.dS~
H
divergence

Stoke’s theorem Z
R  
Fundamental ⇒ ∇~ × ~B .dS
~ = µ0 ~J.dS~
S
Laws
Z
R  ~

Poisson’s and ⇒ ~ ×
∇ B ~
. dS = ~J.dS ~
Laplace’s S µ0
Equation Z
R  
Continuity ⇒ ~ ×H
∇ ~
~ . dS = ~J.dS ~
S
Equation

Maxwell
Equations
~ ×H
⇒∇ ~ = ~J (2)
Electromagnetic
wave equation
This is not same as the Maxwell’s fourth equation.
Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s Fourth Equation (cont.)

Electromagnetic
Theory Taking divergence on both sides of equation (2),
The author
~ ×H
div ∇ ~ = div ~J
Del Operator
⇒ 0 = div ~J
Gauss’s
divergence ⇒ div ~J = 0
Stoke’s theorem ∂ρ
⇒− =0
Fundamental
∂t
Laws ⇒ ρ = constant
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s ρ is constant means it is independent of time, i.e., it represents the static charge.
Equation So we can say that Ampere’s law is only applicable to static charges.
Continuity Therefore, Maxwell suggested that for a time varying field Ampere’s must be
Equation
modified. Maxwell added a new quantity to the equation (2). This quantity has
Maxwell
Equations
the same dimension as that of current and produced due to polarization of
Electromagnetic
charges, called as displacement current density (J~d ).
wave equation

Transverse
Nature ~ ×H
∇ ~ = ~J + J~d (3)
Vector & Scalar
Potential
 Derivation of Maxwell’s Fourth Equation (cont.)

Electromagnetic Equation (3) is called Modified Ampere’s law.

Theory

The author ⇒ ~ ×H
div ∇ ~ = div (~J + J~d )

Del Operator
⇒ 0 = div (~J + J~d )
Gauss’s ⇒ div ~J = −div J~d
divergence
But, div ~J = − ∂ρ ∂t
Stoke’s theorem
⇒ div J~d = ∂ρ
∂t
Fundamental
Laws ~ =ρ
Using Maxwell’s first equation, div D
Poisson’s and
∂
Laplace’s div J~d = (div D)
~
Equation ∂t
Continuity
Equation
~
∂D
Maxwell ⇒ J~d = (4)
Equations ∂t
Electromagnetic Putting equation(4) in equation(3) we get,
wave equation

~
~ = ~J + ∂ D
Transverse
Nature ~ ×H
∇ (5)
∂t
Vector & Scalar
Potential
 Displacement Current

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator

Gauss’s
divergence
According to Maxwell, it is not only the current in a conductor that produces a
Stoke’s theorem
magnetic field, a changing electric field in vacuum or in a dielectric also
Fundamental produces a magnetic field. This implies that changing electric field is equivalent
Laws
to a current, which flows till the electric field is changing. This equivalent
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
current produces the same magnetic effects as a conventional current in a
Equation conductor. This equivalent current is known as the displacement current.
Continuity
Equation

Maxwell
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Physical Significance of Maxwell’s Equations

Electromagnetic
Theory 1 First equation: This represents Gauss’s law of electrostatics for static
The author
charges.
2 Second equation: This represents Gauss’s law of magnetostatics.
Del Operator

Gauss’s
3 Third equation: This signifies that electric field can be produced by
divergence changing magnetic field.
Stoke’s theorem 4 Fourth equation: The fourth equation is also called as modified
Fundamental Ampere’s law, which accounts the time-varying magnetic fields. It is
Laws
applicable for both the steady and non-steady charges.
Poisson’s and ~
Laplace’s The term ǫ0 ∂∂tE , i.e., displacement current signifies that changing electric
Equation field produces magnetic field. This also gives the idea that the magnetic
Continuity field can be generated by displacement current.
Equation

Maxwell
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Electromagnetic Wave Equations in Free Space

Electromagnetic In free space ρ = 0 and ~J = 0.

