1964 The Book of Indian Birds by Ali S

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BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

THE BOOK
OF
INDIAN BIRDS
SALIM ALI
WitJz 64 plates in colour (depicting 256 species)

3 in line and 22 in half-tone
SEVENTH EDITION
Revised
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

BOMBAY
First published, August 1941
Second edition, October 1942
Third edition, June 1944
Reprinted, December 1945
Fourth edition, October 1946
Fifh edition (Revised), 1955
Sixth edition (Revised and enlarged), 196J
Seventh edition (Revised), 1964
@ Bombay Natural History Society 1964
All rights reserved. This book, any parts thereof,

or plates therein, may not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the author
and the publishers.
PILUTED IN INDLA A T THE LEADERS PRESS PRIVATE LTD., BOMBAY. ~ 9 4 4 9

PREFACE
THE publication by the Bombay Natural History Societyby inS. 1961

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN
of
Dillon
Ripley meant an upheaval for bird students in this country accustomed
to the older order of classification. The latter had been followed in all
important publications on Indian birds since the first edition of the
Bird volumes in the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA series by Oatesand Blanford
(1889-1898), including the second edition of that work by E. C. Stuart
Baker (1922-1929), POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Hugh
Whistler (1949), fifth edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS, and others,
as well as in periodical literature. The change was bound to cause
some inconvenience and confusion at first, but it had become essential
in order to bring Indian ornithology in line with the system of classifica-
tion which, with minor variations, has now come to be internationally
accepted and adopted. Increasing use and familiarity with the new
arrangement should soon dispel its initial disadvantages.
From the sequence of the Orders and Families of birds represented

in this book, shown after the Preface, it will be noticed that the new
arrangement is superficially little more than the old system in reverse.
This means that whereas previously we began with the putatively
highest evolved forms and ended with the lowest, we now begin a t
the bottom of the evolutionary ladder and climb to the top. Ripley's
SYNOPSIS and all present-day publications on birds, including those
pertaining to our neighbouring areas-the Palaearctic Region, Burma,
Thailand, Malaysia, Ceylon, and others-follow the modem system,
and it would therefore have been only consistent to adopt it in the
present edition of THE BOOK likewise. By a mere reversal of the
positions of the first 56 coloured plates, making the book commence
with the Dabchick instead of the crows, the requirements of the new
'fashion' would, by and large, have been satisfied. However, owing
to technical difficulties connected with the old groupings on the plates,
and the facing descriptions, it was thought best to leave their positions
undisturbed.
The last eight of the sixty four coloured plates were added as
supplement to the 6th edition, and therefore do not conform to any
systematic arrangement. The book now covers 256 birds fully des-
cribed and illustrated in colour, or just over 20 per cent of the total
listed in s v x o p s r s for India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and
Ceylon. In addition several other birds are briefly mentioned in their
appropriate places. The species selected are amongst the more com-
mon and readily seen birds we have in India, chiefly in the plains and
foothills.
Hindi names of the birds have been provided wherever available.
I cannot vouch for their correctness in all cases or say how common
or well understood they are in general. But it seems obvious, if bird
study is to prosper and develop in India, that simple Hindi names
should be standardized-if necessary coined or borrowed froin other
languages-and put into circulation as early as possible under the
imprint of some competent and recognized central institution.
The standards of size employed in previous editions have been
retained as they were on the whole found satisfactory in practice
except in the case of conlplete strangers to the country and its birds.
The size in inches given after each 'standard' should help the latter
up to a point.
A Sparrow 6" G Crow 17"

B Quail 7-8" H Kite 24"
C Bulbul 8" I Duck 24/'
D Myna 9" J Village hen 18-30"
E Pigeon 13" K Vulture 36"
F Partridge 13"
Minus and plus signs are used to indicate whether the bird is smaller
o r bigger than the standard.
January, 1964 S. A.
CONVERSION TABLE
(to metric system)
1 inch = 2.54 centinletres

10 inches = 25.4 cm.
l f o o t = 30.48cm.
10 feet = 304.8 cm. or 3.048 metres
100 feet = 30.48 m.
1000 feet = 304.8 m.
New SEQUENCE
OF ORDERG
AND FAMILIES
DEALT WITH IN THIS BOOK
Order PODICIPEDIFORMES
~ a m i l yPODICTPEDIDAE: Grebes
Order PELECANIF~RMES
k i l y PELECANLDAE : Pelicans
,, PH4LACROCORACIDAE : ColTlloEint~,Darter
Order CICONUFORMES
Family ARDEIDAE: Herons, Egrets, Bitterns
,, CICONIIDAE: Storks
,, ~RESKIORNITHLDAE: Ibises, Spoonbill
,, PHOEMCOP'TERIDAE: Flamingos
Order A N S E R ~ R M E S
Family ANATIDAE : Ducks, Geese
Order FALC~NIFORMES
Family ACCLPITRLDAE: Hawks, Vultures
,, FALCONDAE: Falcons
Order GALLWORMES
Family PHASIAPUIDAE: Pheasants, Junglefowl, Partridges, Quails
Order GRUIFORMES
Family TURNICIDAE : Button- and Bustard-Quails
,, ORUIDAE: Cranes
,, RALLI-DAE: Rails, Coots
,, O ~ I D A E :Bustards
Order CHARADRUFORMES
Family JAFANIDAE : Jasanas
,, HAEMATOPODIDAE: Oystercatchers
,, CHARADRITDAE
Subfamily CHARADRIINAE: Plovers
,, SCOLOPACMAE: Curlew, Whimbrel, Godwit
Family ROSTRATLJLLDAE: Painted Snipe
,, RECURYIROSTRIDAE: Stilt, Avocet
, B U R ~ N I D A E: Stone Curlen
, OLAREOLIDAE : C ~ u r ~ e r ~
.. LARIDAE: Gulls, Terns
Order COLUMBIPORMES
Family PTEROCLIDIDAE : Sandgrouse
,, COLUMBIDAE: Pigeons & Doves
Order PSITTA~~P~RMES
Family PSITTACIDAE : Parrots
Order CUCULIFORMES
Family CVCULIDAE: Cuckoos
Order STRIGIFORMES
Family STRIGIDAE
Subfamily TYTONINAE : Barn Owls
, STRIGlNAE: Q W ~ S
Order CAPR~MULG~FORME~
Family CAPRMULGIDAE: Nightjars
Order APODIFORMES
Family APODIDAE
Subfamily APODINAE : Swifts
99 HEMIPROCNINAE : Crested Tree Swifts
Order CORAC~~P~RMES
Family ALCEDJNIDAE: Kingfishers
,, MEROPIDAE : Bee-eaters
, CORACITDAE: Rollers
,, UPUPIDAE : Hoopoes
3 BUCERO~AE : Hornbills
Order PICIFORMLS
Family CAPITONIDAE: Barbets
, PICJDAE: Woodpeckers
Order PASSERIF~RMES
Family P ~ A E Pittas
:
,, ALAUDIDAE: Larks
, HIRUNDINIDAE : Swallows
,, LANIIDAE: Shrikes
-, ORIOLIDAE : Orioles
,, DICRURIDAE: Drongos
,, 4RTAMIDAE : Swallow-Shrikes
. SNRNIDAE: Mynas
,, CORVTDAE: C r o w s , Tree Pies
viii
Family CAMPEPHAGIDAE:
Cuckoo-Shrikes, Minivets
,, IRENIDAE:Ioras
,, PYCNONOTIDAE: B u b~ ~ l ~
99 MUSCICAPIDAE
Subfamily TIMALIINAE: Babblers
,, MUSCICAPINAE: Flycatchers
,, SYLVIINAE : Warblers
,, TURDINAE: Thrushes, Chats. Robins
Family PARIDAE
Subfamily PARINAE : Tits
Family SITTIDAE
Subfamily S I ~ A :ENuthatches
Family MOTACILLLDAE: Pipits, Wagtails
,, DICAEIDAE : Flowerpeckers
,y NECTAIUN~DAE : Sunbirds
,, ZOSTEROPIDAE : Whiteeyes
Family PLOCEIDAE
Subfamily PASSERINAE: House and Ye1 lowhroa ted Sparro
,, PLOCEINAE: Weaver Birds
,, ESTRILDMAE : Munias
Family PRINGILLIDAE
Subfamily FRING~UINAE : Rosefinches
Family EMBEFUZJDAE : Buntings
CONTENTS
PREFACE V
NEWSEQUENCE
OF ORDERSAND FAMILIES vii
INTRODUCTION XU1
..,
TERMINOL~GY OF A BIRD'S PLUMAGE AND PARTS xxv
How TO RECOGNISE B m s IN THE FIELD:
1. Birds with prominent Tails xxviii
2. Birds with prominent Bills XXX
3. Birds with prominent Crests xxxiv
4. Long-legged birds XXXV
5. Bright coloured birds xxxviii
6. Sober coloured birds mix
DESCFUPTIONSOF 256 BIRDS AND COLOURED PLATES NO. 1-64 1-128
SOMENESTSAND NESTINGBEHAWOUR 129
FLIGHT 136
BIRDMIGRATION 141
THEUSEFULNESS OF BLRDS 148
BIRD WATCHING 154
INDEX OF SPECIES xlvii
Lit of Black & White Plates
No.
Redwattled Lapwing and nest

Mixed heronry of Cormorants, Painted Storks and
White Ibises
Paradise Flycatcher (sub-adult male) at nest
Malabar Pied Hornbill (male) feeding young in nest
Tailor Bird and nest
Pheasant-tailed Jacana and floating nest
Nukta duck at nest in tree-trunk
Golden Oriole and hammock nest
Colony of mud nests of Cliff Swallow
'Flamingo City9-Great Rann of Kutch
Flying Silhouettes
Flying Silhouettes
Hoopoe leaving nest-hole
XI
Brownheaded Gull
Swallows collecting on migration
A migratory swarm of Rosy Pastors
Ringed Sparrow Hawk ready to be released
Vultures at a carcase
Jungle Myna sipping nectar from Coral blossoms
Thickbilled Flowerpecker eating Loranthus berries
Camouflaged Ground 'Hide'
Machan 'Hide' against Blackbacked Woodpecker's
nest-hole
Diagrams
Illustration of a bird's plumage & parts xxiv

Types of Bills xxvi
Types of Feet xxvii
Europe-Asia showing some significant recoveries of

ringed birds in and from India, to date 7
Average Rainfall of India I
J
end papers
INTRODUCTION
What is a Bird ?
BIRD has been described as a 'Feathered Biped'. This descrip-
A tion is apt and precise, and can apply to no other animal.
Birds are vertebrate warm-blooded animals, i.e. whose temperature
remains more or less constant and independent of the surrounding tem-
perature. This is in contradistinction to Reptiles, Amphibians and
Fishes which are cold-blooded, i.e. of temperature that changes with
the hotness or coldness of their surroundings.
To assist in maintaining an even temperature, the body of a bird is
covered with non-conducting feathers-its chief characteristic-which
in details of structure and arrangement reflect the mode of life of the
group to which the bird belongs. Compare for example the thick, soft,
well-greased covering on the underside of an aquatic bird like a Duck
or Grebe with the peculiar, narrow, hairlike, 'double' feathers of the
Cassowary to be seen in any Zoo. Except in the Flightless Birds
such as the last named, the Ostrich and the Penguin (Ratitae and
Sphenici) whose feathers grow more or less ,evenly over the entire
surface of the body, the growth of feathers is restricted only to well-
defined patches or tracts known as pterylae on various parts of the
body, whence they fall over and evenly cover the adjoining naked
interspaces or apteria. A study of the arrangement of the feather
tracts (pterylosis) which varies in the different orders, families, and
even species, is of great importance in determining the natural rela-
tionships of different birds.
The feathers covering the body of a bird fall into 3 classes: (1) the
ordinary outside feathers known as Contour feathers or pennne,
whether covering the body as a whole or specialised as pinions or
flight feathers (remiges) or as tail feathers (rectrices) which serve as
rudder and brake; (2) the fluffy Down feathers or plumulae hidden
by the Contour feathers and comparable to flannel underclothing.
whether confined to nestlings or persisting throughout life: (3) the hair-
like Filo-plumes which are hardly seen until the other feathers have
been plucked off. They are particularly noticeable, for instance, in a
plucked pigeon.
The body temperature of birds, about 38"-MaC.,ishigher than that of
most mammals. Assisted by their non-conducting covering of feathers
birds are able to withstand great extremes of climate. As long as they
xiii
can procure a sufficiency of food supply, or 'fuel' for the system,
it makes little material difference to them whether the surrounding
temperature is over 60°C. on the burning desert sands or 40°C. below
zero in the icy frozen north. Their rate of metabolism is greater than
that of mammals. They lack sweat-glands. The extra heat generated
by their extreme activity which would, under torrid climatic conditions
result in overheating, fever, and death, is eliminated through the
lungs and air sacs as fast as it is produced. For one of the functions
of the 'air sacs'-a feature peculiar to birds and found in various parts
within the body-is to promote internal perspiration. Water vapour
diffuses from the blood into these cavities and passes out by way
of the lungs, with which they are indirectly connected.
In addition to these two cardinal attributes, warm-bloodedness and
insulated feather covering, birds as a class possess certain well-marked
characteristics which equip them pre-eminently for a life in the air. In
India we have at present no indigenous flightless birds like the Ostrich
or the Penguin, so these need not be considered here. The forelimbs
of birds, which correspond to human arms or to the forelegs of quad-
rupeds, have been evolved to serve as perfect organs of propulsion
through the air. Many of their larger bones are hollow and often have
air sacs running into them which, as mentioned above, function
principally as accessory respiratory organs. This makes for lightness
without sacrificing strength, and is a special adaptation to facilitate
acrial locomotion. Modilkations in the structure of the breast bone,
pectoral girdle and other parts of the skeleton, and the enormously
developed breast muscles enable a bird to fly in the air. It has been
estimated from analogy with birds that a man, to be able to lift him-
e l f off the ground by his own effort, would require breast muscles
at least 4 feet deep! There is, moreover, a general tendency for various
bones to fuse with each other, conducing to increase rigidity of the
skeletal frame-also a factor of great importance in flight. As a
whole the perfectly streamlined spindle-shaped body of a bird is
designed to offer the minimum resistance to the wind. On account
of their warw-bloodedness coupled with these peculiar facilities for
locon~otion with which Nature has endowed them, birds enjoy a
wider distribution on the earth than any other class of animals. They
cross ocean barriers and find their way to remote regions and isolated
islands, and exist under physical conditions where their cold-blooded
relatives must perish. It is also this power of swift and sustained flight
that enables birds living in northern lands to migrate periodically over
enormous distances in order to escape from the rigours of winter-
xiv
shortening days and dwindling food supply-to warmer and more
hospitable climes.
Birds are believed to have sprung from reptilian ancestors in bygone
aeons. At first sight this appears a far-fetched notion, for on the face of
it there seems little in common between the grovelling cold-blooded
reptile and the graceful, soaring warm-blooded bird. But palaeontolo-
gical evidence, supplied chiefly by the earliest fossil of an undoubted
bird to which we have access-the Archaeopteryx-and modem re-
searches on the skeletal and other characteristics of our present-day
birds, tend in a great measure to support this belief. The method of
articulation of the skull with the backbone, for instance, and the
nucleated red blood corpuscles of the bird are distinctly reptilian in
character. To this may be added the fact that birds lay eggs which
in many cases closely resemble those of reptiles in appearance and
composition, and that the development of the respective embryos
up to a point is identical. In the majority of birds scales are present
on the tarsus and toes which are identical with the scales of reptiles.
In some birds, like sandgrouse and certain eagles and owls, the legs
are covered with feathers, a fact which suggests that feathers are
modified scales and that the two may be interchangeable. The outer
covering of the bills of certain birds, for example the Puffin (Fratercrrla
arctica), is shed annually after breeding in the same way as the slough
in reptiles. The periodical moulting of birds is also essentially the
same process as the sloughing of reptiles. In short, birds may reason-
ably be considered to be extremely modified reptiles, and according to
the widely accepted classification of the great scientist T. H. Hwley,
the two classes together form the division of vertebrates termed
Sauropsida.
* * *
Of the senses, those of Sight and Hearing are most highly developed
n birds; that of Taste is comparatively poor, while Smell is practically
absent. In rapid accommodation of the eye, the bird surpasses all other
creatures. The focus can be altered from a distant object to a near one
almost instantaneously; as an American naturalist puts it, 'in a fraction
of time it (the eye) can change itself from a telescope to a microscope'.
* * *
For the safety of their eggs and young, birds build nests which may
range from a simple scrape in the ground, as of the Lapwing, to such
elaborate structures as the compactly woven nest of the Weaver Bird.
With rare exceptions they incubate the eggs with the heat of their own
xv
bodies and show considerable solicitude for the young until they are
able to fend for themselves. Careful experiments suggest however,
that in all the seemingly intelligent and purposeful actions of nesting
birds, in the solicitude they display for the welfare of their young
and in the tactics they employ when the latter are in danger, instinct
and not intelligence is the primary operating factor. The power of
reasoning- and the ability to meet new situations and overcome
obstacles beyond the simplest, are non-existent. It is good there
fore always to bear this in mind when studying birds, and to re-
member that their actions and behaviour cannot be judged purely
by comparison with human standards and emotions.
* * *
The total number of bird species known to science as inhabiting the
earth to-day has been estimated as about 8600. If subspecies or
geographical races are taken into account the figure would rise to
nearly 30,000.
For its size, the erstwhile 'Indian Empire' or 'British India', in
which, besides Pakistan and Burma it was customary for biological
considerations to include Ceylon as well, contains one of the richest
and most varied avifaunas on the face of the globe. Covering some
40 degrees of latitude and about the same of longitude, it encloses
within its boundaries a vast diversity of climate and physical features.
These range from the dry, scorching sandy deserts of Sind and
Rajasthan and the humid evergreen rain forests of Assam and the
southern Western Ghats, to the region of glaciers and eternal
snow in the mighty Himalayas. Smooth wide spaces of depressed
river basins, either sandy, dry and sun-scorched or cultivated, or
water-logged under a steamy moisture-laden atmosphere (the rarai)
lie along the base of the northern ramparts. The great central Indian
and Deccan plateaux succeed the fertile alluvial Gangetic Plain and
are flanked on the west by the broken crags and castellated outlines
of the ridges of the Western Ghats which overlook the Arabian Sea
and continue southward in gentle, smoothly rounded slopes of
green uplands-the Nilgiri and other hills of southern India.
This vast sub-continent-two-thirds of Europe in superficial area-
with its extensive coastline, affords suitable living conditions to a great
variety of feathered inhabitants. The second edition of the FAUNA
OF BRITISH INDIA series on Birds enumerated some 2400 forms (species
and subspecies). The latest checklist, A SYNOPSISOF THE B ~ R D SOF INDIA
AND PAKISTAN (which excludes Burma) lists 2061 forms of which
xvi
over 350 are winter visitors, chiefly from the Palaearctic Region to
the north.
The area as a whole falls into the zoogeographical division of the
earth known as the Oriental Region. For the sake of convenience it
has been split up (Blanford, Phil. Trans. of the Royal Soc. Vol. 194,
1901, pp. 335-436) into 5 primary subdivisions as under:
(a) T h e I n d o - G a n g e t i c P 1 a i n extending across the
whole of northern India from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal.
Its boundaries run up the hill ranges from Karachi to Peshawar,
thence along the outer spurs of the Himalayas to Bhutan, and thence
roughly southward to east of the Sundarbans. The southern bound-
ary takes a line froin the Rann of Kutch to Delhi and from about
Agra to Rajmahal whence it goes south to the Bay of Bengal.
(6) P e n i n s u 1 a r I n d i a, southward of the above area.
( d )T h e H i m a 1 a y a s including the whole area of the moun-

tain ranges from their foothills up to the limit of tree-growth.
The Punjab, Sind and Rajasthan, however, have a fauna differing

considerably from that of the other parts of India and resembling
that found in W. Asia and N. Africa, whilst the animals of the Higher
Himalayas (above the tree-line) and the Upper Indus Valley resemble
those of central Asia. Both these areas belong to the zoogeogra-
phical region which extends over the greater part of Asia and all
Europe, known as the Palaearctic.
A still further splitting of the fauna within these broad sub-
divisions on the basis of ecological or environmental factors is clearly
desirable. A scrutiny shows that there is a close similarity between
the fauna and flora of those regions in which the incidence of the
Southwest Monsoon is heaviest, namely the Himalayas east of
Sikkim and the hilly portions of Assam and Burma on the one hand,
and the south-western corner of the Indian peninsula, south of
about Goa, together with the south-western portions of Ceylon, on
the other. On account of the similar physical configuration of all
these areas and their geographical position relative to the strike of the
SW. Monsoon currents, they are areas of heavy rainfall and excessive
humidity. These, precisely, are two of the most important factors
xvii
that regulate the character of the vegetation. Similarity in vegetation
is a striking feature of these heavy-rainfall areas. As would be ex-
pected, this similarity extends to the insect forms dependent upon the
plants, which in turn conduce to similarity in the birds predatory upon
them. It has therefore been suggested that all these parallel areas, far-
flung though they are, are perhaps better lumped togethe] in one
zoogeographical sub-division.
There are certain biological axioms of more or less universal appli-
cation which are found to hold good in the case of our Indian avifauna
also. They are of great importance, particularly in view of the modem
practice of recognizing geographical variations and races. A cursory
glance through any well-arranged museum collection, or through the
description of geographical races in any up-to-date work on systematic
ornithology reveals the fact that the largest race of a bird species-
this is true of other warm-blooded animals as well-is, with rare
exceptions, found inhabiting the cooler part of its distributional
range while the smallest inhabits the warmer. Parallel with this
axiom is the fact that in the Northern Hemisphere races occupying
the cooler (northern) portions of the range of a species tend to lay
larger clutches of eggs than those occupying warmer (southern) parts.
Furthermore, it is well known that of a given species the races that
inhabit desert areas are always pale or sandy-coloured whereas those
living under the influence of heavy rainfall, in well-wooded or humid
tracts, tend to be darker in coloration. This is true not only of individu-
al races and species, but also of the entire aspect of the avifauna of
these tracts as a whole. What the precise factors are that bring about
these changes in coloration, and the manner of their operation, we
do not know. That humidity has to do with increased pigmentation
is clear enough, and it has recently been suggested that the reduced
force of ultraviolet rays due to water vapour suspended in the air
may account for the darkening.
* * *
A few remarks wit11 regard to the classification of birds seem called
for in the interest of the beginner. It will be observed that after the
English or trivial name of each species in the following pages, therc
appear two Latin names. The practice of employing a uniform
Latin terminology is current throughout the modern scientific world.
It is a boon to workers in different countries since it is more or less
constant and enables the reader of one nation to understand what
the writer of another is talking about. To take an example: What \
xviii
the Englishn~ancalls Hoopoe is Wiedehopf to the German. A Pole
knows the bird as something else-doubtless with a good many c's,
Z'S, S'S, and other consonants in bewildering juxta-position-while the
Russian has yet another equally fantastic looking name for it. A fair
working knowledge of a language seldom implies a familiarity with
popular names as of birds, for instance, many of which often are of
purely local or colloquial application. Thus it is possible that while
the Englishman may follow more or less all he reads in German
about the Wiedehopf he may still be left in some doubt as to the
exact identity of the bird. The international Latin name Upupa epops
after the English or Polish or Russian name will leave no doubt a s
to what species is meant.
In the above combination the first name Uprrpa denotes the Genus
of the bird corresponding roughly, in everyday human terms, to the
surname. The second name epops indicates the Species and corres-
ponds, so to say, to the Christian name. Modem trend of scientific
usage has tended to split up the Species further into smaller units
called Geographical Races or Subspecies. An example will clarify
what this means: It will be admitted that all the peoples living in
lndia are human and belong to one and the same human species. Yet
a casual glance is enough to show that the Punjabi is a very different
type in build and physiognomy from the dweller in Madras. The
differences, though small, are too obvious to be overlooked. They
are primarily the result of environment which includes not only
climatic conditions of heat and cold, dampness and dryness, but
also of diet and many other subtle factors working unceasingly upon
the organism in direct or indirect ways. Thus while retaining all
our inhabitants under the human species, when you talk of the
Madrasi or the Punjabi you automatically recognise the sum total
of the differences wrought in either by his particular environment.
A comparative study of birds reveals that there are similar minor
but well marked and readily recognizable differences in size, colora-
tion and other details in those species which range over a wide area
and live under diversified natural conditions, or which have been
subjected to prolonged isolation as on oceanic islands, or through
other causes. It is important for science that these differences should
be duly recognized and catalogued since they facilitate the study of
specification and evolution. This recognition is signified by adding a
third Latin name to the two already existing, to designate the Geogra-
phical Race or Subspecies. Thus, for example the House Crow,
xix
Corvus splendens, has been subdivided on the basis of constant differ-
ences in size and coloration brought about in the different portions
of the 'Indian Empire' it occupies as follows:
Corvus splendetzs splendetzs (the nominate race), Common House
Crow
Corvus splenderrs zuglnayeri, Sind House Crow
Corvlas splenderrs insolens, Burmese House Crow
Corvus splenderis protegatus, Ceylon House Crow
* * *
Barring restricted areas and particular groups of birds which still re-
quire careful collecting and working out, we can now claim to have a
sufficiency of dead ornithological material from India in the great
museums of the world to satisfy the needs of even an exacting taxono-
mist. Most bird lovers in this country possess neither the inclination,
training, nor facilities for making any substantial additions to our
knowledge of systematics. Speaking generally, therefore, Indian
systematic ornithology is best left in the hands of the specialist or
museum worker who has the necessary material and facilities at his
command. Our greatest need to-day is for careful and rational field
work on living birds in their natural environment, or what is known
as Bird Ecology. It is a virgin field; both the serious student and
the intelligent amateur can contribute towards building up this know-
ledge. A great many biological problems await solution by intensive
ecological study. This is a line of field research that may be commended
to workers in India; it will afford infinitely more pleasure and is
capable of achieving results of much greater value and usefulness
than the mere collecting and labelling of skins.
Among the questions which the ornithologist in India is constantly
being asked are the following. I have had to face them so frequently,
.from such a variety of people and in such far-flung corners of the coun-
try that it might perhaps be as well to devote a little space to them
here.
Q. What is tlze largest Indian bird, and what the smallest?
A. It is not easy to say which particular one is the largest. but
amongst the upper ten are certainly the Sarus Crane (p. 87) and the
Himalayan Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier. The former stands the
height of a man; the latter has a wing spread of over 8 feet. Amongst
our smallest birds are the flowerpeckers, e.g. Tickell's Flowerpecker
(p. 46) scarcely bigger than a normal thumb.
XX
Q. What is our most beautiful bird?
A. Difficult to pick out any single species for the highest honour,
and depends rather on individual tastes. A large number of birds of
many different families, particularly those resident in areas of humid
evergreen forest, possess extraordinarily brilliant plumage. As a
family, the pheasants occupy a high place for colour and brilliancy of
plumage and adornment possessed by the cocks of most species. At
the bottom of the size ladder come the sunbirds-tiny creatures about
half the size of the House Sparrow or less-whose glistening resplen-
dent plumage scintillating in the bright sunshine as they flit from
flower to flower, or dart from one forest glade to another, trans-
forms them into living gems.
Q. What is our commonest bird, and what our rarest?
A. The answer depends largely on what part of the country you
live in. But for India as a whole, perhaps the House Crow and the
Sparrow would be hard to beat for commonness and abundance.
They have followed Man everywhere-up in the hills and out in the
desert-wherever his ingenuity has created liveable conditions for
himself. Next in abundance come birds like Mynas and Bulbuls
which though not wholly commensal on Man are yet quick to profit
by his presence and activities.
Perhaps the three rarest birds in Jndia at present are the Mountain
Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa), Serdon's Courser (Cursorius bitor-
yuatus), and the Pinkheaded Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea), all
illustrated and described (pp. 127-8). The first has not been met with
since 1876 and the second since 1900, and all attempts to re-discover
them have ended in failure. The fate of the Pinkheaded Duck is also
shrouded in mystery and to all appearances the species has become
extinct. The last example shot was in 1935, and though it has since
been reported off and on as seen by sportsmen, in all the cases investi-
gated these reports have proved unreliable, the bird actually seen being
the Redcrested Pochard (p. 127).
Q. Do birds have a language?
A. They certainly have, if by language is meant that they can
comn~unicatewith and understand one another. It consists not of
speech as we know it, but of simple sounds and actions and enables
birds--especially the more sociable ones-to maintain contact amongst
themselves and convey simple reactions such as those of pleasure,
threat, alarm, invitation, and others. Several of these signals-vocal,
behavioural, or a combination of the two-are understood not only
xxi
by members of the same species but also by other birds generally,
e.g. the alarm notes and behaviour of many on the approach of a
marauding hawk. To this extent Man can also claim to understand
the language of birds; Solomon himself could hardly have done
more. But the structure of a bird's brain suggests a comparatively
low level of intelligence and precludes the possibility of their holding
regular conversations or expressing views and opinions as we humans
are usually so ready to do!
Q . Wlzat is our nzost accomplished songster? and talker?
A. Personally, for song I would give the palm to the Greywinged
Blackbird (Turdus boulbolrl) of the Himalayas. A number of its close
I-elations, members of the Thrush family, including the Malabar
Whistling Thrush (p. 16) and the Shama (p. 14) follow close on its
heels.
The best talker amongst our Indian birds is certainly the Hill Myna
(p. 28) whose articulation of the human voice and speech is infinitely
clearer and truer than that of the parakeets. The latter enjoy a wider
reputation and are more generally kept as cage birds because more
readily procured.
Q . How long does a bird live?
A. The age-potential, or the age to which a bird is capable of
living, of course varies according to species and to the environment
and conditions under which it lives. Reliable data concerning the
life-span of wild birds in a state of nature is very difficult to obtain.
I t is only possible by the method of marking individual birds, particu-
larly as nestlings. Most of the figures of age available are from birds
in captivity and therefore living under somewhat unnatural conditions.
It is known that within a group of related forms the larger the bird
the longer its life, but outside related groups, size does not seem to
matter a great deal. An ostrich in captivity has lived for 40 years;
a raven to 69 and another to 50. Passerine birds of about Sparrow
size have occasionally reached 25 years although normally their
span is 5 to 8. A vulture attained 52, a horned owl 68, swan 25,
pigeon 22 to 35, peacock 20. The longest lived wild birds in a natural
state, as determined by the marking method, are: herring gull 26
years, oriole 8, pintail duck at least 13, grey heron about 16, blackbird
+
10, curlew 31+, kite 252, and swallow 16 .
The common belief that crows are immortal is of course groundless,
while there seems no proof for the popular assertion that vultures
'score centuries'.
xxii
Finally, to those desiring a closer acquaintance with birds in general,
no better or more readable book can be recommended than THE
BIOLOGY OF BIRDS by J. A. Thomson, but this is now out of print.
Two other useful books on general ornithology, though largely using
American examples, are NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS by Leonard W.
Wing (The Ronald Press Co., New York) and AN INTRODUCTION TO
oRNrTHoLoGY by George J . Wallace (The Macmillan Co., New York),
For India in particular, the excellent serial on 'The Study of Indian
Birds' by Hugh Whistler published in the Journal of tlie Bombay
Natural History Society, and his POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN
BIRDS are useful guides. Inglis and Fletcher's BIRDS OF AN INDIAN
GARDEN is good and describes and illustrates a number of the com-
moner species. Douglas Dewar's series of books on Indian birds
will be found helpful, and n o one should be without EHA's (E. H -
Aitken) classic little COMMON BIRDS OF BOMBAY which, despite its
title, covers a good many of the commoner birds found in India1.
For masterly touch of matter and charm of style EHA is unapproach-
able. T o the advanced student the 8 volumes of the 2nd edition of
the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA series on Birds by Stuart Baker and the
4 companion volumes of his NIDIFICATION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN
EMPIRE must remain indispensable for a long time to come. T o these
must now be added A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN
by S. Dillon Ripley (Bombay Natural History Society) which is not
only a complete up-to-date checklist but also gives the distributions
and habitat details of the birds.
A new edition of this was published in 1946 by Thacker & Co. Ltd., Bombay.
wider the title COMMON BIRDS OF INDIA with notes by Salim Ali and a biographical
sketch of the author by-W. T. Loke.
xxiv
TERMS USED IN DESCRIPTION OF A BIRD'S PLUMAGE
AND PARTS
Forehead
Crown
Nape or occiput
Lores (space in front of eye)
Supercilium
Cheeks
Ear-covert s
Upper mandible or maxilla
Lower mandible
Culmen or upper profile of maxilla
Comrnissure or line of junction of the two mandibles
Rictal bristles or vibrissae
Chin
Throat
Breast
Abdomen
Back
Rump
Scapulars
Primaries (the earlier or outermost 9 or 10 visible quills of the
wing)
Outer secondaries (wing-quills springing from the radius and
ulna)
Inner secondaries
Lesser wing-coverts
Median wing-coverts
Greater wing-coverts
Primary wing-coverts
Winglet or bastard wing
Upper tail-coverts
Tail feathers or rectrices
Under tail-coverts
Tarsus
Hind toe or first toe, or hallux
Inner or second toe
Middle or third toe
Outer or fourth toe
- Types of Bills
--
I 2. Tearing and
piercing flesh
.la
'"qi$?ggg54 I L
"4,zy,% r
*3.q
-v
3. Seed crushing
4. Flower probing
6. Mud probing
5 . Wood chiselling
7 . A sieve for straining mud -g '. 8. Tootkdgcd #&

WipHrlbg @A
'W/'l\.B - y.4hd
I . Jungle Crow 2. Pariah Kite 3. House Sparrow 4. Purple Sunbird

5. Goldenbacked Woodpecker 6. Stilt 7. Flamingo 8. Cormorant
1. Jungle Crow 2. Sparrow-Hawk 3. Woodpecker 4. Courser 5. Swift
6. Ja~ana 7. Gull 8. Cormorant 9. Dabchick or Grebe
HOW TO RECOGNISE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
1. Birds with prominent Tails
I1Length
I
Predominant colours
!
! %
Species I of Tail of Bird I e
I C
- -- ~
I I !
1
A- Indian Wren-Warbler I i I
i
I (6e) .. j 2" Earthy brown . . . 26
! Ashy wren-warbler i 2" 1 Ashy slate, fulvous-
I I 1 white .. . 26
I
Tailor Bird . .
I .. 1 1$"-3$" I Olive-green, white .. 25
A I Grey Wagtail (5b) 4"- 1 Grey, yellow . . .. 39
..
'
I White Wagtail
Yellowheaded Wag-
tail (5b) . .
..
..
1
:
1
1
4"- 1 White, grey, black
4"- i Black,yellow,grey ..
40
39
; Common Swallow . . ; 3-5" Steel blue, pinkish white,
I I chestnut ..
Wiretailed Swallow. . Steel blue. white,
chestnut .. . 1 38
Redrumped Swallow.. 1 1 Steel blue, fulvous, I
! i .. . . 1 38
I Green Bee-eater I white I I
C--
1 (2, 5 4 . 1I 5"
Crested ~ r e e ' s w i f t i
Green 1 .. .. 54
C
i (3, 6d) ..
i Bluetailed Bee-eater i
.. 5"+ 1
Blue-grey, whitish
I
. . ' 120
I
(54 .. . . i 6"- I Green i .. .. 55
1 Paradise Flycatcher. ! I
/
1 ad. rnnle (3, 6b) . . 10-15" White, black . . . . 1 18'
1 Paradise Flycatcher. 1 I
imnj. male (3, 6e). . 1 10-15" i Chestnut, black, white
I
II 18'
I Shama .. .. 1 6" 1 Black, chestnut, white . . 14
Black Drongo (6a) . . ! 7"- 1 Black . . . . 23
I
! Whitebellied Drongo i 6" !
Indigo, whitish . . i 24
ComrnonBabbler (te) 5" 1 Streaked earthy brown 5 '
Large Pied Wagtail
i (6c) .. 5"- 1
Pied black & white .. 40
D lndian Tree Pie (6e)... 12" ; Chestnut brown, sooty ,
!
1 II black, grey . . . . i2
1 Racket-tailed Drongo I
! (3, 6a) ..
- I
1 15" i Black .. . , 24
I
* A =Sparrow; C=Rulbul ; D=Myna.
i--bigger ; -=sn~aller.
The numbers in brackets after name of species are to facilitate cross
reference to these keys.
xxviii
HOW TO RECOGNISE BIRDS I N THE FIELD
1. Birds with prominent Tails-contd.
--
O *a
o i Species , Length Predominant colours
. ~ . kI ; of Tail of Bird
*a 1
Pied Crested Cuckoo
(3, 6c) .. Pied black & white ..
Grey Shrike (6d) Grey, black & white ..
Blossornheaded para: I
keet (5a) . . Green, purplish plum .. 1 53
Roseringed ~ a r a k e e'i I
(5a) .. Green
Large parakekt (521) . . Green
Common Sandgrouse
(6e) .. Sandy, black .. . ' 77
pheasant-tailkd Jasana
(6cj .. Chocolate-brown, white 86
Koel, mole (6;) .. Black 5 1
Koel, female. . .. Brown, spotted and
barred white . . . . 51
Crow-Pheasan t Black, chestnut . . 51
Little Cormorant (63j
Sirkeer Cuckoo (62)...
Black ..
Earthy brown, rufous.
:: 1
97
(Bright cherry red & I
yellow bill) . . . . 119
Grey Hornbill (2, 6d) Slaty grey .. . . 58
Malabar Pied Hornbill
(2, 6c) ..
Darter or snake-biid
Pied black & white .. 1 120
(2,6a) .. Black, brown, silver grey
Red Junglefowl, c&k Orange-red, chestnut
(5~) black .. ..
Grey Junglefowl, cock Grey, brownish yellow,
black .. ..
Peafowl, cock (3, 5d)
I 36-48"
(train)
Metallic blue, green,
brown .. ..
* D-Myna; E=Pigeon; F=Partridge; G=Crow; H=Kite; I=
Duck; J =Village hen; K=Vulture.
-I-=bigger; -=smaller.
xxix
HOW 7'0 RECOGNISE BIRDS 1N THE FIELD
2. Birds with prominent Bills
Species 1 cO1our
and length of I Predominant
colours of Bird
I
,
1 2
I , Bill
!
- -- - - --
I ---
I
purple Sunbird, I
Curved, b l a c k. Metallic purplish !
male (6a) 1"- black . . .. i 44
Purplerumped Curved, b 1 a c
Sunbird, male 1'/-
F e m a I e s of Curved, b I a c k,
above two. 1"-
Green Bee-eatel- 1 Curved, b 1 a c .. 54
(1,5a) 1 4"- I
:Common Indian Straight,pointed. Blue. green, rusty! 56
I Kingfisher (5d) 'black, 2" i
Painted Snipe (4) I
Straight, slender, Metallic olive-green1
' brown, 2" ' white, buff, black
I
I
Common or Fan- Straight, slender. Dark brown. blackl 1 86
tail Snipe (6e) '
brown 3"- rufous, buff . . j 96
C
I
,Bluetailed
eater (1, 5a)
1
Bee- Curved, b l a c k, I Green
2"-
..
I
55
C-D Deccan Scimitar Curved, yellow, Dark brown, white! 5
I
D 1 Babbler (6e)
Hoopoe (3, 6e)
1 "-t
I Curved, slender, Fawn, black,whitel
dark b r o \v n,
59
I 1
2//-t
~Goldenbacked I, Straight, wedge- I Golden y e l I o w,l
1 Woodpecker shaped. black / black, white. crim-'
18". j son 38
Blackcapped i
Straight. pointed. Deep blue, 'black. 1
I
I
/ Kingfisher (5d) . .1
D-E Pied
I (64 I
red, 3"
black, 3".
I 1
I
rusty white
Kingfisher Straight. pointed, Pied black & white1
57
56
'Whitebreasted Straight. pointed, B l u e, chocolate-

Kingfisher (5d) 1 red. 3"- brown, white . .
lBrownheaded Straight, pointed, Pale blue, buffy I
Storkbilled King- ) compressed. . 1 58
fisher blood-red 4"- 1
I
I Blackwinged Stilt
(4, 6c)
Avocet (6c)
black, 3"-
Upcurved, slen- 1 Pied
1
Straight, slender, White. grey-brown.,
black . .
black &
..
white'
93
I
der. black. 3 " f 1 93
* A -=Sparrow; D =Myna; E ==Pigeon;
F-- 1) nrtridge. +B=bigger;
=Quail ; C=Bulb~il;
-=smaller.
XXX
HOW TO RECOGNISE BIRDS 1N THE FIELD
2. Birds with prominent Bills-contd.
Shape, colour Predominant

1
&
and length of
Bill colours of Bird 2
1
I
F+
I
i Oystercatcher (6c) Straight, snipe-
like, orange-
I red,3"?
Pied black & white 123
H grey Hornbill (1. i Curved, heavy. Slaty grey ..! 58

1I 6d) hornlike,
black and
white, 5"
l ~ i g h tHeron, ad- 1 Ashy grey, black r 106
I ult (6d) Straight, I I
Night Heron, }streaked brown 106
1 immature
H-i
(6e)
re^ Heron
J J
Straight, dagger- Ashy grey, white. 1
I
(6d). like, yellow, 6". black . . ! 103
1 0 p e nb i l l e d Reddish black Greyishwhite,blafkI 102
i
I
I stork (6c) with gap bet- I
I (standing ween mandi-
1 36"-). bles 7"
/
M a 1 a b a r Pied Heavy, horn-sha- Pied black & white; I20
i
I Hornbill (1, 6 c ) I ped, yellow &
black, 8"-
1 - i ~ a r t e ror Straight, dagger- Black, bl.o\r~n.silvcrl
; S n a k e-bird like, brown and grey .. .. 98
i (1, 6a) yellow, 2"
I
I I (Spoonbill (6b). S p a t u l a t e, 1 White .. . 98

brown and
Whinibrel (6e)
i yellow, 8" i
Curved, slender. I Sandy brown, strea- 1
I
brown, 3 " i - ked black & ful-I
I VOUS .. 94
Blacktailed God- Slender, straight, I Brown
. . I
.. . 121
1 wit(6e) orange & black- I
I 1 . 4"-'- I
Golden y e l I o w., 1
]
Straight.
pointed.
white . .
Cattle Egret, yellow. 3"
1 nun-breeding White .. -. J
- -- -
* F=Partridge; H =Kite; I =Duck ; J =Village hen.

-+ = bigger; - = smaller: + - more or less.
xxxi
2. Birds with prominent Bills-contd.
-
0 3. ; S h a ~ ecolour
. I
: n-->_--.
rreuomlnanr
I
Species and*length of
Bill j colours of Bird
II
- - - -- ----- -- - - -- - - ---A
1
J- Reef Heron (6d)
1
Straight, pointed,
brownish yel-
low, 4"
I B lwhite.
u i s h s l a t y , or
.. ..
I Pond Heron or ' Straight, pointed, E a r t h y brown,l
Paddy Bird brown, and yel- white .. ..I
(6e). low 3"
,
l
1 Little Green Bit- Dagger-like, Glisetning greenish

tern greenish yellow
I black, ash grey,
& black, 3" white .. ..
/ (5~). I
Chestnut Bittern Dagger-like,
black, 3"-
Chestnut, ochrace-
OUS. .. ..
1
J Curlew (be) I Curved, slender, Sandybrown, strea-
I i brown, 5-6" ked black and ful-
I VOUS. ..
Black Ibis (6.) Curved, slender, Black .. ..
, black, 6"-
Little Egret (6b) i Straight, pointed, White .. ..
J+
i black, 4"
White Ibis (6b, I Curved, stout, White .. ..
4) black, 7"-
1
I
I
K White Stork (6c, Straight heavy,

1 4)
(standing 40" I
red 8 . 2 White, black ..
high) I
Whi tenecked I Straight, heavy, Black, white ..
Stork (6c, 4) 1 black, 7"-
(standing 36" 1
,
1
high)
Painted Stork
(6c,4).
I
Heavy, yellow,
I decurved at tip,
White, black, rose-
pink .. ..
(standing 48" 1 10"
high) I
K+ Adjutant Stork. Heavy, yellow, Black, grey, white
(standing 48-60" 4-sided, wedge-
high), (4) shaped, 13"
I I
* J=Village hen; K =Vulture.

+ = bigger; - - smaller; = more or less.
xxxii
2. Birds with prominent Bills--contd.
Shape, colour
Predominant
1 '&
and length of
Bill colours of Bird I 2
I
I 1
Blacknecked
Stork (4, 6c)
Sarus C r a n e
1
Straight, heavy,
black, 12"
Straight, heavy,
I
Metallic black,
white
Ashy grey
..
..I
..I
i
101
87
(6d, 4). pointed,
(standing, 48-60" } g r e e n i s h I
high) brown, 7"

Flamingo J Red, heavy,
down-curved
Rosy white, crimson 107
(standing about
4ft.) (4) ("broken"),
sieve
Grey Pelican Long, flat, with Brownish white .. 97
elastic bag
below
* K = Vulture.
+ = bigger; - - smaller.
xxxiii
3. Birds with prominent Crests
Principal Associated
Species colours colours
Yellowcheeked Tit
(5b)
Crested Bunting (6a)
Yellow, black
Black, chestnut
.. White ..
-.I
Indian Crested Lark Brown . . .. Whitish
(64
Crested Tree Swift Blue-grey Whitish.(Chestnut
(1, 6 4 throat in male)
Redvented Bulbul Brown .. . . Black, crimson . .
(6e)
Redwhiskered Brown .. .. White, black,
Bulbul (6e) crimson ..
Whitecheeked Brown .. .. White, black,
Bulbul(6e) yellow ..
Paradise Flycatcher, White .. .. Black .. ..
adult male (1, 6b)
Paradise Flycatcher, Chestnut .. Black, whitish ..
adult female and
immature male
(1, 6 4
l13rahminy M y n a I Reddish fawn Grey, black ..
Racket-t a i 1 e d
Drongo (1, 6a)
/ Black .. ..
Rosecoloured Pale pink, black
Starling or Rosy
Pastor
Hoopoe (2, 6e)
Piedcrested
Fawn
Pied bia'ck &
. . Black, white . .I
Cuckoo (1, 6c) white.
..
:Crested Serpent
Eagle (6e)
Crested Hawk-
Dark brown, ful- White
VOUS
Umber brown, Blackish brown
-.I
Eagle whitish
Peacock (1,5d) Glistening blue Brown . . ..
and green
Peahen (6e) Variegated brown
white, glisten,
ing green
* A =Sparrow; C=Bulbul; D =Myna; H =Kite; K =Vulture.