Theory
Hence, Maxwell’s equations in free space are given by,
The author
~ ~E
∇. = 0 (6)
Del Operator
~ ~B
∇. = 0 (7)
Gauss’s
divergence
~ × ~E ∂ ~B
∇ = − (8)
Stoke’s theorem ∂t
Fundamental ~ × ~B ∂ ~E
Laws ∇ = µ0 ǫ0 (9)
∂t
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s Take the curl on both sides of equation (8),
Equation
∂ ~B
   
Continuity ~ ~
∇× ∇×E =∇× −~ ~
Equation ∂t
~ =−∂ ∇
Maxwell    
Equations ⇒ ~ ∇.
∇. ~ ~E − ~E(∇. ~ ∇) ~ × ~B
∂t
Electromagnetic
wave equation 2~ ∂ ~ ~ 
⇒ 0−∇ E =− ∇×B
Transverse
∂t
∂ ~E
 
Nature ∂
⇒ ∇2~E = µ0 ǫ0
Vector & Scalar ∂t ∂t
Potential
 Electromagnetic Wave Equations in Free Space
(cont.)
∂ 2 ~E
Electromagnetic
Theory
⇒ ∇2 ~E = µ0 ǫ0 (10)
∂t2
The author
Now, take the curl on both sides of equation (9),
Del Operator
~ × ~B = µ0 ǫ0 ∂ ∇
   
Gauss’s
~ × ∇
∇ ~ × ~E
divergence ∂t
~
 
~ = µ0 ǫ0 ∂ − ∂ B
 
Stoke’s theorem
⇒ ∇. ~ ∇. ~ ~B − ~B(∇.
~ ∇)
Fundamental
∂t ∂t
Laws 2~
∂ B
Poisson’s and ⇒ 0 − ∇2~B = −µ0 ǫ0 2
Laplace’s
∂t
Equation

Continuity ∂ 2~B
Equation ⇒ ∇2~B = µ0 ǫ0 (11)
∂t2
Maxwell
Equations Equations (10) and (11) represent wave equations for electric and magnetic field
Electromagnetic in free space, respectively.
wave equation
The general form of the wave equation is,
Transverse
Nature
1 ∂2y
Vector & Scalar ∇2 y =
Potential
v2 ∂t2
 Electromagnetic Wave Equations in Free Space
(cont.)
Electromagnetic
Theory

The author
Comparing the above equation with equations(10) and (11),
Del Operator
1
Gauss’s = µ0 ǫ0
divergence v2
1
Stoke’s theorem ⇒v= √
Fundamental
µ0 ǫ0
Laws 1
⇒ v = p µ0
Poisson’s and
4π
× 4πǫ0
Laplace’s
Equation µ0
We know, 4π
= 10−7 Wb/Amp.m
Continuity
Equation
1
4πǫ0
= 9 × 109 m/F
Maxwell ∴ v = 3 × 108 m/s = c
Equations

Electromagnetic Here c is the speed of electromagnetic wave, i.e., light.

wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author
Step 1:
Del Operator The electromagnetic wave equations are given by,
Gauss’s
1 ∂ 2 ~E
divergence
∇2 ~E − =0
Stoke’s theorem
c2 ∂t2
1 ∂ 2~B
Fundamental ∇2~B − 2 2 = 0
Laws c ∂t
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s The solutions can be given by,
Equation

Continuity ~E(r, t) = E~0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt]

Equation
~B(r, t) = B~0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt]
Maxwell
Equations

Electromagnetic
Here, E~0 and B~0 are complex amplitudes. ~r is the position vector, and ~k is the
wave equation propagation vector.
Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves (cont.)

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author Now,

 
Del Operator ~ ~E = ∂ ∂ ∂ ~
∇. î + ĵ + k̂ .E~0 ei[(k.~r)−ωt]
Gauss’s ∂x ∂y ∂z
divergence  
~ ~E = i ~k.~E
⇒ ∇.
Stoke’s theorem

Fundamental where, ~k = îkx + ĵky + k̂kz

Laws
In free space, ∇.~ ~E = 0
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
Equation
⇒ ~k.~E = 0
Continuity
Similarly, ~k.~B = 0
Equation

Maxwell
Equations
This shows that electric and magnetic field both are perpendicular to the
Electromagnetic electromagnetic wave.
wave equation
Step 2: Mutual Orthogonality of ~E, ~B and ~k:
Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves (cont.)

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator
~E(r, t) = E~0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt] = E0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt] ê
Gauss’s ~B(r, t) = B~0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt] = B0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt] b̂
divergence

Stoke’s theorem Here ê and b̂ represent the unit vector along ~E and ~B respectively.
Fundamental Maxwell’s third equation is,
Laws
~
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
~ × ~E = − ∂ B
∇
Equation ∂t
~ × E0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt] ê = − ∂ B0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt] b̂
   
Continuity ⇒∇ (12)
Equation ∂t
Maxwell
Equations we know, ∇~ × (~AV) = V(∇ ~ × ~A) + (∇V)
~ × ~A where, V and ~A are scalar and
Electromagnetic
vector functions, respectively.
wave equation Using this identity in equation (12), we get,
Transverse Left hand side:
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves (cont.)