+ =bigger; - - smaller.
xxxiv
HOW TO RECOGNISE BIRDS IN THE FlELD
4. Long-legged Birds
e d ynecks)
(Most with proportionately, or ~ ? ~ ( ~ r kIollg
1
1.
Size Colour of Yredoininan t Associated 1 i
Bird*
Species
Legs
colours of
Bird I
colours
--
1 Bill j Page
--I --- -.
-.
B+ Painted snipe (2) . Olive-green . . Metallic olive-: Buff, black . . I Greenish b r o w n ; ,

green. I slender. I 86
F- Redshank .. Orange-red . . Greyish brown White . . I Blackish ; slender,
I ! straight.
- 2" . . ' 95
Indian Courser .. China white . II Sandy brown Chestnut,
.I I Black .. . . I 89
black. , I
Golden plover ..!
I
Black . . Biown, black. , Gold& white 1 Black; pigeon-like 1 122
! white I (spangled) 1
Whitebreasted Water- Yellowish I
, Slaty grey . . Green b red . . ! 83
hen green.
i
Indian Moorhen ..I Greenish yel-
/W12ite
low or gree- Slaty grey . . Brown, white Green & red. .
nish slate.
. 84
II
Bronzewinged Jaqana Dull green . . M e t a 1 1 i c 1Black, chest- Greenish yellow and/

I
bronze- nut-red. red .. . . I 85

Pheasant-tailed Jaqana .I
Dull green . White
green
. . Chocolate-
brown.
Yellowish brown . .! 86
I
Blackwinged Stilt (2,6c) Crimson-red . . B I a c k-a n d- .. . . Black ; slender ..I 93
white i
Redwattled Lapwing Yellow Bronze-brown White . . Orange-red & black. 92 1
Avocet (2, 6c) .. Bluish B 1 a c k-a n d- . . . . Black; slender up-,
white turned .. 1 93
Spurwinged Plover .. Black
*IBrown, white, Vinous grey . . Black, short,
black like
I
. . . . I 122
4. Long-legged Birds-contd.
(Most npi//r proportionately, or mnrkedlj~long necks)
1 I
Bird*
Species
1 C Q ~ OofU ~ 1
Legs 1 colours of
Bird
--
Associated
colours
--
1 Bil I
-
l page
I I I
F+ Jerdon's, or Double- Yellowish- or1 Pinkish sandy Rufous, white 1 Pale yellow and blac-I
banded Courser . . pinkish w hitel brown i kish 128
Stone Curlew . .
Night Heron (2, 6d) . . Dull green
. . I Brown . . Black, white. Black and y e i l b ~
Ashy grey . . Greenish black1 Black and greenish,
: :1 I
89
H
E1 Spoonbill (2, 6b)

1
I
. .; Black . .
I
I
I
White . . . . . . I Black
/
yellow;
pointed
and
.
straight,:
.
yellow
. . 106
;
d.
White lbis (2, 6b) .I
. White . . I Black
I spoon-shaped . .'I 98
. . Black; long, curved. . ; 99
Black Ibis (2, 6a) Dark brick-red Black
I
Pond Heron (2, 6e) . . , Y e l l o w i shl White
II . .
.
Slaty green; long.
.I curved ..
. . Yellowish b r o w n ;,
..I 99
J-
green
Greenish black,I (1) White
. . I Brown
I
straight, pointed . . , 105
J
Reef Heron (2, 6d)
Purple Moorhen I Red
I (2) Slaty grey
I
Purplish blue White

I
'
..
1 Yellowish brown ;
straight,pointed . I04
. . Red ; heavy . . ..I 84
Lesser Florican . . Yellowish . . Black, brown White Yellowish brown , . 88
Little Egret (2, 6b) . . Black . . White . . II .. : :IBlack; straight,
pointed . .
I
. . 103
Cattle Egret (2, 6b) . . Greenish black1 White
I - 1
.. . . Yellow; straight,
K- 1 Demoiselle Crane
I
. . I Black . . Grey . . Black
I
poir!ted . . . . i04
. . ( Red-tipped greenish... 87
I
HOW TO RECOGNlSE BIRDS I N THE FIELD
4. Long-legged Birds--contd.
(Most with I:I-opor:ionate~.,or niurkedl~~
lorlg necks)
-Hird*
- - . -.
1
I
,
Species
I
I
Colour of
Legs i
-
colours of
Predominant
Bird 1 --
Associated
colours
-- - - -
1I
1
Bill
-
-
1 Page
i,
- . -- -- - - -
1
K-
I
Whitenecked Stork Red . . ' Black
I
. . White ,
I
R e d d i s h black; ! 100
(2, I I , heavy, pointed . . II
Openbilled Stork (2, 6c) Dill1 pinkish. Greyish white I Black . . I Reddish black; I
I pointed, with gap I
I I
I ' between mandibles 102
Grey Heron (2. 6d) .. Greenish Grey . . ' White . . I Yellowish or brown-
brown / ish; dagger shaped 103
!2Y: K White Stork (2, 6c) . . Red . . White and .. . .I Red, heavy, pointed 100
-. .
5
Painted Stork (2, 642) .. Yellowish or
reddish
, Black
black
and
white
I Pink ..I
I
Yel1ow;h e a v y,
pointed, slightly
I
K+ Adjutant Stork (2)

brown
. . Greyish white I
I bent down at tip . . 102
I
Blackish grey. j Dirty white . . Yellowish; h e a v y ;

/
I
pointed . . .. 101
Sarus Crane (2) .. Red . . ' Grey . . . . I White . . Greenish; heavy,
I
I
I pointed . . . . 87
Blacknecked Stork Coral-red . . Black and I .. . . Straight, heavy, I
(2,k) white , black .. .., 101

. . Red ; heavy, down-
I
Flamingo (4, 6b) .. Red . . Rosy white . . ' ..

curved ("broken"), ,
sieve I.. . . I 107 c
* B = Quail; F = Partridge; H
-k = bigger; - = smaller.
- Kite; 1 - Duck; J -- Village hen: K - Vulture.
5. Bright coloured Birds
a. Chiefly GREEN
Size
Bird* - --
Species
-- -
. - .
I
I
I
---- --
Associated colours
-- --- - - - - - -- ---
,
1
-
page
-
A Crimsonbreasted Barbet I Yello\v, crimson . . .. 1 49
1 or Coppersmith I
:
Lorikeet . . .. .. Crimson . . .. .. 53
Common Bee-eater ( I , 2). . .. .. II
C '
Bluetailed Bee-eater ( I . 2)
Goldfronted Chloropsis . . '
Rusty b r o n~
Clicstnut, ycllow, blue . .
Golden yello\v, purple,
54
55
I
black .. .. 8
1 Jerdon's Chloropsis, nlale.. Black, purple .. .. 9
do. female. . i Bluish green .. .. 9
D i Blossomheaded Parakeet
I
Plum co!our, maroon, blue / 53
(1) I
Bluethroated Barbet ..
Blue, crin~son .. .. 49
D+ I
I
I
Roseringed Parakeet (1) . .
Large Green Barbet
Black, rose-pink (in male). .
..
Rrown .. .. ..
52
49
,
I
E I Large Parakeet ( I ) ..
, Black,' rose-pink, maroon
(in male) .,
I
52 I
Common Green Pigeon . . ; French grey, yello~.ish,/

I dark brown . . .. I 73
b. Chiefly or largelj~YELL0 W
.. . . I Olive green .. .. I 44
Sunbird. I Meiallrc green, crimson,
I purple . . .. . . 45
Greyheaded Flycatcher . . I Greenish yellow, ashy grey 113
Green Munia .. . . Olive-green, yellc\v.
(Scarlet bill) ..
A Yellowcheeked Tit (3) . . Black, white .. ..
I Iora, male . . . . . . Black. white .. 8
do. female .. . . I Greenish yellow, dark -
' brown . . .. ' 8
I
Baya Weaver Bird, male Brown (streaked) . . 1: 1 31
(breedirrg).
Yellowheaded Wagtail . . Black, grey
A + Rlackheaded Bunting,
male
1 Brown, black
I
..
..
..
. I
39
36 1
Redheaded Bunting, nlale 1 Chestnut brown . .
Grey Wagtail (breeding Grey, blackish
plumage) (1)
..
..
..
36
39 1
C Scarlet Minivet, female . . Ashy grey . . ..
D Golden Oriole .. . . Black .. .. ..
~
Blackheaded Oriole
~
. . ; Black .. ..
* A=Sparrow; C=Bulbul; D-Myna; E=Pigeon; J=Village hen.
HOW T O RECOGNISE BIRDS I N THE FIELD
5. Bright coloured Birds-contd.
c . Chiefly or largely RED
Size
of I
, Species /I Associated colours
Bird* 1
A- Red Munia, male (breed- I White (spots) .. .. 33
ing)
A
I
, Small Minivet '

. . Black, grey .. 2 1 .
..
Hodgson's ~osefinc'h, 1 Brown . . ..
. 34 .
C / male
Scarlet Miniver, male
G + ; Crow-Pheasant or Coucal Black
. . Black ..
..
..
. . 21
..
. . 51
3- I Chestnut Bittern (2) . . Ochraceous ..
.. 106
J I Red Junglefowl, cock (1) . . Black, orange ..
. . I 78
d . Several BRIGHT colours in plumage
A- I Firebreasted Flowerpecker I Greenish black, crimson, I
I Common Kingfisher (2) . . I Blue buff . . . . .. 46
A green, rusty brown . 56 .
( Blacknaped Blue Flycat- /
. . Bright blue, black, white. . 115
C
I
/
I
cher
~ 1 u e h e a d e d ' ~ o Thrush
ck '
Cobalt blue, chestnut.,
black, white ..
15 1
D Indian Pitta . . . . Green, blue, brown, black,
I crimson, white . . .. 1 47
Whitethroated Ground
Thrush
1
Golden rufous, slaty blue,
black, white .. 15 i
/
D + Blackcapped Kingfisher . . Deep blue, black; rusty 1 1
1/ Emerald
(2) white ..
. . . . Emerald bronze-green,
..
1
57
Dove
I
bluish grey, vinous red. . 74
a m
E
1
1
D-E I Whitebreasted Kingfisher
In&% Roller
1
Blue, chocolate-brown,.
white
. . ' oxford-and%amb;dge
i
.. 1 57
blue, rufous brown, lilac / 54
..
I
Peafowl (1, 3)
'
Metallic blue, green,
!
brown . .. 77 . 1
6 . Sober coloured Birds
I
a . Genernl effect more or less wholly BLACK

I
. t
Size I
of i Species Page;
Bird* I - - --
A-
A
-. -- - - --
-- . . -
Purple Sunbird, inole (breedirrg) (2)
Con~monHouse Swift (6c)
Crested Buntinn (3). (Chestnut &As) . .
I
.
..
..
-
..
..
.. . . 36
44
59 :: 1
* A=Sparrow; C=Bulbul; D=Myna; E=Pigeon; G=C~OW';
J =Village hen ; K =Vulture. 4-=bigger; -=smaller.
6 . Sober coloured Birds-contd .
a . General effect more or less wI101iyBLACK-contd .
Size
Species
Bird*
A+ Indian ~ o x nmale
. . . .. . . . .
C Black Drongo (1) .. . .
..
D Racket-tailed Drongo (1. 5.. . . ..
D+ Grackle or Hill Myna .. . . . .
D-E Malabar Whistling ~ h r u s h . . . .
..
G- Koel. male (1) .. .. .. . . ..
G House Crow .. .. .. .. . .
Jungle Crow . . . . . . ..
Little Cormorant (1) .. . . .. ..
Coot .. . . . .
Darter or snike-bird (1. 2j .. ..
Pinkheaded Duck. male . ( ~ r i ~ h ;
rose-pink head and bill) .
. .. ..
Black Ibis (2) .. .. . .. . ..
King Vulture .. . . .. .. ..
.
b General effect more or less wholly WHITE
Paradise Flycatcher. adult male (1. 3) . . ..
Spoonbill (2) .. .. . . .. ..
Cattle Egret (2) .
. .. . . . . . .
Little Egret (2) .. .. . . .. ..
White Ibis (2. 4) . . .. . . . . . .
Flamingo (2. 4) .. . . . .
..
.
c General effect PIED BLACK & WHITE
Whitebacked Munia .. .. .. . .
Common Swift (6a) . .
Blackheaded Munia . (upper paits chestnut)
Pied Bushchat. male .. .. .. ..
Magpie Robin. male .. .. .. ..
Pied or Mahratta Woodpecker . . .. . .
Large Pied Wagtail (1) . . ..
Pied Myna . (Orange bill and oibital skin) . .
D+ Pied Crested Cuckoo (1. 3) .. .. . .
D-E Pied Kingfisher (2) .. .. ..
F Pheasant-tailed J a ~ a n a(lj ' .. .. ..
Blackwinged Stilt (2. 4) . . .. .. ..
Avocet (2) . . . . .. . ...
* A =Sparrow ; C=Bulbul ; D =Myna ; E =Pigeon ; F =Part-
ridge; G =Crow; H=Kite; I =Duck; J=Village hen; K=Vulture .
+ = bigger; . =smaller .
XI
6. Sober coloured Birds--contd.
c. General effect PIED BLACK & WHITE-contd.
Size
Bird*
of
I
i1 Species
.-
1
I
Page
--- -
F+ Oystercatcher (2). (Long, straight, I
, snipe-like, orange-red bill) .. .. .. .. 1 120

H + 1 Openbilled Stork (2) .. .. .. ) 102
,
I
Malabar Pied Hornbill (1: '2). (Heavy,
yellow and black bill) . . .. ..
I
.. 1 123
I- / Tufted Pochard. (Leaden or gr&ish
blue legs and bill) . . .. . . .. .. 125
K 1 White Stork (2) .. .. .. .. . . 1 100
K+
d.
i Whitenecked stork i2, 4)
Painted Stork (2,4)
Blacknecked Stork (2,4)
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
General effect largely ASHY GREY, BL UE-GREY or SLATY
..
..
..
. . 1100
. . 1 102
. . 1 101
Size 1
of I Species I Associated colours
Bird* I -
A 1 Grey Tit Black, white .. 2

I
'
I Chestnutbellied thatch Chestnut . . . . ..

1 Tickell's Blue Flycatcher ... Rusty brown, azure blue. . 17
A+ OrpheanWarbler .. Slaty grey (above), buffy
white (below), black (cap) 116
C-- Crested Tree Swift (3, 1) 1 Blue-grey, whitish .. 120
C Blackheaded Cuckoo- ( Black, white . . .. 22
Shrike.
Indian Blue Rock Thrush Dark brown . . .. 16
C+ Rufousbacked Shrike . . Rufous, black .. 20
Plaintive Cuckoo. . .. Dark grey, whitish .. 119
D- Bank Myna .. .. Blackish, white . . .. 30
D Grey Shrike (1) .. White, black . . .. 19
E- Large Cuckoo-Shrike . . White, black . . .. 22
Indian Ring Dove .. Vinous, dark brown .. 76
Indian River Tern .. White, black .. .. 90
I Indian Blue Rock Pigeon
Hawk-Cuckoo or Brain-
1
I
Glistening purple and
green, black . .
White, rusty brown
..
..
74
50
fever Bird
Shikra .. .. . . White, rusty brown
, .. 73
* A=Sparrow; C=Bulbul; D = Myna; E =Pigeon; G=Crow;
'H=Kite ; I =Duck ; J =Village hen ; K =Vulture.
+
= bigger; - - smaller.
xli
6 . Sober coloured Birds-con td.
d. General effect largely ASHY GREY, BL UE-GREY or SLATY-contd.
Size 1 I
1
G-d:- * - -- -
Species
--
i-
Associated colours
--
F- Mountain Quail
" ' I Olive-tinged slaty grey-
brown, black, white
I (coral red bill) .. 128
G Blackwinged Kite . . White, black .. . . 72
. . 90
1
G + Blackheaded Gull
Shahin Falcon .. 1
. . White, black
. . Slaty, black white,' ferru-
ginous
I
. . . . 1 124
H- Pale Harrier, male. . . . White, black' . . 72
H Night Heron (2) . . . . : White, greenish black . . 106
Grey Hornbill (1, 2) . . Dark brown . . . . 58
H i - Grey Heron (2) . . . . , White, black .. .. 103
I Mallard, male . . . . I Metallic green, chestnut,
I white, black ; vermicu-
! lated. (Greenish bill,
/ orange legs) . . - . I 126
i
I+ Barheaded Goose . . . . I Brownish, white, black . . I I08
J- Indian Reef Heron (2) Dark brown ..
J Little Green Bittern Greenish black, ashy
I white .. ..
Demoiselle Crane . . . . Black, white . . 87
K-
K + , Sarus Crane (2) . . . . i White, dark brown '
e . General effect rnore or less BRO W N (all shnd~.s)
!
.. 87
Size I
I
Bird* I
Species II
Associated colours
i
I Page
I
A- 1 Rufotlsbellied ~ a b b l e ; . . I .. . . . . .. I 6
I Streaked Fantail Warbler .. . . . . . . 25
) Indian Wren-Warbler (1)
I Whitethroated Munia .. I
I .. .. . . . . 26
. . . . . . 32
' Spotted Munia .. .. I ~ h i t k ' .. . . 33
I Blackbellied Finch-Lark, White, black' . . . . 43
male
do. female . . , , . . . . . . . . 43
Purple Sunbird, female . . / Pale yellow .. .. / 44
II
Purplerumped
female
Sunbird, Pale yellow . . ' ' 45
, Tickell's Flowerpecker .. Whitish
' Palm Swift
1 Dusky Crag arti in' .... II ..
..
Sooty grey . .
..
..
..1 46
60
37
Redbreasted Flycatcher . . 1 Orange-chestnut (drily . II
male). black, white . . i 1 13
; Lesser Whitethroat
' Thickbilled Flowerpecker
i
. . Earthy brown, grey, white I 115
Ashy olive-brown, greyish I
.
white (stout bluish bill) . 1 118
.t 4=Sparrow; F=Partridge; G=Crow; H=Kite; I=Duck;
3=Village hen; K=Vulture. + = bigger; - --- smaller.
xlii
6. Sober coloured Birds-contd.
e. General effect more or less BROWN (all shades)-contd.
Bird* i Species
--
Associated colours
--
1 Page
A Pied Bushchat, female .. .. .. .. .. 11
Collared Bushchat, female .. .. .. 12
Redstart, female . . . . Rusty reddigh .. .. I 12
Indian Robin, female .. .. .. .. . , 13
Spotted Fantail Flycatcher I White .. .. . ' 18
Hodgson's Rosefinch, I .. .. .. .. 34
female -. I
House Sparrow, male . . White, grey, black. . . . 35
do. female .. I .. .. .. 1 35
Yellowthroated Sparrow . . Sulphur yellow, white, I
Indian Pipit . . I chestnut
.. .. .. .... 1 35
41
Baya Weaver Bird :: .. Golden yeilbw (only in
male breeding plumage). . 1 31
Striated Weaver Bird . . Golden yellow (only in
I male breeding plumage) 31
Little Stint . .
Small Skylark
. . . . White
.. ..
..
..
..
..
.. / 96
41
Bluethroat ..
1
Redwinged Bush ~ & k . . Fulvous, rufous, chestnut.- .. I
Blue (only male), white, 1
'
42
Blackbreasted Weaver
'
,
I chestnut ..
Black, pale yellow. Gol-
.. .. ..
A +
Bird
Crested Lark (3) . . ..
den yellow (cap) in
male breeding plumage. .
.. .. ..
1 1 18
42
Redheaded Bunting, .. .. .. 1: 1 36
female. I
Blackheaded Bunting, . . I .. . . .. ! 36
female I
I
Rufoustailed Finch-Lark Rufous .. .. .. 1 43

..
B- Rain, or Blackbreasted,
Quail
Jungle Bush Quail. .
Buff, black
. . Vinous, black .. .. 1 i 80
Bluelegged Bustard-Quail I Buff, black
Yellowlegged Button
Quail
1 Greyish brown, buff,
.. . . . . black, white, ferrugi-
I
Little Ringed Plover
1 nous red
. . I White, black .
.. ..
. .. 1
1 83
91
;
* A =Sparrow ; B =Quail.
+ = bigger; - smaller.
--
xliii
e. General effect more or less BRO W N (all shades)-contd.
Size i I
c.f Species I Associated colours
Bird"
- --
I I Page
B
Spotted Sandpiper
I
Common or Grey Quail . . Buff, black
. . I White
.. ..
..
79
94
B + , Common or Fantail Snipe I Rufous, buff,' whitish .. 96
(2)
C- , Yelloweyed Babbler .. '
White .. .. .. 6
Quaker Babbler . . Ashy .. .. .. 7
C . Common Babbler ( l j ' . . i .. .. .. 5
1 Blue Rock Thrush, female Whitiih . . . . . .
I 16
1 Paradise Flycatcher, fe- Black white .. .. 18
male (3) and young male j
' ( 1 , 3) I
Redvented Bulbul(3) Black, crimson .. 9
/
I
Redwhiskered Bulbul(3) ' White, black, crimson

*
Whitecheeked Bulbul (3) . . White, black , yellow

1 Spotted Babbler . . . . Chestnut, white . . ..
C-ID Deccan Scimitar Babbler White .. . . .. 1 5
(2) i
C-i- Alpine Swift .. . . White .. .. .. 60
D--- ' Brahminy Myna (3) Grey, black .. .. 1 29
D Colnmon Myna . .
, Jungle Myna ..
::
White (wing patch)
. . White (wing patch), blaik,
30
I fulvous . . .. 1 116
' Rufous Woodpecker . . Chestnut . . .. " 1 48
Tree Pie (1) .. . . I Sooty black, grey "..1 , 2
I Jungle Babbler .. .. 1 .. .. .. .. 4
I
Large Grey Babbler . . Grey, whitish .. .. I 114
Southern, or Blackcapped, .. .. .. .. 14
Blackbird 1
I Little Brown Dove . . Lilac, vinous, ashy grey, (
white .. .. .. 76
Hoopoe (2, 3) . . Black, white .. .. 59
Common Indian Nightjar
I Grey, buff, black . . .. 61
1 Collared Scops Owl . . Rufescent, buff, black . . 63
' Spotted Owlet .. .. White .. .. .. 63
Barred Jungle Owlet . . Olive-brown, rufous,
chestnut, white . f34
E- Common Sandgrouse (1) . . Black .. .. .. 77
Painted Sandgrouse . . Black, chocolate, white,
I buff, close-barred .. 124
j I
*B=Quail; C=Bulbul; D=Myna; E-Pigeon; T=Duck. +=bigger;

---- smaller.
xliv
HOW T O RECOGNISE BIRDS I N T H E FIELD
6. Sober coloured Birds-confd.
e . Gerreral effect more or less BROWN (all shades)-contd.
I
Species Associated colours Page

Bird*
-- I -- ---- . -- -
E / Little drebe, or Dabchick ; White .. .. .. 112
F ; Grey Partridge . . .. 1 Whitish .. .. .. 82
Indian Courser . . .. I Black, rufous, white .. 89
Yellow-wattled Lapwing . . Black, white .. 92
Ruff and Reeve . . .. Grey-brown, blaciih.
(Scaly patterned wading
1 bird) .. .. .. 121
.. ... 89
'='I Stone Curlew, or Goggle- I
evedPlover .. .. I
/
Buff, white
~ e d w a t t l e d Lapwing, or Black, white .. . . 92
"Did-he-do-it."
GI
ded, Courser (4)
Laggar Falcon
1
Jerdon's, or Doubleban- Pinkish sandy brown, ru-
. . fous, black, white
.. ..
. . 128
. . 66
White-eyed ~ u z z a r d .. .. . . 70
Sirkeer Cuckoo (1) brown. rufous.
(Bright cherry red ana
yellow bill) .. .. 110
H Pariah Kite .. .. .. .. .. .. 71
Brahminy Kite, irilrnafure .. .. .. 71
do. adult .. . . Whitk' .. .. .. 71
Brown Fish Owl . . . . Buff, black .. . . 62
Indian Horned Owl .. .. .. .. . . 62
Scavenger Vulture, irnrna- .. .. .. . . 66
Cure ,
Night Heron, i~nmahlre .. .. .. . . 106
(2)
H Tawny Eagle .. .. .. . . 6s
Crested Serpent ~ & l e(3): '. .. . . 69
Ringtailed, or Pallas'. . Whiie: greyish .. .. I 7 0
Fishing Eagle . . ..
I- Whitebellied Sea Eaglr Ashy brown, white, black. . 123
Lesser Whistling Teal .. .. .. .. . 109
Garganey Teal .. . . Rufous-brown, ashy grey.
buff: white .. .. ' I 0
..
White-eyed Pochard
Pintail Duck .. 1
. Whitc ..
. . Umber brown, black. 1
. . I 112
Common Teal, fer~iulr . .

I Shoveller Duck
1 white, grey, buff
.. .. ..
. . . . Green, black, bluish grey,
. . 110
.. 109
I white. buff .. .. 1 1 1
* E=Pigeon; F=Partridge; G =Crow; H =Kite; T=Duck.
+ = bigger; - - smaller.
xlv
e. General effect rtlore or less BROWN (all shades)-contd.
Size i
Bird*
Species
1
Associated colours 'i Page
-- .-- -- --
I
I-
I
1 Wigeon, male .. .. i Chestnut, buff (forehead I
iI patch), black, white ; i
vermiculated. (Blue bill) 1 125
i Gadwall, male .. Dark brown, chestnut,
1 . ' I grey, white, black; ver-
I 1 Spotbill Duck ..
1 miculated. (Yellow legs)
I
. . Black, white, metallic
green and purple, ful- I
126
I
j
I-t
i I voUs
j Redcrested Pochard, rnale I Pale brown,' black: white,
.. I 111
/ chestnut-orange. (Crim-
I I son bill) .. 127
1 Pinkheaded Duck, male . . Brownish black, brighi
-1-
I
I Pond Heron or Paddy White
rose-pink (head, hind-
neck, and bill)
. . . . ..
.. 127
105
Bird (2).
Whimbrel (2)
Red Junglefowl, hen
. . Fulvous buff, black
Blacktailed ~ o d w i i;2 ) . . White, black.
.. ..
..
.. .. 1
:: / 94
121
78
Grey Junglefowl, hen . . Whifc' .. . . 78
Fulvous, buff .. .. 94
or ' 'Beng$ White .. .. .. 65
.. ..
.. Metallic green .. .. 77
~ust&d .. White, black .. .. 88
I
* I =Duck; J =Village Hen ; K =Vulture.
+ = bigger; - = smaller.
1. The House Crow-Corvus splendens Vieillot
HINDI NAMES : Kowwa, Desi kowwa
Size: Pigeon?; (17 inches). Field Characters: Grey neck and

smaller size distinguish it from the all-black Jungle Crow. Sexes alike.
Distribution : Throughout the Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon;
Burma. Chiefly plains, but also many hill stations. Four geographical
races, based largely on paleness or darkness of the grey collar: palest
in Sind and Kashmir; darkest (blackish) in Burma. Habits: Perhaps
the most familiar bird of Indian towns and villages. Lives in close
association with man and obtains its livelihood from his works.
Audacious, cunning and uncannily wary. Has no particular food
preferences. Will eat almost anything: dead sewer rat, offal, carrion,
kitchen scraps and refuse, locusts, termites, fruit, grain, and eggs
or fledgling birds pilfered from nests. A useful scavenger but also a
great bully and therefore a serious menace to defenceless ornamental
bird species in urban areas. Has community roosts in selected trees
or groves where large numbers collect every night. Nesting: Season
-principally April to June. Nest-a platform of twigs frequently
intermixed with iron wire, with a cup-like depression lined with tow,
coir fibre, etc., 10 ft. or more up in a tree; sometimes several nests in
the same tree. E g g s 4 or 5 pale blue-green, speckled and streaked
with brown. Both sexes share incubation and nest-feeding. The
Koel commonly lays its eggs in crows' nests.
2. The Jungle Crow-Corvus rnacrorhynchos Wagler

HINDI NAMES: Jungli kowwa, Dhiil kowwa
+
Size : House Crow ; Kite-. Field Characters : A glossy jet black
crow with a heavy bill and deeper and hoarser "caw". Sexes alike.
Singly, pairs or loose parties. Distribution: The Indian Union; both
Pakistans ; Ceylon ; Burma. Four geographical races, mainly on size
differences of wing and bill. Habits: Chiefly a bird of the countryside,
but small numbers also in towns and villages. Associates with vultures
to feed on carrion. Its movements often lead to discovery of tiger or
panther kills hidden in the jungle which it is quick to locate. Like
House Crow is omnivorous, and highly destructive to eggs and chicks
of other birds including domestic poultry, and to young of small
mammals. Nesting: Season-normally December to April in penin-
sular India; March to May in northern India, Assam and Burma.
Nest and Eggs like the House Crow's; the latter slightly larger.
Both sexes share parental duties. Nests frequently parasitized by Koel.
3. The Tree Pie- Dendrocitta vagabunda (Lat ham)
Size: Myna? ; tail 12 inches long. Field Characters: A long-tailed

chestnut-brown bird with sooty head and neck. Black-tipped grey tail
and greyish white wing patches conspicuous in flight. Flight undulating
-a swift noisy flapping followed by a short glide on outspread wings
and tail. Sexes alike. Distribution: The Indian Union; both Pakis-
tans; Burma. Not Ceylon. Four races, on size and coloration details.
Habits: Frequents wooded country and scrub jungle. Freely enters
residential compounds and gardens. Usually noisy pairs or family
parties. Has a large variety of calls, some loud, harsh and guttural,
others pleasing and melodious: one of the commonest of the latter
being a clear bob-o-link or kokila. Omnivorous like the crows and
will take fruits, insects, lizards, frogs, centipedes and even carrion,
in addition to the eggs and helpless young of birds and rodents.
Tree Pies are regular members of the mixed hunting associations
of birds that move about in forest. Nesting: Season-February to
July, chiefly March to May. Nest-like the crows' but deeper and
often of thorny twigs, well lined with rootlets. Concealed in foliage
of moderate sized tree. Eggs-4 or 5, variable in shape and colour;
most commonly pale salmon-white splashed and streaked with bright
reddish brown. Both sexes share parental duties.
4. The Grey Tit-Parus major Linnaeus
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: Glossy uncrested black head,

glistening white cheek patches, grey back and whitish underparts
with a broad black band down the centre. Sexes alike. Distribution:
Practically throughout the Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon ;
Burma. Plains, and hills to about 6000 ft. Five races, on size and
coloration details. Habits: Frequents well-wooded localities, but
not dense humid forest. Singly, pairs or parties, often hunting in
association with other small insectivorous birds. Very active. Clings
to sprigs, flowering stems and tree-trunks, etc. upside down and in
other acrobatic positions in search of food-insects, their eggs and
larvae, flower buds, fruit, kernels of small nuts and seeds. The latter
are held down underfoot and hacked open with the strong conical
bill. Joyous sweeching notes uttered while moving about. In the
breeding season the male has a loud, clear, whistling song: whee-
chichi, whee-chichi, whee-chichi, etc. Nesting: Season-varies with
locality; February to November. Often two successive broods raised.
Nest-a pad of hair, moss, feathers, etc. in a hole in a tree, wall or earth-
cutting, 5 to 15 ft. up. Eggs-4 to 6 white or pinkish white, spotted
and speckled with reddish brown. Both sexes share parental duties.
1. House Crow 2. Jungle Crow

3. Tree Pie 4. Grey Tit
5. The Yellowcheeked Tit-Parus xanthogenys Vigors
HINDI NAME:
Size: Grey Tit (=Sparrow). Field Characters: A black and yellow tit
with prominent pointed black crest, and black band down centre of
yellow underparts. Sexes alike in north Indian race; in the peninsular
and south Indian races ventral band of female olive-green. Female of
latter race moreover dimorphic, sometimes with black sometimes with
olive green crown. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both
Pakistans. Four races recognized on size and coloration details.
Absent in Ceylon. An allied species, P. spilonotus, with bright yellow
forehead, in Burma. Habits: Similar to those of the Grey Tit. Affects
hill forests and wooded plateau country. Usually keeps in family
parties, hunting insects in company with other small insectivorous
birds, in the foliage canopy. Active and restless. Utters a lively
chee-chee while in quest of food. During the breeding season the
male has a loud, clear, whistling song: cheewit-pretty-clzeewit etc.,
delivered with crest erect and wings drooping at sides. Nesting:
Season-varies somewhat with local conditions, between April and
September. Nest-like the Grey Tit's, a pad of moss, hair, wool
or feathers inside a hole in a tree-stem, or crack in a wall or earth
bank. Eggs-4 to 6, white or pinkish white lightly spotted and blotched
with reddish or purplish brown. Both sexes share parental duties.
6. The Chestnutbellied Nuthatch-Sitta castanea Lesson
HINDI NAMES : Siri, Katphoriya
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A short-tailed bird with relatively

long heavy pointed bill. Slaty blue above, deep chestnut below.
Underparts of female paler. Singly, or pairs, creeping along trunks
and branches of trees like a mouse. Distribution: The Indian Union;
East Pakistan ; Burma. Not Ceylon. Five races, distinguished on
size of wing and bill and coloration of underparts. Habits: Affects
forest and well-wooded tracts; also groves of old mango and other
trees on the outskirts of villages. Usually in association with hunting
parties of mixed insectivorous birds. Scuttles jerkily up and down
or sideways and around trunks and branches of trees, clinging to
the undersurface of a bough and running along it back downwards
with surprising agility. Actions and behaviour a combination of wood-
pecker, tit, and mouse. Food: Spiders, grubs and insects lurking in
holes and crevices in the bark; occasionally also kernels of seeds and
nuts. Call: A feeble mousy chilp-chilp. Nesting: Season-overall,
between February and May. Nest-a tree-hollow lined with leaves,
moss, wool, etc., and walled up with mud plaster, leaving a small
neat and round entrance hole. Eggs-2 to 6, white, speckled with
red. Both sexes share parental duties,
5. Yellowcheeked Tit 6. Chestnutbellied Nu thatch

7. Velvetfronted Nuthatch 8. Jungle Babbler
3
7.. The Velvetfronted Nuthatch-Sitta frontalis Swainson
HINDI NAMES : Katphoriya (all nuthatches)
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: Like the Chestnutbellied Nut-

hatch, but purplish blue above, greyish lilac below. Forehead velvety
jet black. Chin and throat whitish. Female differs from male (illustrat-
ed) in lacking the black stripe above and behind eye. Pairs or family
parties in forest, creeping up and around branches of trees. Distribu-
tion: Ceylon and the better wooded portions of the Indian Union
and East Pakistan; plains as well as hills up to about 5000 ft.
elevation. The birds occupying the lower Eastern Himalayas, Assam,
Burma and Malaysia are slightly smaller. Habits: Though the two
are frequently found in the same localities, this species prefers
moister and better wooded tracts than the Chestnutbellied Nuthatch.
No appreciable difference in habits. Most commonly met with
amongst the, mixed hunting parties of small birds that rove the
forest, of which the usual members are tits, flycatchers, minivets and
warblers. Call: A loud, cheeping whistle, rather of the volume of a
sunbird's. Also a variety of mousy cheeps. Nesting: Season-about
February to April in South India; April to June in the north.
Nest-as in the foregoing species. Old woodpecker and barbet holes
commonly utilized, the original entrance partially blocked up with
mud plaster. Eggs-3 to 6 white, densely speckled and blotched
with red or purplish. Both sexes partake in parental duties. Incuba-
tion period 13/14 days.
8. The Jungle Babbler-Turdoides striatus (Dumont)
HINDI NAMES : Sat bhlii, Ghonghiii
Size: Myna-. Field Characters: An earthy brown frowzled and
untidy looking bird with a longish tail which gives the impression of
being loosely stuck into body. Sexes alike. Invariably in flocks of half
a dozen or more, whence its popular names Slit bhai in Hindi, "Seven
Sisters" in English. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union,
both Pakistans, and SW. Ceylon; plains and hills up to about 5000
ft. elevation. Several races, on differences in coloration. Habits:
Inhabits outlying jungle, well-wooded compounds, gardens and
groves of trees about towns and villages. Flocks or "sisterhoods"
hop about on the ground rummaging amongst the fallen leaves and
mulch for moths and other insects. They usually form the nucleus of
the mixed hunting parties of birds in forest. The flock keeps up a
constant conversational chatter and squeaking which sometimes
develops into a loud discordant wrangling. Sociable even while
paired off and nesting, feeding in flocks and banding to ward off attack
by predatory hawk or cat. Food: Spiders, cockroaches and other
insects, and larvae; wild figs, berries, grain and nectar of flowers of
Coral, Silk Cotton and other trees. Nesting: Season-irregularly
throughout the year. Nest-a loosely built cup of twigs, rootlets and
grass in the fork of a leafy branch 8 to 10 ft. up. Eggs -3 or 4,
turquoise blue. Both sexes share parental duties. Nests commonly
parasitized by the Pied Crested and Common Hawk-Cuckoos.
9. The Common Babbler-Turdoides caudatus (Dumont)
HINDI NAMES: Dumri, Chilchil
Size: Bulbul; tail relatively longer. Field Characters: A slim earthy

brown babbler, with upper plumage streaked darker, and long, gradua-
ted, loosely attached tail which is finely cross-rayed. Sexes alike.
Flocks of a half dozen or more on the ground or in low bushes.
Distribution: The Indian Union, excepting Assam; both Pakistans;
dry plains and hills to about 4000 ft. Not Ceylon or Burma. Habits:
Has a preference for dry open country and semi-desert with thorn
scrub and shrubby vegetation, but is by no means restricted to such.
Avoids humid forest. The birds feed on the ground and scuttle along
like rats through thorn scrub and thickets, and are loth to fly. Flight
feeble--a few rapid flaps followed by a glide on outspread wings and
tail. Call: A series of short pleasant trilling whistles. When agitated,
the birds utter a musical whistling which-which-whichi-ri-ri-ri-ri-ri-ri
etc., as they nervously twitch their wings and tail and hop from
bush to bush, the whole sisterhood combining to hurl invectives at the
intruder in a disorderly chorus. Food: Insects, berries, grain and flower
nectar. Nesting: Season-generally between March and July, but
irregularly over the entire year. Nest-a neat compact cup of grass
and rootlets in a low thorny bush, seldom over 5 ft. up. Eggs-3 or 4,
turquoise coloured, glossy. Both sexes share domestic duties. Nests
commonly parasitized by Pied Crested and Hawk-Cuckoos.
(See also LARGEGREYBABBLER, p. 114.)
P 0. The Slatyheaded Scimitar Babbler-Pornatorhinus schisticeps

Hodgson
HINDI NAME:
Size : BulbulS ; Myna-. Field Characters : A slaty-headed dark

brown babbler with white throat and breast, prominent white eye-
brows, and curved pointed yellow bill. Sexes alike. Pairs, or parties,
in dense bush cover. Distribution: The Indian Union; Ceylon. E.
Pakistan and eastward. Ten races, of which best known horsfieldii of
Deccan and peninsular India. Habits: Confined to forested country,
chiefly broken and hilly, with tangled undergrowth and bamboo and
cane brakes etc., up to about 6000 ft. elevation. As a rule shy and
a great skulker. Rummages on the ground under dense undergrowth,
flicking the leaves aside or digging in the moist earth with its scimitar
bill for insects and grubs. Also ascends into moss-covered branches
of trees and bamboo culms in quest of food. Mellow bubbling or
gurgling calls enable individuals of a pair or party to keep contact
with one another. The male's musical flute-like call of 4 notes is
promptly acknowledged by his mate nearby, so that both calls sound
as parts of one and as uttered by the same bird. Flight feeble and
ill-sustained. Food: Chiefly insects and berries. Nesting: Season-
mainly December to May. Nest-a loosely put-together ball of grass,
moss, rootlets and leaves on the ground under a bush in a dry forest
ravine. Eggs-3 to 5 pure white. Both sexes share parental duties.
5
1 1. The Rufousbellied Babbler-Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin)
HINDI NAME:
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: Olive-brown above, rusty fulvous

below. Sexes alike. Active, cheeping flocks, in scrub and grass jungle.
Distribution: All India from the Himalayan foothills southward;
East Pakistan; Ceylon. Not W. Pakistan, Assam or Burma. Five
races based on coloration details, the southern populations distin-
guished by a white throat. Habits: Inhabits lightly wooded thorny
scrub and tall grass country, in skulking flocks of 5 to 10. The
individuals keep in touch by means of feeble but sharp cheeping
calls sweech, sweech, etc., somewhat like a sunbird's, and utter harsh
tittering notes when alarmed. The birds scatter and dive into the
thickets, but soon reassemble by the more agitated cheeping and
tittering that ensues. Food : Insects and larvae; also flower nectar.
Nesting: Season-chiefly between May and September; November
to March in Ceylon. Nest-a neat ball of coarse grass and bamboo
leaves lined with softer grass and rootlets, with entrance hole at side.
Placed in a bush under 3 ft. and well concealed. Eggs-3 or 4, glossy
pinkish white, profusely speckled and blotched with reddish or dark
brown.
12. The Yelloweyed Babbler-Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin)
Size : Bulbul-. Field Characters : Cinnamon and chestnut-brown

above, white below, with conspicuous orange-yellow ring round eye.
Sexes alike. Small parties, in scrub and grass undergrowth. Distri-
bution : The Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon ; Burma. Plains
and up to about 5000 ft. Four races, mainly on coloration. Habits:
A dweller of thorn scrub and grass jungle, commonly met with in
patches of such separating cultivated fields. Hunts in small loose
flocks, clinging to reed stems sideways or upside down like a tit. A
great skulker, and when alarmed will hop away through the under-
growth and vanish uttering harsh tittering notes. Call: A clear, loud
rather plaintive cheep-cheep-cheep. In the breeding season males
clamber up to the tops of bushes etc., and deliver a loud and pretty
song. Flight feeble and jerky. Food: Chiefly spiders and insects:
also berries and flower nectar. Nesting: Season-June to September
(SW. monsoon). Nest-a deep neat cup of grasses cemented and
plastered over with cobwebs. In bushes, seldom above 5 ft. high.
E g g s 4 or 5, yellowish white finely speckled with purplish brown.
Both sexes share parental duties.
9. Common Babbler 10. Slatyheaded Scimitar Babbler

11. Rufousbellied Babbler 12. Yelloweyed Babbler
6
13. The Spotted Babbler-Pellorneum ruficeps Swainson
HINDI NAME:
Size: Bulbullfi. Field Characters: A small olive-brown babbler with

a reddish brown cap. Underparts whitish, with breast heavily streaked
or spotted with brown. Sexes alike. Pairs and family parties, skulking
in undergrowth and on the ground. Distribution: Widely distributed
in India to about 5000 ft. elevation, from the Himalayas to Kerala;
East Pakistan; Burma. With many races. An allied species in Ceylon.
Habits: Affects well-wooded areas. Partial to dry ravines and hill-
sides overgrown with scrub and bamboo thickets. Rummages on the
ground amongst the humus for insects, running about silently like a
quail. Usually shy and difficult to observe. Call: Of 3 or 4 rich
plaintive whistling notes, pretty sweet or he'll beat you, repeated mono-
tonously for many minutes. Also has a loud percussive song of
several clear whistling notes heard chiefly morning and evening, parti-
cularly during breeding season. Nesting: Season-March to May;
locally up to August. Nest-a ball of bamboo leaves etc., with
lateral entrance hole, on ground in bank of nullah in forest. Eggs-
2 or 3, white or creamy white speckled and blotched with brown.
14. The Quaker Babbler-Alcippe poioicephala (Jerdon)

HINDI NAME:
Size: Sparrow+ ; Bulbul-. Field Characters: A small olive-brown
babbler with ashy grey head and neck, pale greyish underparts and
rusty brown wings and tail. Sexes alike. Flocks, in foliage canopy of
forest trees or shrubs. Distribution: Peninsular India and Assam;
E. Pakistan; Burma. Not Ceylon. Habits: Largely arboreal. Fre-
quents moist deciduous forest preferably hilly country. Flocks of
5 to 10 or more, commonly mixed with parties of other small birds
hunting insects in the foliage. Flits from sprig to sprig and clings to
leaf stalks in acrobatic positions to investigate. Call: A clear whistl-
ing quavering song of 4 notes, constantly uttered, which proclaims
its presence a long way off. Also utters a harsh chir-r, chir-r. Food:
Insects, spiders, flower nectar, etc. Nesting: Season-principally
during SW. monsoon, June to September; in south India January
to May. Nest-a flimsy cup of rootlets, moss, lichens, etc., in a
crotch of a sapling 4 to 8 ft. up, or slung hammockwise between
upright weed-stems. Eggs-2 or 3 pale salmon with blotches of purp-
lish brown and pale grey. Both sexes share parental duties.
13. Spotted Babbler 14. Quaker Babbler

15. Common Iora (male & female) 16. Goldfronted Chloropsis
(male)
15. The Common Iora-Aegithina tiphia (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Shoubeegi
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: A black and yellow tit-like bird

with two white wing bars. Female, and male in non-breeding plumage,
largely greenish yellow with whitish wing bars, the latter differentiated
by black tail. Pairs, in gardens, groves and light forest. Distribut~on:
All India east of a line from Gulf of Cambay through Mount
Abu to Gurdaspur (Punjab); E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Plains
and up to about 3000 ft. Five races, on differences in details
of coloration. Habits: Arboreal. Affects gardens in towns, groves
of trees (mango, tamarind, neem, etc.) on village outskirts, and
secondary jungle. Hops from twig to twig, frequently clinging on
sideways or upside down in search of insects among the foliage.
The birds keep in touch by sweet longdrawn musical whistles and
short chirrups. Its Hindi name Shoubeegi is onomatopaeic. During
courtship display the male springs up into the air with plumage
fluffed out and with a variety of sibilant whistles parachutes down
in a spiral back to his perch, showing off his colours to best
advantage. Food: Insects, their eggs and larvae. Nesting: Season-
chiefly May to September with local variations. Nest-a compact
cup of grasses, neatly and copiously plastered with cobwebs, in a
crotch or fork of twig 6 to 12 ft. up. Eggs-2 to 4, pale pinky
white, blotched with purplish brown. Both sexes share parental
duties.
16. The Goldfronted Chloropsis, or 'Green Bulbu19-Chloropsis

aurifrons (Temminck)
HINDI NAME: HarZwa
Size: Bulbul. Field Characters: A spruce grass-green bird with
bright golden forehead, purple and black chin and throat, and slender
curved bill. Female paler and duller. Pairs or parties, in leafy or
flower-laden trees. Distribution: Locally throughout the Indian
Union; E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Up to about 6000 ft. Three
races. Habits: Affects well-wooded areas, forest as well as neighbour-
hood of habitation. Hunts for insects and spiders in the foliage
where its plumage blends perfectly; therefore, far oftener heard than
seen. But is a particularly accomplished mimic of the c ~ l l sof other
birds-Bulbul, Drongo, Shrike, Magpie-Robin, etc.-and often over-
looked on this account. Sometimes mimics migratory birds during
a season when they are absent, thereby intriguing and confounding
the observer! Besides insects, spiders and fruit, feeds largely on
flower nectar. Nesting: Season-mainly May to August, with local
variations. Nest-a loose shallow cup of tendrils, rootlets, etc., lined
with soft grass or bast fibres, near tip of outhanging branch in fairly
high tree, well concealed by foliage. Eggs-normally 2, cream or
reddish cream, speckled with claret.
17. The Goldmantled Chloropsis-Chloropsis coclzinchinensis (Gmelin)
Size: Bulbul. Field Characters* : Differs from foregoing in absence of

golden orange on forehead and presence of bright purplish blue
moustachial streaks. The female has pale bluish green chin and
throat, and bright greenish blue moustachial streaks. Pairs or parties,
in leafy trees. Entirely arboreal. Distribution: The Gangetic Plain;
all peninsular India; Ceylon. Plains and foothills. The typical race
cochinchinensis in E. Pakistan, Assam, Burma. Habits: Same as of
the Goldfronted Chloropsis except that on the whole it prefers less
thickly-wooded country. Partial to groves of trees around villages
and scattered amongst cultivation. Invariably present at flowers of
Silk Cotton, Coral, paliis (Butea) and other trees, feeding greedily
on the nectar and often acting dog-in-the-manger to other bird visitors.
Also a very good mimic. Both the Chloropses are popular cage birds,
but bullying and pugnacious and unsuitable for mixed aviaries.
Nesting: Season-chiefly April to August, varying locally. Nest-
similar to the foregoing species, both being plastered on the outside
with cobwebs. Eggs-2 or 3, pale creamy or pinkish white with
sparse specks, blotches and hair-lines of blackish, purplish, and reddish
brown. They are very different from eggs of the Goldfronted species.
18. The Redvented Bulbul-Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus)
Size: Myna-; (8"). Field Characters: A perky smoke-brown t ird

with partially crested black head, scale-like markings on breast a ~d
back, a conspicuous crimson patch below root of tail, and a wh~te
rump, the last particularly noticeable in flight. Sexes alike. Pairs or
small gatheiings, in gardens and lightly-wooded country. Distribution:
Throughout the Indian Union; E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Up
to about 4000 ft. Rare or absent in W. Pakistan. Seven races, on
minor differences in size and coloration. Habits: Common in gardens
and light scrub jungle, both near and away from human habitations.
Large numbers collect to feed on banyan and pipal figs and winged
termite swarms. Has no song as such, but its joyous notes and viva-
cious disposition make it a welcome visitor to every garden. Its
pugnacity makes it a favourite with fanciers as a fighting bird, and
large stakes are wagered on bulbul fights. Food: Insects, fruits and
berries, peas and suchlike vegetables, and flower nectar. Nesting: Sea-
son-chiefly between February and May, varying with local conditions.
Nest-a cup of rootlets, sometimes plastered outside with cobwebs,
in a bush or tree, 3 to 30 ft. up. Eggs-2 or 3, pinkish white, profusely
blotched with purplish brown or claret. Both sexes share parental
duties.
These refer chiefly to the race jerdoni-Jerdon's Chloropsis.
19. The Whitecheeked Bulbul-Pycno~zotus Ieucogenys (Gray)
HINDI NAME: B d b d
Size: As the last. Field Characters: An earth-brown bulbul with

black head, glistening white cheeks, and sulphur yellow under tail.
The crest varies from the negligible rounded black tuft of the race
from G ~ ~ j at retc.
a (illustrated) to the long forwardly curving pointed
crest of northern birds, e.g. from Kashmir. Sexes alike. Pairs or
scattered parties, in gardens and open scrub country. Distribution:
The Himalayas, \vest to east, up to about 9000 ft. and the country
along their base. West Pakistan; western and central India south
to Bombay, east to Jhansi. Three races, mainly on length and colour
of crest. Habits: Jaunty and vivacious as the last. Tame and confid -
ing. Often enters houses to be fed, and for kitchen scraps etc. Fami-
liar visitor to house boats in Kashmir. Has a variety of cheery notes.
On the countryside has a preference for semi-desert where berries of
Peeloo (Sahadora persica) and wild caper (Capparis aphylla) are its
favourite food. Insects and flower nectar are also eaten. Nesting:
Season-March to September, varying with local conditions. Nest
-typical of bulbuls', a loosely built cup of grass and rootlets in a
thorn bush or small tree, usually under 5 ft. Eggs-3 or 4, very like
those of Redvented Bulbul.
20. The ~edwhiskeredBulbul-Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus)
Size: Redvented Bulbul. Field Characters: Brown above, white

below with a broken blackish necklace on breast. Black, upstanding,
pointed crest, crimson 'whiskers' and crimson patch under root of tail
are distinguishing features. Sexes alike. Pairs or loose gatherings.
Distribution: The Indian Union, excepting the arid portions of the
north-west (Rajasthan etc.); E. Pakistan; Burma. Patchily up to
about 6000 ft. Not Ceylon or W. Pakistan. Five races mainly on
details of coloration. Habits: Typical of the bulbuls as described.
Prefers better-wooded localities than the Redvented species and
commonly found in hills up to 6000 ft. often to the exclusion of the
latter. Sometimes the two species are found side by side, but normally
the habitat preferences are marked. Enters gardens, and usually tame
and confiding. Its joyous querulous notes are rather similar to those
of the Redvented Bulbul, but more musical and readily distinguish-
able. Nesting: Season-February to August ; locally variable. Nest
-like the other bulbuls', a cup of fine twigs, rootlets, grass, etc.
Frequently built in thatch walls or roofs of inhabited huts. Eggs-
2 to 4, very similar to the last. Both sexes share parental duties.
17. Jerdon's Chloropsis (male & female) 18. Redvented Bulbul