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator    ~ 
~ × E0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt] ê = E0 ei[(~k.~r)−ωt] (∇
∇ ~ × ê) + E0 e−iωt ∇e
~ ik.~r × ê
Gauss’s
divergence
~ × ê = 0
ê is constant unit vector, therefore, ∇
Stoke’s theorem

Fundamental ~ i~k.~r = i~k ei~k.~r

and, ∇e
Laws   ~
Poisson’s and Hence the LHS of eqn (12) is, ⇒ 0 + i ~k × ê E0 ei[(k.~r)−ωt] (13)
Laplace’s
Equation
Right hand side of eqn(12):
Continuity
Equation
∂  i[(~k.~r)−ωt]   ~

Maxwell − B0 e b̂ = − −iωB0 ei[(k.~r)−ωt] b̂ (14)
Equations
∂t
Electromagnetic Using eqns(13) and (14) in eqn (12), we get,
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves (cont.)

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator

Gauss’s
divergence
  ~
 ~

i ~k × ê E0 ei[(k.~r)−ωt] = − −iωB0ei[(k.~r)−ωt] b̂
Stoke’s theorem
 
Fundamental ⇒ E0 ~k × ê = ωB0 b̂
Laws
  B0
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s
⇒ ~k × ê = ω b̂ (15)
Equation
E0
Continuity
Equation
∴ b̂ is perpendicular to both ~k and ê.
Thus, ê, b̂ and ~k, i.e, ~E, ~B and ~k are mutually orthogonal.
Maxwell
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Magnetic Vector Potential

Electromagnetic
Theory
We know that,
The author div.(curl ~F) = 0
Del Operator ~ × ~F = G
Let ∇ ~ such that ∇.
~ G ~ =0
Gauss’s ~ ~ ~ ~
∴ If ∇.G = 0 then G = ∇ × ~F
divergence

Stoke’s theorem that is, if the divergence of a vector is zero, then that vector can be represented as
Fundamental the curl of another vector.
Laws We know, from Maxwell’s second equation,
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s ~ ~B = 0 ⇒ ~B = ∇
∇. ~ × ~A
Equation

Continuity ~A is the magnetic vector potential.

Equation
~ or grad of a
The Magnetic vector potential is not unique, i.e., if a constant C
Maxwell ~ ~ ~
scalar (∇f ) is added to A, we get the same B.
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation
~ × (~A + ~
∇ C) = ∇~ × ~A + ∇~ ×C~ = ~B + 0 = ~B
Transverse
Nature ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
∇ × (A + ∇f ) = ∇ × A + ∇ × ∇f = ~B + 0 = ~B
Vector & Scalar
Potential
 Scalar Potential

Electromagnetic
Theory From the Maxwell’s third equation,
The author
~
Del Operator ~ × ~E = − ∂ B
∇
Gauss’s
∂t
~
~ × ~E + ∂ B = 0
divergence
⇒ ∇
Stoke’s theorem ∂t
Fundamental
⇒ ~ × ~E + ∂ (∇
∇ ~ × ~A) = 0
Laws
∂t !
Poisson’s and ~
Laplace’s
⇒ ~ × ~E + ∂ A = 0
∇
Equation ∂t
Continuity
Equation ~ × ∇φ
we know, curl grad φ = 0 ⇒ ∇ ~ =0
Maxwell ~ ~
Equations ∴ ~E + ∂ A = −∇φ~ ⇒ ~E = −∇φ ~ − ∂A
∂t ∂t
Electromagnetic
wave equation
Here, φ is a scalar function which is called as scalar potential.
~ ~ And φ is called
Transverse
Nature
For the time-independent field ∂∂tA = 0, hence ~E = −∇φ.
electrostatic potential.
Vector & Scalar
Potential
 Wave Equation in terms of scalar & vector potential
Wave Equation in terms of scalar potential

Electromagnetic In free space,

Theory

The author ~ ~E = 0
∇.
" #
Del Operator ~ ~ ∂ ~A
⇒ ∇. −∇φ − =0
Gauss’s
∂t
divergence
∂ ~ ~
Stoke’s theorem ⇒ ∇2 φ + (∇.A) = 0
∂t
Fundamental
Laws
Lorenz Gauge condition: ~ ~A + 1 ∂φ = 0
∇. (16)
Poisson’s and c2 ∂t
Laplace’s
Equation
Using Lorenz Gauge condition, the above equation becomes,
 