19. Whitecheeked Bulbul 20. Redwhiskered Bulbul
21. The Whitebrowed Bulbul-Pycnonotus luteolus (Lesson)
HINDI NAME :
Size: Redvented Bulbul. Field Characters: Uncrested, sober brown-
ish olive-green, with pale underparts and conspicuous white forehead
and eyebrows. Sexes alike. Unobtrusive, skulking pairs in scrub-and-
bush jungle. Distribution: Peninsular India south of a line from
about Baroda to Midnapur (Bengal); Ceylon. Plains and foothills.
Two races. Ceylonese race differs from Lndian in being smaller and
darker. Habits: Frequents shrubbery in dry, open scrub-and-bush
country. Occasionally enters rambling jungly gardens and compounds.
Normal note, a subdued churr, but every now and again the male
explodes in loud, abrupt snatches of rattling song, quite unmistakable
when once heard. Food: Banyan and peepal figs, berries (such as
Zizyphus and Lantana), insects and flower nectar. All species of bul-
buls, being predominantly fruit and berry eaters, play an important
role in the dispersal of seeds and dissemination of plant life over the
countryside. Nesting : Season-principally March to September ;
February to April in Kerala and Ceylon. Nest-typical bulbul
structure, but rather flimsy cup of rootlets etc., in a bush normally
under 5 ft. Eggs-2 or 3, like the Redvented Bulbul's, but less richly
marked.
22. The Pied Bushchat-Saxicola caprata (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Kala pidda
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: Male black, with white patches on
rump, abdomen and wings, the last particularly conspicuous in flight.
Female earth-brown with pale rusty coloured rump. Separated pairs,
on bush-tops etc., in open country. Distribution: Patchily, resident
or winter visitor, throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans;
Ceylon; Burma. Plains and hills up to about 7000 ft. Four races, on
size of bill and extent of white on underparts. Habits: Affects sparsely
scrubbed country and hillsides, commonly in the neighbourhood of
cultivation and villages. From an exposed perch on a stake or bush-top
darts down to the ground to pick up insect prey. Sometimes springs
up into the air or makes short sallies after winged insects. Utters a
harsh chek, cltek ending in subdued trweet. In breeding season male
delivers pretty whistling song resembling Indian Robin's or Crested
Bunting's from a perch or during the display flight with 'delayed
action' wing beats as in pigeon 'clapping'. Song also uttered as
threat to rival male with tail depressed and neck craned forward
menacingly, white rump fluffed out and wings drooped, flaunting the
white shoulder patches. Nesting: Season-mostly between February
and May. Nest-a pad of grass lined with hair or wool, in hole in
ground, or earth-cutting. Eggs-3 to 5 , usually pale bluish white,
speckled and blotched with reddish brown. Only female incubates,
but male occasionally helps in building nest, and shares in feeding
young.
21. Whitebrowed Bulbul 22. Pied Bushchat (male & female)

23. Collared Bushchat (male & female) 24. Redstart (male and female)
11
23. The Collared Bushchat-Saxicola torquata (Linnaeus)
H N D ~NAME : Khar pidda
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: Male with black head, orange-

brown breast, and prominent white patches on sides of neck (the
'collar'), shoulders and above root of tail. Female like that of the
Pied Bushchat but dark streaked on upperparts. Separated pairs, in
open country, about cultivation and reedy marshes. Distribution: In
winter throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Burma. Plains
and hills. Not Ceylon. Of the four races occurring here, only one
breeds within our limits, in the Himalayas between about 2000 and
9000 ft. Habits: Seen in its winter quarters between September and
April. Singly or pairs in open country, fallow land, reedy margins
of tanks and marshes, and among mangroves and sea-holly patches
bordering tidal creeks on the coast. Food and feeding habits similar
to the foregoing. Constantly flicks open tail, and up and down, as it
watches for insect prey from a bush-top or reed stem. Utters chek,
chek but the pretty breeding song of the male is also occasionally
heard while the birds are with us. Nesting: Season-in the Himalayas
April to July. Nest-like the Pied Bushchat's, a pad of grass, hair,
and wool in a hole in earth-bank or under a stone. Often placed
among the piled stone boundary walls of hillmen's fields. Eggs-4 -to
6 , not markedly different from those of the last.
24. The Redstart-Phoenicurus ochruros (S. G. Gmelin)

HINDI NAME : Thirthira
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: A slim active black and orange-

chestnut bird, constantly shivering its tail (orange-chestnut) and dip-
ping fore part of body. Female brown and paler generally, also with
orange-chestnut tail. Singly, in stony sparsely scrubbed country and
groves of trees. Distribution: In winter more or less throughout the
Indian Union; both Pakistans; Burma. Plains and hills. Not Ceylon.
Two races visit us, the more widely spread (rufiventris) having crown
and upper parts less grey-fringed. Habits: Met with between Septem-
ber and April around villages and cultivation, in groves of trees, stony
hummocks and dry scrub jungle. Flits from perch to perch on roof-
top, boulder or branch, ceaselessly shivering its tail. Food: Insects
and spiders etc., usually picked off the ground. Winged insects
son~etimescaptured in the air like a flycatcher. Usual call a sharp,
mousy whit. . . .whit. . . .whit etc. reminiscent of a squeaking unoiled
bicycle wheel revolving at moderate speed. In the breeding season
the male utters a pleasant little song. Nesting: Season-in the Hima-
layas between 10,000 and 17,000 ft. (and beyond from Iran to Mon-
golia), May to August. Nest-a loose cup of grass, moss, hair, wool
and feathers, in hole in earth-bank, under a rock or amongst piled
stone boundary walls and chortens. E g g s 4 to 6, from white to pale
blue-green, unmarked.
(See also BLUETHROAT,
p. 114.)
12
25. The Indian Robin-Saxicoloides fulicata (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: KalchGri
+.
Size: Sparrow . Field Characters : A sprightly black bird with a
white patch on wing (more conspicuous in flight) and rusty red under
root of cocked tail. Hen ashy brown without the wing-patch. Pairs,
in dry open lightly wooded country. Distribution: The Indian Union;
both Pakistans; Ceylon. Plains and hills up to about 5000 ft. Five
races, on minor differences of size and coloration: brownbacked in
north, blackbacked in Ceylon. Habits: Familiar and confiding.
Frequents stony scrub country around towns and villages, commonly
perching on thatched roofs of huts and entering verandahs to pick
up insects. Hops along the ground, mounting a rock, termite mound
or fencepost and tossing upward the jaunty cocked tail. The male
utters some cheery notes-but no song as such--chiefly during court-
ship display. Food: Insects and their eggs, spiders, etc. Nesting: Sea-
son-April to June; earlier in the south. Nest-a pad of grass,
rootlets and rubbish, lined with feathers or hair, often with bits of
snake slough as adornment. Placed under stone, in hole in earth-
bank or tree-stump, or within a derelict tin can or earthern pot. Eggs-
2 or 3, creamy white, sometimes tinged greenish, speckled and blotched
with ruddy brown. Female alone incubates; male shares other
domestic duties.
26. The Magpie-Robin-Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus)

HINDI NAMES : Daiyar, Daiya
Size: Bulbul. Field Characters: A trim black-and-white bird with

cocked tail as in Indian Robin. Black portions of male replaced by
brown and slaty grey in female. Singly or pairs, about human habi-
tations. Distribution: The Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon;
Burma. Up to about 4000 ft. elevation. Absent in arid areas, e.g.
W. Rajasthan and parts of W. Pakistan. Four races, on minor size
and colour differences. Habits: One of the more familiar birds about
towns and villages. Shy, silent and unobtrusive during non-breeding
season, then skulking in shrubbery and only uttering plaintive swee-ee
and harsh chur-r. Conspicuous during breeding season when male
sings lustily from favourite tree-top or post, chiefly early mornings
and late afternoons. Song punctuated by upward jerks of white-
fringed tail. Also very good mimic of other birds' calls. Breeding
territories jealously guarded, and intruding males defied with puffing-
out, strutting and much show of pugnacity. Food : Insects, chiefly
picked off the ground, and flower nectar as of Salnzalia and Erythrina.
Nesting: Season-India: April to July; earlier in the south. Ceylon:
November to August. Nest-a pad of grass, rootlets, hair, etc., in
hole in old wall, tree-trunk or bough, 5-20 ft. up. Eggs-3-5 pale
blue-green, blotched and mottled with reddish brown. Female in-
cubates ; male shares other domestic chores.
13
27. The Shama-Copsychus malabaricus (Scopoli)
Size: Bulbul; relatively longer tailed. Field Characters: An un-

mistakable cousin of the Magpie-Robin with chestnut underparts
instead of white. A conspicuous white patch above root of black-
and-white graduated tail diagnostic in flight. Black portions of male
replaced by slaty brown in female. Singly, in deep forest. Distribu-
tion: Patchy but general in the forested tracts of the Indian Union
(including Andamans); E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Up to about
3500 ft. elevation. Four races, on comparative tail lengths and
coloration details. Habits: Affects forestclad foothills, where shady
ravines are its favourite haunts. In all respects a forest representative
of the Magpie-Robin with closely similar habits; but shy and retiring
and normally avoids human habitations. Therefore more familiar as
a cage bird than in its wild state, and much prized as a songster.
Has a loud, clear and melodious thrush-like song, rich in notes and
quality. Food: Chiefly insects, picked off the ground or among
bushes. Nesting: Season-principally April to June. Nest-a shallow
cup of rootlets, grass, bamboo leaves, etc., in natural hollows in tree-
trunks or in the tangled base of a bamboo clump. Eggs-3 or 4, very
like the Magpie-Robin's.
28. The Blackbird-Turdus merula Linnaeus
HINDI NAME : Kast Eri
Size: Myna. Field Characters* :A plain grey-brown bird with a black

cap, and orange-yellow ring round eye, legs and bill. Female paler and
more ashy, with brown cap. Singly or loose parties, in foothills
forest. Distribution: Practically all peninsular India south from
Mount Abu and the Vindhyan hills; Ceylon. Five Indian races, and
one Ceylonese, on details of coloration and wing formulae. Habits:
Resident of well-wooded hills to about 5000 ft. elevation, wandering
down into plains during winter. Often seen in groves and jungle in
the neighbourhood of towns and villages. Hops about on the ground
turning over and flicking aside dry leaves in search of insects and
windfallen fruit. Also feeds in trees on drupes and flower nectar.
During winter only utters a sharp, high-pitched kree-ee and throaty
chuck-chuck-chuck. In the breeding season, male has a loud, rich,
melodious song with perfectly mimicked calls of other birds inter-
woven in it. Flight swift and direct without pause in wing beats.
Nesting: Season-May to August. Nest-typical of all blackbirds, a
deep cup of moss, rootlets, etc., copiously intermixed with wet mud,
lined with fern stems and root hairs; in trees usually under 10 ft. up.
Eggs-3 to 5, pale greenish white blotched with ruddy-brown, densely
at broad end.
*These refer chiefly to the Blackcapped Blackbird (T. m. nigropileus).
25. Indian Robin (male & female) 26. Magpie-Robin

27. Shkma 28. Blackcapped Blackbird
14
29. The Whitethroated Ground Thrush-Zoothera citrina (Latham)
HINDI NAME:
Size: Myna. Field Characters: A plump, short-tailed, long-legged

thrush with yellowish brown head, neck and underparts. Rest of
upperparts slaty blue. A large white patch on wing conspicuous in
flight. Throat and sides of head white, banded obliquely with black.
Female has slaty blue portions suffused with olive-green. Singly, on
ground in light forest, flying up silently into branches when disturbed.
Distribution: Two races mainly concern us: the orange-headed north
Indian citrina and the white-throated peninsular cyanotus (illustrated).
The former breeds up to about 5000 ft. along the Himalayas and
spreads out in winter mainly over northern India. The latter is resi-
dent in peninsular India where it moves about a great deal locally,
particularly during the monsoon. Habits: Mainly terrestrial. Affects
forest, both deciduous and evergreen, and partial to overgrown
ravines and nullahs. Digs in the mulch for insects and windfallen
berries. Silent in winter except for the sharp kree-ee typical ~f the
thrushes. Breeding males have a rollicking whistling song of several
rich notes into which imitations of other birds' calls are cleverly
interwoven. Nesting: Season-MaylJune for northern race; June/
July for southern. Nest-a shallow cup of moss, roots and grass
sometimes mixed with a little mud, in a tree 4 to 15 ft. up. Eggs-
3 or 4, pale bluish or creamy white, blotched and freckled with pale
reddish, more densely at the broad end.
30. The Blueheaded Rock Thrush-Monticola cinclorhynchus (Vigors)
HINDI NAME:
Size: Bulbul. Field Characters: Head, chin and throat blue. Upper
parts blue and black; rump and underparts chestnut. A white patch
on wing conspicuous, particularly in flight. Female plain brown
above with barred rump and brown-and-white scaly patterned under-
side. Singly, in light forest. Distribution: In winter more or less
throughout India and W.Pakistan excepting Sind and the Punjab plains;
particularly common in the Western Ghats country. Parts of Burma.
Not Ceylon. Habits: Affects light deciduous and bamboo jungle
(October-April). Also moister localities, but seldom if ever within
dense evergreen forest. Partial to cardamom and coffee plantations
in S. India. When disturbed, flies up silently into an overhanging
branch and sits motionless. Silent in its winter quarters. Breeding
males have a loud, clear and rich though rather monotonous whistling
song. Nesting: Breeds throughout the Himalayas chiefly between
3000 and 6000 ft. Season-April to June. Nest and site similar to
the Blue Rock Thrush's. Sometimes placed under exposed roots
of a tree. Eggs-normally 4, pinkish white, closely stippled with
pale reddish brown, heavily at the larger end.
29. Whitethroated Ground Thrush 30. Blueheaded Rock Thrush
(male) (male)
3 1. Blue Rock Thrush (male) 32. Malabar Whistling Thrush
3 1. The Blue Rock Thrush-Monticola solitarius (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME:
Size : Bul bul. Field Characters : Male bright indigo blue. Female grey-
brown above, whitish below cross-barred with dark brown, and with
a pale wing-bar. Solitary, on boulders, ruins, stone quarries, etc. Dis-
tribution: In winter practically throughout the Indian Union; both
Pakistans ; Ceylon ; Burma. Chiefly the Himalayan breeding race
pandoo. One other race occasionally straggles in just across our
northern borders. Habits: Sedentary. Frequents boulder-strewn hill-
sides, rock scarps, ruins of forts and ancient buildings, and even
occupied dwellings in towns and villages from October to April.
Keeps to the same neighbourhood day after day, and even in successive
seasons. Perches bolt upright, bows jerkily and flirts tail in manner of
Redstart. Sallies down to ground to pick up an insect. If too large
to dispose of on the spot, flies back and whacks it against the perch
before swallowing. Mostly silent, but the male's sweet whistling song
sometimes heard just before the birds depart for their breeding grounds.
In silhouette, during flight and while alighting, may look confusingly
like Brown Rock Chat (Cercomela fusca). Food: Mainly insects;
also berries. Nesting: Season-in Kashmir, Garhwal, etc., the Indian
race pandoo breeds between 6000 and 9000 ft., April to June. Nest-a
rough pad of grass, moss and leaves in holes in cliffs or banks, or
amongst piled stone parapet walls. Eggs-3 to 5, pale blue speckled
with brownish red.
32. The Malabar Whistling Thrush-Myiophoneus horsfieldii (Vigors)
Size: Mynaf ; Pigeon-. Field Characters: A blue-black thrush

with patches of glistening cobalt blue on forehead and shoulders, and
black bill and legs. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs, on rocky hill streams.
The closely related Himalayan form M. c. temminckii, found also in
Assam and Burma, lacks the cobalt shoulder patches and has a
yellow bill. Distribution: Western Ghats, Pachmarhi (Madhya Pra-
desh), Sambalpur (Orissa), Shevaroy Hills. Not Ceylon. Habits: A
denizen of well-wooded rocky hill streams, both near and away from
human habitations. Silent in winter except for a sharp kree-ee uttered
in flight. In breeding season male has a rich and remarkably human
whistling song, rambling aimlessly up and down the scale, whence
the bird gets its popular name of 'Idle Schoolboy'. It is one of the
earliest and latest diurnal bird songs. Food: Chiefly aquatic insects,
snails and crabs. The latter are purposefully battered on the rock to
remove their shells. Nesting: Seasoiz-February to August, varying
with locality. Nest-a large, compact pad of roots and grasses rein-
forced with mud. Placed on a shelf or ledge of precipitous rock
flanking a hill torrent. Eggs-3 or 4, pale buff or greyish stone,
blotched and speckled with greyish brown and lavender. Both sexes
share parental duties.
16
33 . Tickell's Blue Flycatcher-Muscicapa tickelliae (Blyth)
HINDI NAME:
Size: Sparrow?. Field Characters: A blue bird with bright azure

forehead, eyebrows and shoulder-patches. Throat and breast pale
rusty, fading to white on abdomen. Female paler and duller. Singly,
in secondary bush jungle. Distribution: Practically throughout the
Indian Union; East Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Three races differ-
ing mainly in details of coloration : Indian (tickelliae), South Burmese
(sumatrensis), and Ceylonese (jerdoni). Habits: Affects lightly-wooded
deciduous country. Partial to foothills, haunting shady glades and
bamboo-clad ravines. Sits bolt upright on some low twig or liana
stem, flicking its tail, uttering a sharp click-click, and launching short
agile sallies after flies and midges. Song: a pleasing little metallic
trill, constantly uttered, which usually proclaims its presence in a
thicket long before the bird is seen. Food: Flies, gnats and other
dipterous insects. Nesting: Season-March to August, varying with
local conditions. Nest-an untidy cup of twigs, rootlets, moss and
leaves in hollows in tree-stumps or earth-banks, or up in a bamboo
clump at moderate heights. Usually inconspicuous in its surround-
ings. Eggs-3 to 5, pale clay-brown or olive-brown, sprayed all over
with minute reddish brown specks.
(See also REDBREASTED FLYCATCHER, GREYHEADED FLYCATCHER, p. 113,
BLACKNAPED BLUEFLYCATCHER, p. 115.)
34. The Verditer Flycatcher-Muscicapa thalassina Swainson

HINDI NAME:
Size : Sparrow?. Field Characters : Female differs from blue-green

male (illustrated) in being duller and greyer. Singly, in wooded
country, hawking flies from exposed tree-tops. Distribution: Winter:
more o r less over the entire Indian Union (excepting the drier por-
tions of Rajasthan); both Pakistans (excepting Punjab plains and
Sind); Burma. Not Ceylon. Summer (breeding): the Himalayas west
to east, between 4 and 10,000 ft. elevation. The rather similar NILGIRI
VERDITER FLYCATCHER (Muscicapa albicaudata) is resident in the
southwest Indian hills. It is duller coloured: more indigo less green.
Root of tail, vent and abdomen white or whitish. Ceylon has an
allied species, M. sordida, dusky grey-blue with white under tail-
coverts only; no white in tail. Habits: Affects well-wooded country.
Makes agile aerial sallies after dipterous insects and captures them in
mid-air in the typical flycatcher manner. Silent in winter. Breeding
males have a sweet, pleasing jingling song, rather like the White-eye's
but louder. Nesting: Season-in the Himalayas, April to July. Nest-
a thick-sided cup of moss, root hairs, etc., under eaves of a bungalow
or in a hole in walls, embankments or amongst exposed roots of trees.
E g g s 4 , pale pink with darker cap-like ring at broad end. Both
sexes share domestic duties.
35. The Paradise Flycatcber-Terpsiphone paradisi (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES: ShGh bElbiil, DoodhrCj
Size: Bulbul. Field Characters: Adult male silvery white with metallic
black crested head and two long, narrow ribbonlike feathers in tail.
Young male, and female, chestnut above, greyish white below, very
like a bulbul in overall appearance. Young male with chestnut stream-
ers in tail; female without. Singly or pairs, in wooded country.
Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Union; both Pakis-
tans; Ceylon; Burma. Plains and to about 5000 ft. in the Himalayas
and peninsular hills. Resident in some localities, migratory in others.
The two Indian races, paradisi and leucogaster differ in details of size
and coloration. In the Ceylonese race, ceylonensis, the adult male
never acquires the white plumage. Habits: Frequents shady groves
and gardens, often about human habitations, and light deciduous
jungle with bamboo-clad ravines. The agile fairy-like movements
of the male as he twists and turns in the air after flies, with his tail-
ribbons looping or trailing behind, is a spectacle of exquisite charm.
Call: Normally a harsh grating che or che-chwe, supplemented during
breeding season by some pleasanter notes, but no song. Food: Flies,
gnats and other dipterous insects. Nesting: Season-February to
July, varying locally. Nest-a compactly woven cup of fine grasses
and fibres, plastered outside with cobwebs, built in the crotch or
elbow of a twig 6 to 12 ft. up. Eggs-3 to 5, pale creamy pink, speckled
and blotched with reddish brown. Both sexes share parental duties,
but female does thqmajor part.
36. The Whitespotted Fantail Flycatcher-Rhipidura alboguIaris
(Lesson). HINDI NAMES : NEichan, Chakdil
Size: Sparrow%. Field Characters: A cheery, restless smoke-brown
bird with conspicuous white eyebrows, white-spotted breast and
flanks, and whitish abdomen. Its most striking feature is the perky,
cocked and fanned-out tail with wings drooping on either side. Pairs,
in wooded country, shrubbery, gardens, etc. An allied species, the
WHITEBROWED FANTAIL FLYCATCHER (Rhipidura aureola)-with broad
white forehead and white underparts-is common more or less
throughout India, Burma and Ceylon. Distribution: Southern Gujarat
and Maharashtra, and peninsular India in and south of Madhya
Pradesh, up to about 6000 ft. elevation. Two races, on minor colour
differences. Habits: Affects secondary jungle, gardens, groves and
shrubbery even amidst noisy towns. Flits tirelessly in foliage and on
ground, waltzing and pirouetting. Launches graceful aerial looping-
the-loop sallies after flies and gnats. Call: A harsh chuck-chuck.
Also a delightful clear whistling song of several tinkling notes constant-
ly warbled as the bird prances about. Nesting: Season-March to
August. Nest-a beautiful neat cup of fine grasses and fibres, copiously
plastered outside with cobweb, in a crotch or fork of twig usually
under 8 ft. up. Eggs-3, pinkish cream with a ring of minute brown
specks round broad end. Both sexes share domestic duties.
33. Tickell's Blue Flycatcher (male) 34. Verditer Flycatcher (male)
35. Paradise Flycatcher (male & 36. Whitespotted Fantail
female) Flycatcher
18
37. The Grey Shrike-Lanius excubitor Linnaeus
HINDI NAME: Saf Zd latora
Size : Myna %. Field Characters : A silver-grey bird with longish
black-and-white tail. A broad black stripe from bill backward through
eye. Black wing quills with a white patch or "mirror" conspicuous
in flight. Heavy, hooked hawk-like bill. Sexes alike. Singly, on
bush-tops in dry open country. Distribution: The dry and semi-
desert portions of India, West Pakistan and from the foot of the
Himalayas south to Belgaum, east to Calcutta. Not Eastern Ghats,
Assam, E. Pakistan, Ceylon or Burma. The race chiefly concerned is
the Indian lalttora. Habits: Inhabits semi-desert and dry cultivation
interspersed with patches of thorny scrub and waste land. Frorn
exposed perch on bush-top, swoops to ground to carry off locusts,
lizards, mice, etc. Prey held under foot and torn to pieces with hooked
bill before devouring. When disturbed, drops from perch and flies
flat along ground shooting up at end to another bush-top 50 yards
away. Call: Harsh grating notes; breeding males have a pleasing
tinkling song. A good mimic of other birds' calls. Shrikes are known
as Butcher Birds from their habit of killing more than needed im-
inediately for food, and storing the surplus impaled on thorns. Nest-
ing: Season-January to October, chiefly MarchIApril. Nest-a deep
cup of thorny twigs, with grass, rags, wool or feathers as lining, in
thorny trees between 4 and 12 ft. up. Eggs-3 to 6, variable, mostly
pale greenish white blotched and spotted with purplish brown, especi-
zlly at broad end.
38. The Baybacked Shrike-Lanius vittatus Valenciennes
HINDI NAMES : Chhota latora, Pachanak
Size: Bulbul?. Field Characters: The smallest Indian shrike. Hook-
tipped bill, grey and white head with broad black band across fare-
head and backward through the eyes; chestnut-maroon back; white
underparts. Black-and-white graduated tail; whitish rump; white
"mirrors" on black wing quills. Sexes alike. Singly, in dry, thinly-
wooded country, babool jungle, and cultivation. Distribution: West
Pakistan and practically the entire Indian Union (excepting Assam)
from the Himalayan foothills to Cape Comorin. East to West Bengal.
Not E. Pakistan, Ceylon or Burma. No races. Habits: Very similar
to those of the Grey Shrike. Avoids pure desert areas as well as
humid forest. Normally utters harsh churring notes, but in breeding
season male has pleasant warbling song in which imitations of other
birds' calls are freely intermingled. Food: Locusts and other large
insects, lizards, etc. Nesting: Season-April to September, chiefly
JuneIJuly. Nest-a neat compact cup of grass, rags, wool and feathers
bound outside with cobwebs. In fork of small tree or in hedge at
moderate height. Eggs-smaller replicas of the Grey Shrike's with
the same range of variations.
37. Grey Shrike 38. Baybacked Shrike ,
39. Rufousbacked Shrike 40. Common \Vood Shrike
19
39. The Rufousbacked Shrike-Lanius schach Linnaeus
HINDI NAMES: Malitya latora, Kagala latora
Size: Bulbul?; Myna-. Field Characters: Forehead and a band

through the eyes black. Head grey. Lower back and rump bright
rufous. Underparts washed with rufous. Typical stout hooked bill.
Sexes alike. Singly, in open lightly-wooded and scrub country.
tans; Ceylon; Burma. Up to about 8000 ft. in the Himalayas.
Seasonal visitor in some parts. Four races, on details of size and
coloration. Habits: General habits and behaviour typical, but affects
less arid country than the two foregoing species. Call: Harsh, scolding
notes. In breeding season a pretty rambling song of considerable
duration uttered in nature of soliloquy. A very accomplished mimic
of calls and noises heard in its habitat, quick at learning them and
with a retentive memory. Harsh squeals of a frog caught by snake,
yelps of newly born puppy, tame grey partridge's call prefaced by its
human owner's whistles, and calls of numerous birds, even long after
many have migrated, are imitated to perfection. Food: Grasshoppers
and large insects, lizards, young mice, etc. Nesting: Season-Feb-
ruary to July, locally variable. Nest-deep compact cup of twigs,
grass, wool, rags, etc., in fork of branch of small tree usually under
15 ft. Eggs-3 to 6, somewhat smaller than Grey Shrike's, but more
or less identical with them in colour and markings.
40. The Common Wood Shrike-Tephrodornis pondicerianus

(Gmelin)
HINDI NAME : Tarti tuiya
Size: Bulbul?. Field Characters: A plain greyish brown bird with

a dark stripe below the eye and a distinct whitish supercilium. Hook-
tipped shrike bill; short square tail. Sexes alike. Pairs or parties, in
light jungle. Distribution: Practically the entire Indian Union south
of the Himalayan foothills; both Pakistans; Ceylon, Burma. Three
races, chiefly on depth of coloration. Habits: Affects scrub-and-bush
country and light deciduous forest. Commonly seen in gardens,
among roadside trees and in groves of babool, neem, etc., around
cultivation and villages. Parties hunt amongst foliage often in mixed
company of other small birds, and follow one another gliding from
tree to tree, calling in rich liquid whistling notes-weet-weet followed
by a quick interrogative whi-whi-whi-whi? Food: Moths, beetles, cater-
pillars, etc., captured in trees; occasionally in the air like a flycatcher.
Seldom on ground as in true shrikes. Nesting: Season-between
February and September, mainly MarchIApril. Nest-a neat cup of
soft bark and fibres cemented together and draped exteriorly with
cobwebs and spiders' egg cases, in fork of leafless saplings normally
under 20 ft. Eggs-3, pale greenish grey, speckled with purple-brown
more densely at broad end to form a ring. Both sexes share parental
duties.
20
41. The Scarlet Minivet-Pericrocotus jlammeus (Forster)
HINDI NAME: Pahiiri blild chashm
Size: Bulbul-. Field Characters: Adult male glistening black and

orange-red to deep scarlet. Female and young male grey and olive
yellow above, yellow below with two yellow bars in the black wings.
Flocks, in foliage canopy of trees. Distribution: Practically the entire
Indian Union up to about 6000 ft. in the Himalayas; E. Pakistan;
Ceylon; Burma. Not West Pakistan. Five races within these limits.
The slightly smaller, SHORTBILLED MINIVET(P. brevirostris), with
more black in the tail and no scarlet spots on the secondaries but
only a scarlet wing bar, breeds in the Himalayas and spreads out over
the north Indian plains during winter.
Habits: Exclusively arboreal. In winter flocks of 30 or more. Affects
well-wooded country and evergreen forest. Flits restlessly amongst
foliage, hovering and fluttering in front of sprigs to stampede lurking
insects, and following one another from tree-top to tree-top.
Food: Insects and their larvae; sometimes captured in air like flycat-
cher. Call: A pleasant whistling whee-tweet or wlririri, whiriri, etc.,
uttered in flight as well as from perch. Nesting: Season-principally
April to July. Nest-a neat cup of rootlets and bast fibres bound
with cobwebs and bedecked with bark, moss and lichens. Secured
on upper surface of a horizontal branch, 10 to 40 ft. up. Eggs-2 to 4
pale seagreen, spotted and blotched with dark brown and lavender.
42. The Small Minivet-Pericrocotus cinnnmomeus (Linnaeus)

HINDI NAMES: Bid61 chashm, SahZli
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: Adult male chiefly black, grey

and orange-crimson. Female and young male with no black in head
and with yellow largely replacing the red. Flocks, in foliage canopy
of trees. Distribution: Throughout the Tndian Union; both Pakistans;
Ceylon; Burma. Plains and lower hills. Six races, on shades of
coloration.
The WHITEBELLIED MINIVET(P. erythropygius) of about the same
size, has a wide distribution in Kutch, Rajasthan and the drier
portions of the Peninsula. Largely black above, white below, with
only the rump orange-red.
Habits: Exclusively arboreal. Affects gardens, groves and light
deciduous jungle in flocks, particularly large in winter when also
the sexes tend to keep segregated. Food and feeding habits similar to
those of the Scarlet Minivet. Call: A feeble, musical swee-swee
uttered both whilst hunting and on the wing. Nesting: Season-
between February and September, varying locally. Nest-a pretty
little shallow cup of fibres etc., coated exteriorly with cobweb
and lichens. Attached to upper surface of branch, often high up.
Eggs-3, pale greenish white or creamy buff stippled with reddish
brown, more densely and in a ring round the broad end. Both sexes
21
43. The Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike-Coraci~la melanoptera (Riippell)
HINDI NAME : Jangli kasya
Size: Bulbul+. Field Characters: Male: ashy grey with black head'
wings and tail, and whitish underparts. Female: head grey; under-
parts barred black and white. Pairs, in open, lightly-wooded country.
Distribution: India south and east of a line from Mount Abu through
Sambhar (in Rajasthan) to Kangra in East Punjab. Also parts of
Assam, East Pakistan, and Ceylon. Plains and up to about 4000
ft. elevation. Two races. Habits: Usually seen in pairs; commonly
in association with the itinerant mixed hunting parties of insectivorous
birds. Partial to mango, neem, tamarind and other leafy trees growing
near villages. Food: Chiefly insects, but also berries such as lantana.
Method of capturing insects similar to the minivets'. Normally silent.
In breeding season male delivers a pretty, clear, whistling song of
several notes ending in a quick-repeated pit-pit-pit. Nesting: Season
-overall March to August; earlier in Ceylon than in the Deccan.
Nest-a shallow cup of twigs and rootlets bound together with cobweb;
secured on upper surface of bough, usually under 15 ft. Eggs-2 or
3, greenish white with longitudinal blotches of brown.
44. The Large Cuckoo-Shrike-Coracina novnehollandiae (Gmelin)

HINDI NAME: Kasya
Size: Pigeon-; slimmer. Field Characters: A rather thick-set grey

bird, whitish from breast down and with a broad dark eye-streak.
Wings and tail black. Eyestreak less prominent in female and her
underparts barred grey and white. Pairs, in foliage canopy, in wooded
country. Distribution: The entire Indian Union (excepting East
Punjab and Rajasthan) from about 4000 ft. in the Himalayas; East
Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Not West Pakistan. Four races. Habits:
Arboreal. Affects deciduous forest as well as secondary evergreen
jungle, plains and hills alike. Partial to groves of trees about villages
and cultivation, and to orchards and forest plantations. Pairs or
family parties fly from tree-top to tree-top in irregular follow-my-
leader fashion uttering their distinctive shrill but pleasant double-
noted call ti-eee from time to time. Food: Large insects captured in
the foliage, as well as berries and banyan, peepal and other wild figs.
Nesting: Season-mainly May to October. Nest-a shallow cup of
fine twigs bound together with cobweb and sparsely draped exteriorly
with lichen and pieces of bark. Placed in fork of outhanging branch
up in tall trees. Eggs-3, pale green with scanty blotches of dark
brown and purple.
41. Scarlet Minivet (male and female) 42. Small Minivet(male& female)
43. Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike 44. Large Cuckoo-Shrike (male
(male & head of female) and head of female)
22
Plate 12
45. The Ashy Swallow-Shrike-Artamus frrscrrs Vieillot
Size: Bulbult. Field Characters: A rather dumpy but sleek slaty

grey bird with paler underparts and a pale rump. When perched, the
closed wings reach the end of the tail. Heavy, bluish, sparrow-like
bill. Sexes alike. In flight very like swallow or crag martin, but
heavier in build. Parties, huddled together on bare branches or
telegraph wires in open country, or hawking winged insects in graceful
sailing flight. Distribution: India east and south of a line from Simla
to Godhra (Gujarat); East Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Plains and
hills to 5000 ft. Patchy, and locally migratory. Habits: Affects open
country particularly where dotted with palrnyra palms or tall dead
trees to serve as look-out posts and foraging bases. While perched,
tail constantly moved up and down slowly and twisted sideways.
Food: Moths, butterflies and winged insects, hawked in the manner
of bee-eaters, the birds sailing gracefully back to their perch after
each capture, accelerated by intermittent series of rapid beats of the
pointed wings. Call: A harsh, shrike-like chek-chek-chek. Nesting:
Season-April to June. Nest-a loosely built cup of grass, roots
and fibres up on a horizontal bough or at the base of leaf stalks in a
palm tree. Eggs-2 or 3, greenish white, spotted with light brown,
chiefly at the broad end.
46. The Black Drongo or King Crow-Dicrurus adsirnilis (Bechstein)
HINDI NAMES: Biijanga, Kotwiil, Kcilkalachi
Size: Bulbult. Field Characters: A slim and agile glossy black

bird with long, deeply forked tail. Sexes alike. Singly, on the open
countryside and about cultivation. Distribution: Throughout the
Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Four races, on
size differences in wing, tail, and bill. Habits: A familiar bird of open
country, usually perched on telegraph wires, or attending on grazing
cattle. From exposed lookouts it keeps vigilant watch for grasshop-
pers and other insects. These are pounced upon and carried off,
held under foot, torn to pieces and swallowed. It rides on the backs
of grazing cattle and takes toll of the insects disturbed by the animals'
movements through the grass. Forest fires or fired grass patches
invariably attract numbers of drongos far the same reason. Highly
beneficial to agriculture by the vast quantities of injurious insects it
destroys. A variety of harsh scolding or challenging calls are uttered,
some closely resembling those of the Shikra hawk. Food: Insects.
Flower nectar also regularly eaten. Nesting: Season-principally April
to August. Nest-a flimsy-bottomed cup of fine twigs and fibres
cemented with cobweb. In fork at extremity of branch 12 to 230
ft. up in large trees preferably standing alone in the open. Eggs-
3 to 5 variable; mostly whitish with brownish red spots. Both sexes
share domestic duties and are bold in defence of their nest.
45. Ashy Swallow-Shrike 46. Black Drongo
47. Whitebellied Drongo 48. Racket-tailed Drongo
37. The W-hitebellied Drongce-Dicrurus caerulescens (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : Pahifri biijanga, Dhapri
Size: Bulbuli. Field Characters: Glossy indigo above, with white

belly and under tail-coverts. Long, deeply forked tail. Sexes alike.
Singly, in lightly-wooded country. Distribution: Practically all India
south of a line roughly from Kutch to Garhwal, and as far east as
Western Bengal and Bihar; Ceylon. Plains and hills; to about
6000 ft. in the Himalayas. Three races, on size and details of colo-
ration. Habits: Affects well-wooded deciduous tracts; avoids tree-
less country as well as humid forest. Partial to bamboo and thin
tree jungle, and here to shady paths and glades. Makes graceful,
agile swoops after winged insects, turning and twisting dextrously
in the air and snapping up the quarry in its stride. Often seen as a
member of the mixed hunting parties of birds that rove the forest.
Food: Chiefly insects; also nectar of Butea, Salmalia and Erythrina
flowers. Call: Of 3 or 4 pretty whistling notes. An excellent mimic.
Nesting: Season-March to June. Nest and Eggs not appreciably
different from those of Black Drongo. The nest site, however, is
usually in deciduous forest.
48. The Racket-tailed Drongo-Dicrurus paradiseus (Linnaeus)
Size: Myna. Field Characters: A glossy black drongo with promi-

nently tufted forehead and two long wirelike spatula-tipped feathers
or 'streamers' in the tail. In flight the broadened tips sometimes give
the illusion of the bird being pursued by a pair of large bumble bees!
Sexes alike. Singly or loose parties, in forest. Distribution: Patchy,
more or less throughout India south of the Himalayas east of about
Mussooree; E. Pakistan ; Ceylon ; Burma ; Andamans & Nicobars.
Eight geographical races within this area, on comparative sizes of
wing, tail, crest and bill. Habits : Inhabits forest, preferably moist
deciduous, plains and hills. In the Himalayas to 6000 ft. Teak and
bamboo jungle in broken foothills country is its typical habitat.
Commonly seen in hunting parties associated with tree pies and
jungle babblers. Very noisy; has a large repertoire of loud metallic
calls and is a convincing mimic besides. Its mimicry often confounds
the observer into imagining birds which are not there! Makes amusing
pet and is much sought after by fanciers. Food: Moths and large
insects; also flower nectar. Nesting: Season-chiefly March to June,
with considerable local variations. Nest-a deep flimsy cup of fine
twigs, rootlets and fibres bound together and secured to the site with
cobweb. Built in the end fork of a branch, 15-50 ft. up, in forest.
Eggs-3 or 4, mostly creamy white blotched and speckled with reddish
brown.
49. The Tailor Bird-Orrhotomus sutorius (Pennant)
HINDI NAMET : Darzi, Phiitki
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A small restless olive-green bird

with whitish underparts, a rust coloured crown and two elongated pin-
pointed feathers in the tail (more developed in breeding male) which
is carried jauntily cocked. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs, in shrubbery.
Distribution: The entire Indian Union up to about 5000 ft. in the
Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Five races cover this
area. Habits: Familiar and confiding. Equally at home in outlying
scrub jungle or in gardens and shrubbery within a bustling town.
Fearlessly enters verandahs of occupied bungalows, hopping, amongst
the trellised creepers and potted plants within a few feet of the inmates.
Call: A loud cheerful towit-towit-towit or pretty-pretty-prettjl etc.
Food: Tiny insects, their eggs and grubs; flower nectar of Salmalia,
Erythrina and other trees. Nesting: Season-April to September,
varying locally. Nest-a rough cup of soft fibres, cotton wool and
vegetable down placed in a funnel fashioned by cleverly folding over
and stitching along edges one or more large pliant leaves. Usually
under 3 ft. up. Eggs-3 or 4, reddish or bluish white, spotted with
brownish red. Both sexes share domestic duties, but evidently female
alone incubates.
(See also LESSERWHITETHROAT, p. 115, ORPHEAN WARBLER, p. 1 16.)
50. The Streaked Fantail Warbler-Cisticola jultcidis (Rafinesque)

HINDI NAME: Ghas ki phiitki
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A tiny bird, dark-streaked

f u l ~ ~ brown
us above, whitish below, with a short white-tipped tail
constantly flicked open like a fan. Singly, or several loosely together,
among tall grass and reeds. Distribution: Throughout the Indian
Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Plains and up to about
5000 ft. Three races, on size and details of coloration. Habits:
Affects open grassland, reedbeds bordering a marsh, and standing
cereal crops. Moves about locally with seasonal conditions. When
flushed, flies a short distance and dives into the grass again. The
curious mounting zigzag flight in which the fan-shaped tail is con-
spicuous, and the sharp chi~)..chip. .chip accompanying it, announce
its presence in any locality. These irregular wavy aerial zigzags of
the male, 50 or 100 feet above the nest-site are a colnmon feature
in the breeding season. At each successive dip in the undulating
flight, every second or so, the bird utters a single chip remarkably like
the distant snip of a barber's scissors. Food: Small insects and cater-
pillars. Nesting: Season--coincident with the monsoon, varying in
different parts of its range, but chiefly June to September. Nest-a
deep oblong pouch of grasses with its mouth at the top, lined with
vegetable down and secured to blades of grass with cobweb. Usually
under 2 ft. from ground. Eggs-3 to 5, pale bluish white, speckled
with red and purple.
51. The Ashy Wren-Warbler-Prinia socialis Sykes
HINDI NAME: Phiitki
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: Ashy slate above, fulvous white
below. The loose, longish, graduated, black-and-white-tipped tail is
carried partially erect and constantly shaken up and down. Sexes
alike. Winter plumage less slaty, more brown, than summer. Pairs,
in gardens and well-watered scrub country. Distribution: The Indian
Union; East Pakistan; Ceylon. Up to 4000 ft. in the Himalayas
and 7000 in south Lndia. Four races, on details of size and coloration.
Habits: Frequents shrubbery in gardens, reeds bordering streams,
and moist grassland and scrub. Hops about quietly amongst bushes,
shaking its tail loosely up and down and uttering a sharp tee-tee-tee
from time to time. During the breeding season males warble excitedly
from exposed perches. When suddenly disturbed off its nest,
this warbler and several others of its near cousins, emit a peculiar
kit-kit-kit as of electric sparks. Whether this is produced by snapping
the bill or in some other way is controversial. Food: Insects. Nesting:
Season-March to September, mainly after onset of monsoon. Nest
-of two types (I) like Tailor Bird's, in a funnel of stitched leaves,
(2) an oblong purse of woven fibres tacked and bound with cobweb
to the supporting leaves of a low bush. Eggs-3 to 4, glossy brick red
with a dark ring round broad end. Incubation takes 12 days. Both
52. The Indian Wren-Warbler-Prinia subflava (Gmelin)
HINDI NAME: Phiitki
Size: Sparrow-. Same as last. Field Characters: Like the last but
rufous earthy brown above without terminal spots to tail.
Winter plumage more fulvous and longer-tailed. Sexes alike. Pairs
in open scrub-and-grass country. Distribution: The Indian Union
south of the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Five races,
mainly on details of coloration.
Two other commonly seen wren-warblers are: (1) FRANKLIN'S-
Prinia hodgsonii, and (2) RUFOUSFRONTED-P. buchanani. In winter (1)
can be confused with Ashy Wren-Warbler, but is more gregarious.
Summer plumage dusky grey with rust-brown wings. Underparts
whitish with a broad diffuse ashy band across breast. Habitat: Deci-
duous grass and secondary scrub jungle, (2) distinguishable from
Indian Wren-Warbler by its rusty crown and white tips to tail
feathers. Habitat : Arid semi-desert.
Habits: Affects somewhat drier habitats than Ashy Wren-Warbler;
otherwise not appreciably different. Nesting: Season-March to Sep-
tember, chiefly SW. monsoon. Nest-a longish pear-shaped pouch of
woven grass strips, open or with lateral entrance hole near top. Slung
between upright weed stems usually under 2 ft. Eggs-3 to 5, glossy
greenish blue, speckled, blotched and pencilled with reddish brown.
49. Tailor Bird 50. Streaked Fantail Warbler
5 1. Ashy Wren-Warbler 52. Indian Wren-Warbler
26
Plate 14
53. The Golden Oriole-Oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: Peelak
Size: Myna. Field Characters: Bright golden yellow with black in

wings and tail, and a conspicuous black streak through the eye. Female
duller and greener. Singly or pairs, among leafy trees in wooded
country. Distribution: Practically all the Indian Union excepting
Assam, up to about 5000 ft. in the Himalayas; West Pakistan. Occa-
sionally Ceylon. Not E. Pakistan, or Burma. Resident in some areas,
local migrant in others. Our only Indian race kundoo differs from the
European chiefly in that its black eye-streak extends behind the eye.
Habits: Arboreal. A dweller of open but well-wooded country,
partial to groves of large trees around villages and cultivation, and in
gardens and along roadsides even in noisy towns. Has strong dipping
flight. Call: A harsh cheeah and clear fluty whistles something like
peelolo. Food: Insects, banyan and peepal figs and other fruits and
berries. Also flower nectar. Nesting: Season-April to July. Nest-
a beautifully woven deep cup of grass and bast fibres bound with
cobweb, suspended hammockwise in fork of leafy twig 12 to 30 ft. up.
Eggs-2 or 3, white, spotted with black or reddish brown. Both
54. The Blackheaded Oriole-Oriolus xanthorr~us(Linnaeus)

HINDI NAME: Peelak
Size: Myna. Field Characters: Brilliant golden yellow, with jet black
head, throat and upper breast. Black in wings and tail. Bright pink
bill; crimson eyes. Sexes alike, but black of head duller in female.
Young birds have yellow forehead and the black head streaked with
yellowish. Singly or pairs, among leafy trees in wooded country.
Distribution: All India east of a line from Saurashtra through Mount
Abu to the Sutlej River, up to 4000 ft. in the Himalayas; East Pakis-
tan ; Ceylon ; Burma. Partial local migrant. Three races, differing in
size and details of coloration. Habits: Arboreal. Not appreciably
different from the Golden Oriole's. Liquid flute-like calls also very
similar. A harsh nasal kwaak, commonly heard, and other harsh
notes mistakable for a tree pie's. Food: Insects, fruits and berries, and
.flower nectar. Nesting: Season-April to July. In Ceylon October
to May. Nest-li ke the Golden Oriole's. Eggs-somewhat smaller :
more pinkish, less glossy. Orioles of both species, and such other
mild-mannered birds as doves and babblers often build in the same
tree as holds a nest of the Black Drongo presumably on account of
the protection afforded against marauders by that bold and pugna-
cious species.
53. Golden Oriole 54. Blackheaded Oriole

55. Grackle or Hill Myna 56. Rosy Pastor
27
55. The Grackle or Hill Myna-Gracula religiosa Linnaeus
HINDI NAME: Pahari myna
Size: Myna+. Field Characters: A glossy jet black myna with a

conspicuous white patch on the wings, yellow bill and legs, and bright
orange-yellow patches of naked skin and wattles on the head. Sexes
alike. Pairs or noisy flocks, in hill forest. Distribution: Restricted and
patchy. In India proper in three distinct areas: (1) Himalayan foot-
hills to about 2500 ft. elevation from Almora to Assam, (2) Chota
Nagpur, Orissa and SE. Madhya Pradesh. (3) T11e Western Ghats
north to about Bombay. Also the Andamans, Ceylon, and Tenasserim
(South Burma). Five races, mainly on overall size and differences in
arrangement of head wattles. Habits: Arboreal. Pairs or noisy
flocks in well-wooded country feeding on the various wild figs in
company with green pigeons, hornbills and other fruit-eating birds.
Has habit of settling on bare tops of dead trees in forest clearings
a t sunset and uttering its loud, sharp, creaky shrieks. In flight the
wings produce a metallic whirring noise, as in green pigeons. An
accomplished mimic and talker, and much prized as a cage bird.
Nesting: Season-March to October. Nest-a collection of grass,
leaves, feathers, etc., stuffed into natural hollows in lofty tree-trunks
in forest, usually 30 to 70 ft. up. Eggs-2 or 3, deep blue sparsely
spotted and blotched with reddish brown or chocolate.
56. The Rosy Pastor or Rosecoloured Starling-Sturnus roseus
(Linnaeus)
HINDI'NAME : Tilyer
Size: Myna. Field Characters: A rose-pink myna-like bird with glis-
tening black head, neck and upper breast, wings, and tail. A long,
recumbent, pointed crest on crown and nape, sometimes erected.
Sexes alike. Young birds and adults in winter plumage (non-breeding)
duller and browner. Flocks, about cultivation. Distribution: In winter
all India. Abundant in the northwestern portions and Deccan, dimi-
nishing markedly towards its eastern limit in Bengal, and in South
India; West Pakistan. Visits Ceylon irregularly and sparingly.
Habits: One of our earliest winter visitors. Begins arriving July-
August, departs by mid-April. Small flocks or 'clouds' of up to 500
or more individuals, keep in the vicinity of cultivation, particularly
iowari, and do considerable damage to ripening grain crops. They
destroy locusts on a large scale and to that extent are beneficial to
agriculture. Banyan and peepal figs, lantana, peeloo (Salvadora)
and other berries are eaten, as also nectar of sima\ flowers (Salmalia).
The birds do useful service in cross-pollinating these. Males have a
chattering, warbling song of harsh as well as pleasant notes uttered
chiefly when satiated and resting in a shady tree during the mid-day
heat. Nesting: Breeds in eastern Europe, western and central Asia
on stony hillsides and amongst ruins, in May and June. The breeding
grounds overlap those of the migratory locust whose hoppers and
other stages provide the staple food of hordes of Rosy Pastors and
their young from the time the latter hatch out.
28
57. The Greyheaded Myna-Sturnus malabaricus (Gmelin)
WNDr NAME: Paw6i
Size: Myna-. Field Characters: A small, trim myna, brownish

silvery grey above rusty brown below, with blackish wing quills.
Sexes alike. Flocks in thinly-wooded country. Distribution: Through-
out India east and south of a line from Mount Abu to Dehra Dun.
Assam; E. Pakistan; Burma. Not Ceylon. Subject to considerable
seasonal local migration. The three races that concern us mostly are:
(1) the greyheaded malabaricus (all India-Assam), (2) the white-
headed blythii (Kerala), (3) the whitewinged nemoricola (Burma).
Habits : Largely arboreal. Inhabits open, thinly-forested country
and the neighbourhood of teak plantations and forest cultivation,
both near and away from human habitations. Flight swift, direct,
typically starling. Food: B6r, lantana, and other berries, banyan and
peepal figs, nectar of Salmalia and other flowers, and insects. While
feeding, keeps up incessant squabbling and chatter varied by some
pleasant musical notes. Nesting: Season-March to June, varying
locally. Nest-a collection of twigs, rootlets and grass in an old
barbet or woodpecker hole in tree-trunks, 10 to 40 ft. up. Eggs-3 to
5, pale blue, unmarked. Both sexes share domestic duties, but female
alone believed to incubate.
58. The Brahminy or Blackheaded Myna-Sturnus pagodarum

(Gmelin)
HINDI NAME : Bcimani myna
Size: Myna-. Field Characters : A typical myna, grey above reddish

fawn below, with glossy black crown and long recumbent crest, and
black wing quills. Tail brown with white ending at tip conspicuous
when spread out in alighting. Sexes alike. Young birds have crestless
sooty brown head, and dull general coloration. Small flocks, in thinly-
wooded country. Distribution: Practically all India east to Bengal,
excepting the most arid and also humid evergreen parts. Commonly
up to 4000 ft. in the Himalayas in summer. Mainly resident, but
also partial local migrant. W. Pakistan (Karachi environs); Ceylon
(coastal dry zone). Habits: Less arboreal than the Greyheaded Myna.
Freely enters gardens, and towns and villages. Partial to moist grass-
land, and frequently in attendance on grazing cattle, capturing the
insects disturbed. Food: Chiefly berries, wild figs and insects, but
is largely omnivorous. Has several merry creaking or chattering
notes. A pleasing little song, in the nature of a soliloquy, is uttered
in the breeding season. Nesting: Season-May to July. Nest-a
pad of grass, rags, etc., in a hollow in a tree or ruined wall, often
even in that of an inhabited house. Eggs-3 or 4, pale blue, unmarked.
Both sexes share domestic duties.
(See also JUNGLE MYNA,p. 116, and PIED Myna, p. 117.)