Continuity ∂ 1 ∂φ
Equation ∇2 φ + − 2 =0
∂t c ∂t
Maxwell
Equations 1 ∂2φ
⇒ ∇2 φ =
Electromagnetic c2 ∂t2
wave equation
∂2φ
Transverse ⇒ ∇2 φ = µ0 ǫ0 2
Nature ∂t
Vector & Scalar This is wave equation in terms of scalar potential φ.
Potential
 Wave Equation in terms of scalar & vector potential
Wave Equation in terms of vector potential

Electromagnetic In free space, ~J = 0, hence the fourth Maxwell’s equation is given by,
Theory
~
The author
~ × ~B = µ0 ǫ0 ∂ E
∇
Del Operator
∂t " #
  ∂ ∂ ~A
Gauss’s ⇒ ~ × ∇
∇ ~ × ~A = µ0 ǫ0 ~ −
−∇φ
divergence ∂t ∂t
Stoke’s theorem
2~
 
~ ∂φ − µ0 ǫ0 ∂ A
 
Fundamental ⇒ ~ ∇.
∇ ~ ~A − ~A(∇. ~ ∇)~ = −µ0 ǫ0 ∇
Laws ∂t ∂t2
2~
 
~ ~A + µ0 ǫ0 ∂φ − ∇2~A + µ0 ǫ0 ∂ A = 0
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s ⇒ ~ ∇.
∇
Equation ∂t ∂t2
Continuity ∂ 2~A
Equation ⇒ −∇2~A + µ0 ǫ0 2 = 0
∂t
Maxwell
2~
Equations ∂ A
⇒ ∇2~A = µ0 ǫ0 2
Electromagnetic ∂t
wave equation
2~ 1 ∂ 2~A
Transverse ⇒ ∇ A= 2 2
Nature c ∂t
Vector & Scalar This is wave equation in terms of vector potential.
Potential
 Electromagnetic energy density

Electromagnetic
Theory The electric energy per unit volume is,
The author
1~ ~ 1
uE = E.D = ǫE 2
Del Operator 2 2
1
Gauss’s In vacuum, uE = ǫ0 E 2
divergence 2
Stoke’s theorem

Fundamental
Laws
The magnetic energy per unit volume is,
Poisson’s and 1~ ~ 1
Laplace’s uB = B.H = µH 2
Equation 2 2
1
Continuity In vacuum, µ = µ0 ⇒ uB = µ0 H 2
Equation 2
Maxwell
Equations

Electromagnetic
The total electromagnetic energy density, in vacuum, is,
wave equation
1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1
Transverse uEM = (E.D + B.H) = (ǫ0 E 2 + µ0 H 2 ) (17)
Nature 2 2
Vector & Scalar
Potential
 Poynting Theorem
Conservation of electromagnetic energy

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author

Del Operator Poynting vector (~S) represents the rate of energy transport per unit area in
Gauss’s electromagnetic wave, normal to the direction of propagation of wave.
divergence

~ ~
~ = E×B
Stoke’s theorem
~S = ~E × H (18)
Fundamental µ0
Laws
Statement: Poynting theorem states that the rate of flow of electromagnetic (EM)
Poisson’s and
Laplace’s energy through the surface of a given closed area is equal to the sum of,
Equation
(i) the rate of decrease of EM energy in the region enclosed by it,
Continuity
Equation
(ii) the rate of work done by the electric field on the source of
Maxwell current present within the enclosed region.
Equations

Electromagnetic
wave equation

Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential
 Poynting Theorem (cont.)
Conservation of electromagnetic energy

Electromagnetic
Theory

The author This is law of conservation of EM energy.

Del Operator
I Z Z
~S.dA
~ =− ∂uEM
dV − ~E.~JdV (19)
Gauss’s
S V ∂t
divergence

Stoke’s theorem In absence of any source, ~J = 0

Fundamental
Laws Z Z
Poisson’s and ~S.dA
~ =− ∂uEM
∴ dV
Laplace’s
S V ∂t
Equation Z Z
~ ~S)dV + ∂uEM
Continuity ⇒ (∇. dV = 0
Equation V V ∂t
Maxwell
Equations ⇒ ∇.~ ~S + ∂uEM = 0
∂t
Electromagnetic
wave equation The above equation is also called as the continuity equation for EM wave.
Transverse
Nature

Vector & Scalar

Potential