59. The Common Myna-Acridotheres rristis (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: DZsi myna
Size : Bulbul+ . Pigeon -( =9 inches). Field Characters: A familiar
perky, well-groomed dark brown bird with bright yellow bill, legs, and
bare skin round eyes. A large white patch in wing conspicuous in flight.
Sexes alike. Pairs or parties, about human habitations and on country-
side. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union up to 9000 ft. in the
Himalayas in summer; both Pakistans ; Ceylon ; Burma. Ceylon birds
(melanosternus) are darker than the Indian tristis. Habits: A confirmed
associate of man, following wherever he opens up new habitations.
Omnivorous. Eats fruits, insects, kitchen scraps. Follows the plough
for earthworms etc., and attends on grazing cattle for the grasshoppers
disturbed, side-hopping jauntily, and springing up in the air to capture
them. Has a variety of sharp calls and chatter: a loud, scolding radio-
rcdio-rtidio, and keek-keek-keek, kok-kok-kok, chur-chur, etc., uttered
with the plumage frowzled and a ludicrous bobbing of the head. Nest-
ing: Season-April to August. Nest-a collection of twigs, roots, paper
and rubbish in a hole in a tree, wall or ceiling. Eggs-4 or 5, glossy blue.
Two broods often raised in succession. Both sexes share domestic
duties.
60. The Bank Myna-Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham)

HINDI NAME: Ganga myna
Size: Myna-. Field Characters: Similar to the Common Myna, but

pale bluish grey instead of brown. Naked skin round eyes brick-red
instead of yellow. Sexes alike. Flocks, in open country and human
habitations. Distribution: Sind in W. Pakistan, and the greater part of
northern India, east to E. Pakistan, south to about the latitude of
Bombay. Partial local migrant. Habits: Similar to those of the
Common Myna. Railway stations are particularly favoured. Saunters
along confidingly on platforms, in and out of the passengers' feet and
baggage, picking up bits of food. Haunts municipal refuse dumps
for scraps and titbits, and attends on grazing cattle for insects. Voice
somewhat softer than Common Myna's. Nesting: Season-May to
August. Nest-a pad of grass and rubbish stuffed in weepholes of
revetments of bridges or in self-excavated tunnels in earth cuttings;
often in colonies. Eggs-3 to 5, glossy pale blue.
57. Greyheaded Myna 58. Brahminy Myna

59. Common Myna 60. Bank Myna
Plate 15
61. The Common Weaver Bird-Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: Baya
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: Female, and male in non-breeding

plumage, rather like the hen House Sparrow: dark-streaked fulvous
brown above, plain whitish fulvous below. Stout conical bill; short
square-cut tail. Flocks, about open cultivation. Distribution :Through-
out the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Resident and
locally migratory. Three races, on size and details of coloration.
Habits: Flocks, sometimes of considerable size, glean paddy and other
grain in harvested fields. Occasionally damages ripening crops.
Roosts in enormous numbers in reedbeds bordering tanks etc. Its
seasonal local movements are largely governed by paddy and cereal
cultivation which provide both nesting material and food. Also eats
insects. Call: A sparrowlike chit-chit-chit. In breeding season males
follow these up by a longdrawn joyous chee-ee uttered in chorus,
accompanied by flapping of wings in unison while weaving their nests
in a colony. Nesting: Season-May to September, coincident with
the SW. monsoon and paddy cultivation. Nest-a swinging retort-
shaped structure with long vertical entrance tube, compactly woven
out of strips of paddy leaf and rough-edged grasses, suspended in
clusters from twigs usually over water. Blobs of mud, collected
when wet, are stuck inside the dome near the egg-chamber. Eggs-2
to 4 pure white. Male alone builds; female alone incubates. Each
male has several nests and females at the same time.
62. The Striated Weaver Bird-Ploceus manyar (Horsfield)
HINDI NAME: Biirnani baya
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: Differs from the Baya in having the
breast fulvous, boldly streaked with black in both sexes and at all
seasons. Crown of head in breeding males yellow; in females and
non-breeding males brown. Flocks, in swampy tall reed-beds. Distri-
bution: Patchily more or less througl~out the Indian Union; both
Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Two races, on details of coloration.
Habits: Similar to the Baya's, except that it is more partial to tall
coarse grassland and swampy reedy tank margins. In addition to the
normal chit-chit-chit, the breeding male has a pretty song: tililili, tililee-
kifi-tilileekiti, etc., uttered in courtship chase and in invitation
to a female to an available nest. Nesting: Season-February to Sep-
tember, varying with local conditions. Nest-similar to the Baya's
but not so pendulous. Usually also smaller and with shorter entrance
tube. Attached directly to tips of several arching bulrush (Typha) or
grass
- blades. Small colonies in marshy reed-beds. Eggs-2 to 4, pure
white.
(See also BLACKBREASTED WEAVERB ~ D p. , 118.)
61. Common Baya (breeding male 62. Striated Baya (breeding male
and female) and female)
63. Whitebacked Munia 61.Whitethroated Munia
63. The Whitebacked Munia-Lorichura striata (Linnaeus)
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A small black and white finch

with heavy bluish conical bill and wedge-shaped tail. White rump and
white abdomen co~lspicuousin flight. Sexes alike. Parties, in open
cultivated country. Distribution: The greater part of peninsular India
and a wide sub-Himalayan belt east of Garhwal; Bengal; East
Pakistan ; Assam; Ceylon ; Burma; Andamans & Nicobars. Six races,
chiefly on details of coloration. Habits: Goes about in family parties
of 6 or 7 or larger flocks. Feeds on grass seeds etc., on the ground
or off the feathery tufts or ears, in and around cultivation. Utters
feeble chirruping notes. The flocks fly in a disorderly undulating
rabble. Nesting: Season-practically all year, varying locally. Nest
-large, untidy, globular, of feathery flowering grasses with a lateral
entrance hole, sometimes like a short tube or tunnel. In low dense
bushes, 5 to 10 ft. up. Eggs-5 or 6, pure white. Both sexes share
domestic duties. The nests are used as dormitories by the family till
long after the young have flown.
64. The Whitethroated Munia-Lonchura malabarica (Linnaeus)

HINDI NAMES: Charchara, Sar munia
Size: Sparrow-; same as above. Field Characters: A plain earthy
brown, thick-billed little finch with pointed black tail, white upper
tail-coverts and whitish underparts. Sexes alike. Parties or flocks, in
dry open scrub country. Distribution: The drier parts of all India (to
about 6000 ft. elevation in the Himalayas) and Ceylon; West Pakistan.
Not East Pakistan, Assam or Burma. Habits: Inhabits dry, open,
cultivated as well as sparse scrub-and-bush country, and avoids the
more humid tracts. Its food, call notes and general behaviour do not
differ appreciably from those of other munias. Nesting: Season-
practically all year, varying locally. Nest-a large globular structure
of coarse grasses, lined with softer flowering grass. In cotton-growing
districts, cotton wool filched from neighbouring fields is largely
employed. Old Baya nests are also habitually utilised for laying in.
E g g s 4 to 6 pure white. Both sexes share domestic duties. Disused
nests serve as family dormitories.
65. The Spotted Munia-Lonchura punctufata (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Telia miinia
Size: Sparrow-. Same as last. Field Characters: In breeding plumage

upper parts chocolate-brown; lower white, speckled with black. In
non-breeding and immature plumage, more or less plain brown. Sexes
alike. Flocks, about open cultivation. Distribution: All India (except-
ing the arid portions of Rajasthan and the Punjab) up to 6000 ft. in the
Himalayas. Assam; East Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Not West Pak-
istan. Three races, on details of coloration. Habits: Typical munia.
Flocks, sometimes of up to 200 individuals or more, hop about gleaning
grass seeds etc. The birds occasionally also devour winged termites
emerging from the ground, and when disturbed fly up into trees and
bushes, uttering feeble chirrups. They fly in the same disorderly
close-packed undulating rabbles as other munias do. Nesting: Season-
chiefly July to October. Nest-a globular structure of grass blades
like the other munias', about 8 inches across, and with a lateral en-
trance hole near the top. Built in a low thorny bush or tree, sometimes
several nests together. Eggs--4 to 8, pure white. Both sexes share
domestic duties.
66. The Red Munia or Waxbill-Estrilda ainandava (Linnaeus)

HINDI NAMES: Lal, LiFl mEnia
Size : Sparrow-. Same as of the other munias. Field Characters : Male

in non-breeding plumage, and female, brownish sparsely stippled with
white, with red bill and crimson rump. Tail rounded at tip. Flocks
among reeds and herbage, on wet grassland. Distribution: Through-
out the Indian Union from about 2000 ft. in the Himalayas almost
to Kanyakumari. Up to 6000 ft. elevation in the peninsular hills.
Also both Pakistans, and Burma. Not Ceylon. The Burmese race
differs from the Indian in details of coloration. Habits: Typical munia,
with a preference for damp localities. Has feeble but musical
chirruping call notes. Breeding males utter a low, continuous, twitter-
ing song. A popular cage bird, always to be seen in bird markets.
Nesting: Season-chiefly the monsoon, June to October. Nest-a
small globular structure of grass, lined with finer grasses and feathers,
usually within 2 ft. of the ground, in a coarse grass tussock or bracken
bush. Eggs-4 to 7, pure white. Both sexes share domestic duties.
(See also GREEN MUNIA,p. 117.)
67. The Blackheaded Munia-Lonchura malacca (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: Nakal nor
Size: Sparrow-. Same as of the other munias. Field Characters: A

small chestnut, black and white munia with typical short, heavy,
conical bill. Head, neck and upper breast, vent, thighs and under
tail-coverts black. Abdomen white. Sexes alike. Flocks, on marshy
tall grassland. Distribution: Peninsular India south of about Madhya
Pradesh, and Ceylon. Not the Pakistans or Burma. Habits: Partial to
swampy low-lying and ill-drained areas with feathery grass and reeds,
and the vicinity of wet paddy cultivation in forest. Otherwise not
different in habits, food or voice from other munias described. Nesting:
Season-principally the monsoon, June to October, varying with
local conditions. Nest-a large ball of coarse grasses, lined with finer
grass, with a lateral entrance hole. Built in low bushes or amongst
coarse grass stems. Eggs-5 to 7, pure white.
68. The Common Indian, or Hodgson's, Rosefinch- Carpodacus

erythrinus (Pallas). HINDI NAMES: TCti, LC1 t iiti
Size: Sparrow+. Field Characters: Both in the rose coloured male
and the brownish female the heavy conical finch bill and the slightly
forked tail are noticeable features. Flocks, in wooded country and
about cultivation. Distribution : The Indian race roseatus which chiefly
concerns us, breeds at 10,000 ft. and higher in the Himalayas from
Kashmir to eastern Tibet. In winter it spreads out practically all over
the Indian Union, both Pakistans, and Burma. Not Ceylon. Habits:
Found south of the Himalayas between September and May. Keeps
in flocks to wooded country, feeding on lantana and other berries, wild
figs and flower buds, bamboo seeds, linseed and cereals. Flower nectar
of Butea, Erythrina and other flowers is also relished, and the birds
do service in cross-pollinating them. Ordinary call note: a musical,
whistling, interrogative tooee?. tooee? Just before departure for breed-
ing grounds a loud, pleasant song sometimes heard. Nesting: Season-
June to August. Nest-a cup of grass lined with fine roots and hair,
placed in a wild rose or similar bush, 2 to 6 ft. up. Eggs-3 or 4, blue,
spotted and speckled with blackish and light red. Both sexes share
domestic duties.
65. Spotted Munia 66. Red Munia (male, breeding)

07. Blackheaded Munia 68. Common Rosefinch
(male & female)
Plate 17
69. The Y ellowthroated Sparrow-Petronia xantkocollis (Burton)
HINDI NAME : Jangli chiri
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: A pale earth-brown sparrow with a
conspicuous chestnut shoulder patch, two whitish bars in the wing, and
a lemon-yellow 'thumb impression' on the throat. Female lacks the
yellow on throat, and her chestnut shoulder patches are paler. Pairs
or flocks, in open thinly-wooded country. Distribution: Practically all
lndia from about 4000 ft. in the Himalayas to Kanyakumari and from
Sind to Bengal. Also E. Pakistan, Ceylon and parts of Burma.
Resident and marked seasonal local migrant. Two races : a paler and
and a darker. Habits: Often found in the neighbourhood of towns
and villages, but not so closely associated with man as the House
Sparrow. Keeps to open scrub country and light deciduous forest.
Gleans paddy grains and grass seeds in stubble fields and on cross-
country cart tracks. Also feeds on berries, flower nectar, and moths
and other insects. Chirpy call notes similar to the House Sparrow's but
pleasanter. Forms into large flocks in winter. Nesting: Season-April
to June. Nest-a collection of grass, wool, feathers and rubbish stuff-
ed inside a tree-hole between 8 and 40 ft. from the ground. Old wood-
pecker and barbet nest-holes are commonly appropriated. Eggs-3
or 4, pale greenish white, spotted, blotched and streaked with dingy
brown. Both sexes share domestic duties.
70. The House Sparrow-Passer domesticus (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Gauriyya
Size: Bulbul-; (6 inches). Field Characters: Undoubtedly our most
familiar bird. Female ashy grey-brown above, streaked with blackish
and rufous, and with a pale fulvous supercilium; fulvous ashy
white below. Inseparable from human habitations. Distribution:
Practically worldwide. Throughout India normally to about 7000 ft. in
the Himalayas. W. & E. Pakistan ; Ceylon; Burma. Apparently absent
in the Andamans and Nicobars. Two races; the Kashmiri and north-
western being larger. Habits: A confirmed hanger-on of man, in hills
and plains alike, whether in a bustling noisy city or outlying forest
hamlet. Omnivorous; eats grain, insects, fruit buds, flower-nectar
and kitchen scraps. Sometimes collects in enormous flocks and does
damage to ripening crops and in market gardens. Non-breeding birds
have favourite community roosts in leafy trees, where large numbers
foregather with much noise every evening. Chirping call notes too
well known. 'Song' of breeding male a loud, monotonous tsi, tsi, tsi or
cheer, cheer, cheer uttered ad lib as he fluffs out his feathers, arches
his rump, droops his wings and struts about arrogantly, twitching his
partly cocked tail. Nesting: Season-practically all year, the most
favoured months varying with locality. Nest-a collection of straw,
rubbish and feathers in a hole in ceiling, niche in wall, inverted lamp
shade, and every conceivable site within or without an occupied build-
ing. Eggs-3 to 5, pale greenish white, stippled and blotched with
brown. Several successive broods are often raised.
69. Yellowthroated Sparrow 70. House Sparrow
71. Blackheaded Bunting (male) 7 1 ~ Redheaded
. Bunting (male)
72. Crested Bunting (male & female)
35
71. The Blackheaded Bunting-Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli
7 1 ~ The
. Redheaded Bunting-Emberiza bruniceps Brand t
HINDI NAME: Gandam (both)
+
Size : Sparrow . Field Characters : Slender yellow sparrowlike birds
with longer, noticeably forked tail. Female of Blackheaded pale
fulvous brown above with the rump tinged chestnut; of Redheaded
Bunting ashy brown with the rump tinged yellow. Lower plumage in
both pale fulvous, washed with yellow. Large flocks about cultivation,
commonly of both species together. When massed on green trees,
look like clusters of yellow blossoms in distance. Distribution: Winter
visitors to West Pakistan and the greater part of peninsular and
continental India. The Blackheaded confined chiefly to the western
side south to Belgaum; the Redheaded extending east to Chota
Nagpur, south to Coimbatore. Habits: The birds arrive September/
October and depart again MarchIApril. They keep in enormous
flocks or 'swarms' to open cultivation of jowari, wheat, etc.,. parti-
cularly where the fields are interspersed with bush and babool jungle,
and may do considerable local damage to the ripening crops. Call
note in winter quarters a musical tweet. The loud, pleasant, whistling
song of the males is sometimes heard before they depart for their breed-
ing grounds. Nesting: The Blackheaded Bunting nests in W. Asia
and E. Europe. The nearest breeding ground of the Redheaded
species is in Baluchistan. Season-MaylJune. Nest--cup-shaped, of
weed stalks and fibres lined with goat's hair. Well concealed in bushes,
2 to 4 ft. up. Eggs-normally 5, pale greenish white, speckled and
spotted with dark brown, lavender, and grey.
72. The Crested Bunting-Melophus lathan~i(Gray)
~ D NAME:
I Pathar chirta (?)
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: A black-and-chestnut, crested-
sparrow-like bird with rather the colour scheme of the Crow-Pheasant.
Female dark brown with cinnamon colour in wings and tail; also
with prominent pointed crest. Singly, pairs or small scattered parties,
on stony scrub covered hillsides and about forest cultivation. Distribu-
tion: The only Indian race, subcristatus, is found locally and patchily
throughout the lower Himalayas, up to about 5000 ft. from Kashmir
to E. Assam; Mount Abu, Rajasthan and central India south to about
Satara, east to Bihar. Also portions of Burma. Seasonal local migrant.
The STRIOLATEDBUNTING (E. striolata) rather like the female Crested
Bunting, but smaller and without crest, is also found locally and
capriciously in inany parts of India excepting the south.
Habits: Gleans grass seeds and grain on the ground, flying up
into bushes when disturbed. Partial to recently burnt, charred stony
patches in dry grass and pole forest. Utters pink, pink like a munia,
but louder. Song of breeding male rather like Pied Bushchat's: which
. .which. .which-whee-whee-which (accent on second whee). Nesting :
Season-April to August, varying locally. Nest-a deep cup of grass
lined with fine rootlets, in a pocket in earth cutting or under a stone
or grass tuft on hillside. Eggs-3 or 4, pale greenish grey, freckled
with purplish brown, densely at broad end. Both sexes share in nest
building and feeding young.
36
73. The Dusky Crag Martin-Hirundo concolor Sykes
HINDI NAME : Chat en-ab6btl
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: Sooty brown, with short square

tail and swallow-like wings and flight. A roundish white spot on all tail
feathers except the middle and outermost pairs, conspicuous when the
bird banks or wheels in the air. Sexes alike. Small numbers about
cliffs, ruined forts, etc., in company with swallows and swifts.
I n winter the migratory CRAGMARTIN(Hirundo rupestris) is also
found in association with our resident birds. I t is slightly larger and
paler, and readily distinguishable by its whitish underparts.
Distribution: All India excepting Assam. Local and patchy. Absent
in both Pakistans, Ceylon, and Burma. Habits: A close relation of the
swallows. Inseparable from crags, rock cave , ancient forts and build-
4
ings, irrigation dams, etc. Insectivorous. awks midges and other
tiny winged insects in the air. Utters a soft chit-chit as it flies. Nesting:
Seasolz-principally between June and October when wet mud for nest
building is easily obtainable. Nest-a deepish oval saucer of mud lined
with tow, feathers, etc. Attached like a bracket to vertical rock face or
wall, under natural overhang or archway in building. Eggs-2 or 3,
white, minutely speckled and spotted with reddish brown. Both sexes
share domestic duties.
74. The Common Swallow-Hirundo rirstica Linnaeus
Size : Sparrow 2. Field Characters : Glossy steel blue or purplish blue

above, pale pinkish white below. Chestnut forehead and throat, the
latter bordered by a broad glossy black pectoral band. Deeply forked
'swallow' tail, especially prominent in flight. Sexes alike. Gregarious.
Usually seen huddled on telegraph wires or hawking midges over open
country or marshland. Distribution: In winter throughout the Indian
Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Chiefly two races differing
slightly in size and coloration. The NE. Siberian race tytleri, with
chestnut underparts, visits E. Bengal, Assam and Burma. Habits:
Winter visitor. Commences arriving September/October; departs
April/May. Hawks winged insects high up in air or close to ground.
Roosts in large congregations amongst reed-beds and tamarisk thickets
standing in water. Flight swift and graceful-a few rapid wing strokes
followed by a long glide. Deeply forked tail adds to agility in turning,
twisting and wheeling movements. Food: Chiefly flies and midges.
Call: A pleasant, low twittering. Nesting: Within our limits, only the
Himalayas from Kashmir to NE. Assam, 4000-7000 ft. elevation.
Season-April to July. Often 2 successive broods raised. Nest-
similar to that of Crag Martin, but with the mud reinforced with
grass. Commonly built against beams and rafters within dwelling
houses and stables. Eggs-4 or 5, similar in colour and markings to
those of the Crag Martin. Both sexes share domestic duties.
75. The Redrumped or Striated Swallow-Hirundo daurica Linnaeus
HINDI NAME : Masjid-abcibil
Size : Sparrow?. Field Characters : Glossy deep blue above, fulvous
white below, finely streaked with dark brown. The chestnut half collar
on hindneck, the deeply forked 'swallow' tail, and the chestnut rump
(conspicuous when banking in flight) are diagnostic points. Sometimes
the red rump looks very pale-almost whitish. Sexes alike. Pairs or
parties hawking insects on the wing about cliffs, ancient hill forts,
ruined buildings, etc. Also in open country. Distribution: All India
up to 4000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma.
Several races, of which the most widespread resident race is erythro-
pygia-Sykes's Striated Swallow-distinguished by very narrow brown
streaks on the underparts. In winter, when migratory races are
present, differentiation in field difficult, but the commonest of these-
seen perched in thousands on telegraph wires-is nipalensis, conspicu-
ously broad-streaked below. Habits: Similar to those of the Common
Swallow and often seen hawking in association with it, and with
crag martins and swifts. Nesting: Season-April to August, varying
locally. Nest-a retort-shaped structure of plastered mud with a
narrow tubular entrance, stuck flat against the ceiling of a rock
overhang, cave, or verandah of occupied dwelling. The bulbous
egg chamber is lined with feathers. Eggs-3 or 4, pure white. Both
sexes share in building the nest and feeding the young.
76. The Wiretailed Swallow-Hir undo smithii Leach
Size: Sparrow?. Field Characters: Glossy steel blue above, with a

chestnut cap. Readily distinguished from other swallows by its glisten-
ing white underparts and two long, fine 'wires' in the tail. Sexes alike,
but tail wires of female shorter. Pairs or parties, in open cultivation,
near water. Distribution: All India from about 5000 ft. in the Hima-
layas south to the Nilgiris; both Pakistans; Burma. Not Ceylon.
Mainly resident, but also locally migratory, Only the one race filifera
concerns us.
Another widely distributed species is the INDIAN CLIFFSWALLOW
(Hirundo fluvicola) whose mud-nest colonies under bridges and arch-
ways are familiar sights. Size and shape of crag martin; glossy steel
blue above, whitish below, boldly streaked with brown on throat and
upper breast. Crown of head dull chestnut; rump pale brown.
Habits: Typical of the swallows, but more confined to the
neighbourhood of water-streams, tanks reservoirs, etc.-and seldom
met with away from it. Nesting: Season-practically all year;
principally March to September. Nest-a mud-saucer bracket, very
similar to crag martin's, attached under a culvert or rock overhang
near water. Eggs-3 to 5, like those of the Common Swallow. Both
sexes share in building the nest and feeding the young.
73. Dusky Crag Martin 74. Common Swallow
75. Redrumped Swallow 76. Wiretailed Swallow
77. The Grey Wagtail-Motacilla caspica (Gmelin)
HINDI NAME: Pilkya
Size: Sparrow +_. Field Characters: A sprightly, slim long-tailed bird
chiefly grey and yellow, running about singly on ground near rocky
streams and trickles in wooded country and forest glades. Sexes alike
in winter; chin, throat and upper breast of male black in summer.
The YELLOWWAGTAIL (Motacilla f1ava)-yellowish or olive-green
above, bright yellow below-is also an abundant winter visitor, fre-
quenting swampy fields and pastures. The three commonest races are
beema (blue headed), thunbergi (grey headed) and melanogrisea
(black headed). DifEcult to identify in winter, but easily differentiated
from each other in summer dress. Normal call: weesp.
Distribution: In winter throughout the Indian Union; both Pakis-
tans; Ceylon; Burma. Plains and hills. Habits: Runs about briskly
in spurts chasing tiny insects, turning and twisting with agility in their
pursuit and often springing up into the air to capture winged ones.
The tail is incessantly and characteristically wagged up and down.
Flight, a series of long undulating curves, produced by alternate
quick flapping and closing of the wings. A sharp chicheep, chicheep,
etc., is uttered on the wing. The male has a pretty little song in the
breeding season. Nesting: Within our limits breeds only in the Hima-
layas between 6000 and 12,000 ft. elevation. Season-May to July.
Nest-a cup of grass, rootlets and wool under a stone or among the
roots of a bush or tree near a stream, preferably on a small islet. Eggs
4 to 6, yellowish grey or greenish, freckled with reddish brown,
more densely at the broad end. Both parents tend the young.
78. The Yellowheaded Wagtail-Motacilla citreola Pallas
HINDI NAME : P6ni ka pilkya
Size : Sparrow?. Field Characters : In summer dress (illustrated)
male's bright yellow head diagnostic. Female, and male in winter, have
crown and back grey, underparts yellowish white. Differentiated at all
times from other similar coloured wagtails by presence of broad yellow
supercilium and more or less yellow forehead, Scattered parties,
sometimes large swarms, on marshland and grassy tank margins.
Distribution: In winter all India north of about Mysore; both
Pakistans; Burma. Not Ceylon. Three races, difficult to differentiate
in winter plumage. Habits: More gregarious than the last and
essentially a water wagtail, inseparable from marshland and grassy
jheels. Numbers often seen on floating lotus leaves and vegetation
on a tank, tripping along lightly in search of tiny insects, sometimes
springing up into the air, and launching sprightly sallies in pursuit of
escaping midges and other quarry. General habits typical of the
family. Nesting: Hodgson's Yellowheaded Wagtail (M.c.calcarata),
the black-backed race, breeds in Kashmir between 5000 and 12,000
ft. Season-MaylJune. Nest-a cup of grass in the centre or at the
foot of a tuft of coarse grass or small bush in a marsh, or on wet
ground near an upland stream. Eggs-3 to 5, variable but not unlike
those of the Grey Wagtail. Both sexes share the domestic duties.
77. Grey Wagtail (male, breeding) 78. Yellowheaded Wagtail (male,
breeding)
79. Large Pied Wagtail 80. White Wagtail
39
79. The Large Pied Wagtail-Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin
HINDI NAMES : Mamula, Khanjan
.
Size : Bulbul +_ Field Characters : A large wagtail of black-and-
white plumage, resembling in pattern that of the familiar Magpie-
Robin, but with a prominent white eyebrow. In the female the black
portions are duller and browner. Pairs, at streams, tanks, etc.
May be confused with the somewhat smaller HODGSON'S PIEDWAG-
TAIL (M.a.alboides), where both are found together in winter. But this
has an entirely white forehead whereas in maderaspatensis the black
of the crown extends in a point over the forehead to base of bill.
Distribution: Resident throughout the Indian Union, excepting
Assam, from about 2000 ft. in the Himalayas. Also Sind in W. Pakis-
tan. Not Ceylon or Burma. Habits: Affects clear, shingly or rocky
smooth-running streams with diminutive grass-covered islets here and
there. Also village tanks and irrigation reservoirs. Usually tame and
confiding. Has a number of loud, pleasant whistling calls. During the
breeding season, the male sings sweetly from a rock or house-top.
Song somewhat reminiscent of Magpie-Robin's. Food and general
habits like other wagtails'. Nesting: Season-elastic, chiefly March
to September. Nest-a cup-shaped pad of rootlets, hair, wool, and
dry algae, etc., under a projecting rock, among rafters of a dwelling
house, or under girders of a bridge-always near water. Eggs-3 or
4, greyish-, brownish-, or greenish white, blotched and streaked with
various shades of brown. Both sexes share the domestic duties.
80. The White Wagtail-Motacilla alba Linnaeus
HINDI NAME: Dhoban
Size: Same as the Grey Wagtail (= Sparrow+). Field Characters:
In non-breeding or winter plumage the black bib (illustrated) is much
reduced or wanting, the chin and throat being white like the under-
parts. Sexes alike. Scattered parties or flocks running about and feed-
ing on open grasslznd. Distribution: In winter the greater part of the
Indian Union together with both Pakistans. Occasional straggler to
Ceylon (dukhunensis). The two races common over most of this area
are the Indian dukhunensis, and the Masked personata. Both very
similar, but the former has white ear-coverts at all seasons as against
black in personata. A third race, the NE. Siberian ocularis, with a
black streak running backward through eye, visits Assam and Burma.
Habits: Winter visitor arriving about Septemberloctober; departing
MarchIApril. Runs about swiftly, wagging tail incessantly up and
down, to pick up tiny insects on ploughed fields, fallow land, golf
links, maidans and lawns even in the midst of populous towns. Roosts
at night in large mixed gatherings with other wagtails and swallows in
reed-beds, sugar cane fields, and leafy trees. General habits and food
typical of the family. Nesting: Within our limits only personata breeds
in Kashmir and NW. Pakistan between 6000 and 12,000 ft. Season-
May to July. Nest-a pad of rootlets, moss, hair, etc., placed in a hole
in a ruined wall or amongst a pile of stones. Eggs--4 to 6, white,
freckled and spotted with reddish brown.
81. The Indian Pipit-Anthus novaeseelandiae Gmelin
HINDI NAMES : Rugel, Charchari
Size: Sparrow?. Field Characters: Rather like female House Spar-
row in coloration, dark brown above marked with fulvous; pale
fulvous below, streaked with brown on breast. Slimmer, with slenderer
bill and longer tail in which outermost feathers white. Sexes alike.
Pairs or loose parties, on fallow land etc.
Several other pipits visit our area in winter. They resemble one
another closely in appearance and habits, and considerable practice is
needed to differentiate them in the field.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans;
Ceylon; Burma. Three resident races, separated mainly on depth of
coloration; a fourth and larger race, winter visitor. Habits: Mainly
terrestrial. Affects open country, plains and hills up to about 6000 ft.
Ploughed and stubble fields, grazing land and grass-covered stony hill-
sides are favourite haunts. Food: Weevils and other small insects.
Runs about briskly in spurts and wags tail up and down like a wagtail,
but much more slowly. Has the same undulating flight accompanied
by a distinctive pipit, pipit or tseep, tseep, etc. During the breeding
season the male soars and flutters a few feet up in the air uttering a
feeble cheeping 'song', and presently returns to earth. It is a tawdry
unimpressive version of the skylark's song-flight. Nesting: Seasorz
-February to October, principally March to June. Nest-a shallow
cup of grass, rootlets and hair placed under shelter of a clod or in
an old hoof-print. Eggs-3 or 4, yellowish- or greyish white, blotched
and spotted with brown, more densely at broad end. Both sexes share
in nest building and tending the young.
82. The Small Indian Skylark-Alauda gulgula Franklin
HINDI NAME : Bhurut
Size: Spalrow. Field Characters: Like the pipit, but squatter in build
and with shorter tail. Sexes alike. Pairs or scattered parties in open
country and cultivation. Occasionally large flocks in winter. Distribu-
tion: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma.
Resident, but also locally migratory. Three races mainly concern us,
differing in details of size and coloration. Habits: Essentially a bird
of grassy meadows and open cultivation, both plains and hills. Parti-
cularly fond of damp grassland bordering jheels. Feeds on ground on
seeds and insects. Has a peculiar fluttering flight. The song delivered
on the wing, is the skylark's chief claim to distinction. From the
ground the bird springs almost vertically upwards on fluttering wings,
rising higher and higher till it becomes a speck in the sky. There it
remains more or less stationary on rapidly vibrating wings and pours
forth a deluge of spirited, melodious warbling, often for over 10
minutes at a stretch. The singer descends to the ground thereafter,
but the performance is soon repeated. Nesting: Season-variable;
mainly February to July. Nest-a cup-like depression in the ground,
or a hoof-print, lined with grass under shelter of a clod or grass
tussock. Eggs-2 to 4, pale brownish grey or whitish, spotted and
streaked with brown.
41
83. The Crested Lark-Galerida cristata (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : ChendiZl
Size : Sparrow +. Field Characters : The larger size and prominent
pointed crest distinguish it from most other larks. Sexes alike.
Singly or pairs in dry open country. Occasionally flocks in winter.
Distribution: Rajasthan and continental India south to Madhya
Pradesh, east to Bengal. Also W. Pakistan. We are mainly concerned
with the resident race chendoola.
Two allied crested larks, smaller and more rufous, between them
occupy most of peninsular India, viz. Sykes's (G. deva) with few and
narrow streaks on breast, and MALABAR (G. malabarica) with pectoral
streaks numerous and broader.
Habits: Affects open, sandy or stony semi-desert with scanty
grass ground cover. Runs about in search of food : grass seeds, small
beetles and other insects, etc. Normal call note a pleasant tee-ur.
A short, pleasant song uttered during the display flight which consists
of soaring a few feet up on leisurely fluttering wings. It is also delivered
from a clod or bush-top. Nesting: Season-March to June. Nest-
a shallow cup of grass, lined with hair, etc., in open country at the
base of a grass tuft or clod. Eggs-3 or 4, dull yellowish white, blotched
with brown and purple. Both sexes share in building the nest and
tending the young. Female alone believed to incubate.
84. The Redwinged Bush Lark-Mirafra erythroptera Blyth
HINDI NAME : Jangli aggiya
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: Distinguished from other larks of
same size by the large chestnut patch on the wings, particularly
conspicuous in flight. Sexes alike. Loose parties, in dry stony scrub-
and-bush country. More commonly perched singly on leafless bush.
Distribution: Patchily throughout the greater part of the Indian
Union excepting the humid heavy rainfall tracts. W. Pakistan. Repre-
sented in Burma and Ceylon by closely allied species.
The SINGING BUSHLARK(Mirafra cantillans), with less chestnut in
wings and outer tail feathers largely white, is also widely distributed.
Its song and song-flight are easily mistaken for the Skylark's.
Habits: The most characteristic and diagnostic habit of the Red-
winged Bush Lark is its spectacular song-flight. From a bush-top the
male flutters straight up in the air, 30 ft. or so, trilling a quick-repeated
mousy si-si-si-si. This is succeeded immediately by a squeaky wisee,
wisee, wisee, wisee, etc., getting slower in tempo and fading out as the
performer parachutes back to his perch, wings stiffly outstretched in a
wide V above the back, and legs dangling. This performance lasts
about 20 seconds, and during the breeding season is repeated again and
again. Nesting: Season-April to October, varying locally. Nest-a
shallow cup of grass, lined with hair, etc., and sometimes domed.
Usually well concealed at the base of a bush. Eggs-2 to 4, pale greyish
white, yellowish or stone colour, speckled and blotched with various
shades of brown.
81. Indian Pipit 82. Small Indian Skylark
83. Crested Lark 84. Redwinged Bush Lark
Plate 21
Plate 22
85. The Rufoustailed Finch-Lark-Ammomanes phoenicurus (Franklin)
HINDI NAMES : Aggiya, Retal
Size: Sparrow+. Field Characters: A squat, dark rufous brown
stout-billed lark with a bright rufous tail ending in a black band.
Sexes alike. Pairs or small flocks, in dry open country. Distribution:
The greater part of peninsular and continental India, north to the
Ganga River. Not Assam. Absent also in Ceylon and Burma. Only
the typical race phoenicurus concerns us here. Habits: Affects open,
stony scrub-and-bush country, ploughed fields, fallow land and the
neighbourhood of cultivation. Zigzags on the ground in short spurts
picking up grass and weed seeds, paddy and other grains, as well as
insect food. Stampedes insects out of their hiding in the little un-
evennesses of the ground by rapidly flicking open its wings. Pleasant
rollicking notes, uttered chiefly during the spectacular aerial display
similar to that of the Blackbellied Finch-Lark, described below.
Nesting: Season-principally February to May. Nest-the usual cup
of grasses etc., in a slight depression in the ground-usually in a
freshly ploughed field-under shelter of a clod of earth or tiny bush.
Eggs-3 or 4, creamy white, freckled and spotted with reddish brown
or inky purple, more densely at the broad end.
86. The Blackbellied Finch-Lark-Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli)
HINDI NAMES: Diyora, Duri, Jothauli
Size : Sparrow-. Field Characters : A small, squat, thick-billed
crestless lark. Male sandy brown above, black below, with ashy
crown and whitish cheeks. Female rather like the hen House Sparrow.
Pairs or small flocks, in open plains country. Distribution: All India
from the Himalayas to Kanyakumari, east to about Calcutta. Also
W. Pakistan and Ceylon. Resident, and locally migratory. Habits:
Affects open cultivated country and semi-barren waste land. Squats
close to the ground and shuffles along in zigzag spurts in search of
seeds and insects. Very obliteratively coloured and matches sandy soil
to perfection. Flies by a series of rapid wing beats as in hovering.
The male performs a remarkable aerobatic display. He shoots up
vertically on quivering wings, a hundred feet or so, then nosedives
perpendicularly some distance with wings pulled in at sides. Using
the momentum he suddenly turns about to face the sky and with a
few rapid flaps and wings again closed, shoots up a few feet once
more. At the crest of the wave he reverses and repeats the nosedive,
and so on in descending steps till when near the ground he flattens
out and comes to rest on a clod or stone. A pleasant little 'wheeching'
song accompanies these extravagant proceedings. The whole mano-
euvre is soon repeated. Nesting: More or less throughout the year.
Nest and Eggs-2 or 3, very like those of the Rufoustailed Finch-
Lark. Apparently female alone builds nest, but male assists in incuba-
tion and care of the young.
-
85. Rufoustailed Finch-Lark 86. Blackbellied Finch-Lark

87. White-eye 88. Purple Sunbird (male &
female)
43
87. The White-eye-Zosterops palpebrosa (Temminck)
HINDI NAME : Baboona (?)
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A tiny, square-tailed greenish
yellow and bright yellow bird with a conspicuous white ring round
eye and slender, pointed, slightly curved bill. Gregarious; in trees in
gardens and wooded country. Distribution: Practically throughout
the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon and Burma, excepting
actual desert. Resident and locally migratory. Seven geographical
races in the above, based on details of size and coloration. Habits:
Arboreal. Flocks of 5 to 20 or more hunt energetically among the
foliage of trees and bushes for insects, often clinging upside down
and peering into likely nooks and crannies in the manner of tits.
They also subsist largely on flower nectar and on the fleshy pulp of
fruits and berries. Feeble jingling conversational notes keep the
members of a flock together. In the breeding season the male delivers
a pleasing, tinkling song reminiscent of the Verditer Flycatcher's.
It commences almost inaudibly, grows louder and presently fades
out as it began. Nesting: Season-principally April to July. Nest-
a tiny cup of fibres neatly bound with cobwebs-a miniature Oriole's
nest-slung hammockwise in the end fork of a thin twig, normally
between 5 and 10 ft. up. Eggs-2 or 3, pale blue, sometimes with a
cap of deeper blue at the broad end. Both sexes share the domestic
duties.
88. The Purple Sunbird-Nectarinia asiatica (Latham)
HINDI NAME : Slzakarkhora
Size: Sparrow-; (= White-eye). Field Characters: Male in non-
breeding plumage like female-brown to olive-brown above, pale
dull yellow below-but with darker wings and a broad black stripe
running down middle of breast. Pairs in open lightly-wooded country.
LOTEN'S SUNBIRD (Nectarinia lotenia) also occurs in peninsular India
south of a line from Bombay to about Madras, and in Ceylon. The
male is like the Purple in breeding plumage (illustrated) with unglossed
underparts, longer bill, and a maroon band across breast.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union ; both Pakistails;,
Ceylon; Burma. Three races, based on details of size and coloration.
Habits: Affects gardens, groves, cultivated and scrub country as well
as light deciduous forest. Food: Insects and spiders, and very largely
fower nectar. Its slender curved bill and tubular tongue are admirably
adapted for probing into flower tubes and sucking the nectar, and in
doing so the bird helps to cross-pollinate the blossoms. Call: A sharp
monosyllabic wich, wich uttered as it flits about. The breeding male
sings excitedly from exposed perches, cheewit-cheewit-cheewit etc.,
raises and lowers his wings displaying the brilliant yellow and scarlet
tufts of feathers under the 'armpits'. Nesting: Season-elastic, mostly
March to May. Nest-typical of sunbirds, an oblong pendulous pouch
of soft grasses as described under the next species. Eggs-2 or 3,
greyish- or greenish white marked with various shades of brown and
grey. Only the female builds and incubates, but male assists in feeding
the young.
44
89. The Purplerumped Sunbird-Nectarinia zeylonica (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: Shakarkhora
Size: Purple Sunbird. Field Characters: Upper parts and breast glisten-
ing metallic crimson, green, and purple; lower parts yellow. Rump
metallic bluish purple. Breeding and non-breeding plumages alike.
Female very similar to that of last species, but with chin greyish white
and rest of lower parts brighter yellow. Pairs in wooded country.
Distribution: Ceylon and peninsular India north to Bombay, east to
Calcutta. In Madras State not recorded north of Godavari Valley.
Habits: Similar to the Purple Sunbird's. In quest of nectar it is
responsible for cross-pollinating numerous species of flowers, one
of great economic harmfulness being the pernicious tree-parasite
Loranthus. The male sings excitedly while pivoting on his perch from
side to side and opening and closing his wings and tail: tityou, tityou,
tityou, trr-r-r-tit and so on. Nesting: Season-not well defined.
Nest-an oblong pouch of soft grasses, rubbish and cobwebs, draped
with pieces of bark, woody refuse and caterpillars' droppings, with
a projecting portico above the lateral entrance hole. Suspended
from the tip of a branch of bush or creeper at moderate heights,
often adjacent to an occupied bungalow. Eggs-2, also similar.
Female alone builds and incubates; male helps to feed the young.
90. The Yellowbacked Sunbird-Aethopyga siparaja (Raffles)

HINDI NAME: Shakarkhora (as for all sunbirds)
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A brilliantly coloured glistening

purple, green and crimson sunbird with long, pointed, metallic green
tail and a distinctive yellow rump. Female short-tailed as in the Purple
species, but dusky olive-green above, dull ashy green below. Pairs, in
well-wooded country. Distribution : Patchy, over the greater part of the
Indian Union in moist deciduous and evergreen forest biotope, up to
between 5000 and 8000 ft. elevation in the Himalayas and penin-
sular hills. Also Burma and East Pakistan. Not Ceylon or West
Pakistan. Several races, of which two chiefly concern us: the Himala-
yan seheriae of continental India, and vigorsii of the Western Ghats
country. In the latter the scarlet-crimson breast is boldly streaked
with yellow. Habits: Flits about restlessly like a gem in the sunshine
among blossoming shrubs and trees, hanging upside down and in other
acrobatic positions to probe into the flower tubes for nectar. Also
eats insects and spiders. Call: A sharp. harsh chichwee, reminiscent
of the Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher (p. 115). Nesting: Season-overall
April to October. Nest-a felted, pear-shaped pouch typical of the
sunbirds, suspended from a low bush on a ravine bank etc., in forest.
Eggs-2 or 3, creamy whitish, minutely flecked with brown.
91. Tickell's Flowerpecker-Dicaeum er~~throrhynchos (Latham)
HINDI NAME : Phoolchfiki
Size: Sparrow-; smaller than sunbird. Field Characters: A dimi-
nutive, restless, olive-brown bird with greyish white underparts-like
a female sunbird in general effect-with short, slender, slightly curved,
flesh coloured bill. Sexes alike. Singly, on Loranthus clumps in mango
orchards and thin deciduous forest. Distribution: The Indian Union,
excepting the arid portions ; East Pakistan ; Ceylon, and perhaps
Burma. Two races, the Indian (erythrorhynchos) being paler than the
Ceylonese (ceylonense). Habits: Affects orchards, forest plantations
and groves near villages. Its staple food is the berries of the
noxious tree parasites Loranthus and Viscurn belonging to the mistle-
toe family. The ripe berries are swallowed entire and the sticky
slimy seeds excreted on to another branch of the same host tree or
of a neighbouring one where they adhere and sprout within a few
days, spreading the infestation. Utters an almost incessant sharp chick-
chick-chick while flying across from one mistletoe clump to another,
and as it hops restlessly among the parasite clusters. Has a twittering
song besides. Nesting: Season-chiefly February to June. Nest-a
hanging oval pouch with lateral entrance hole, rather like a sunbird's
nest but smaller and neater and minus the exterior drapery of rubbish.
Of soft fibres and vegetable down with the texture of felt. Suspended
on twig 10 to 40 ft. up. Eggs-2, white. Both sexes share in building
and feeding the young.
(See also THICKBILLED FLOWERPECKER, p. 118.)
92. The Firebreasted Flowerpecker-Dicaeum ignipectrrs (Blyth)
HINDI NAME : Phoolchiiki
Size: Same as 91. Field Characters: Glistening greenish black above.
creamy buff below with a scarlet patch on breast. Female olive grass-
green above with a constrasting yellow rump; buff below. Wings and
tail black. Singly, or twos and threes, on clumps of mistletoe (Loran-
thus) parasitizing trees in wooded Himalayan country. Distribution:
Himalayas between 5000 and 12,000 ft. from the Sutlej Valley to NE.
Assam; Burma. Habits: Entirely arboreal and not different from
those of Tickell's Flowerpecker except that it ascends to higher eleva-
tions than perhaps any other flowerpecker. Its restricted distribution
would not entitle it to a place in this book, were it not so cominon
where it occurs. It is met with at most Himalayan hill-stations.
Inseparable from the loranthus tree parasite, living largely on its
berries. It disseminates the sticky seeds from tree to tree and is res-
ponsible for the spread of this harmful plant. Also eats nectar, small
spiders and insects. Call notes practically indistinguishable from
those of 91. Nesting: Season-March to June. Nest-similar to that
of Tickell's Flowerpecker. Eggs-2 or 3, white.
89. Purplerumped Sunbird 90. Vigors's Yellowbacked Sunbird
(male & female) (male & female)
91. Tickell's Flowerpecker 92. Firebreasted Flowerpecker (male
& female)
93. The Indian Pitta-Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Naorang
Size: Myna?. Field Characters: A gaudy stub-tailed thrush-like

bird, green, blue, fulvous, black and white, with crimson abdomen and
under tail. In flight a round white spot near tip of wing conspicuous.
Sexes alike. Singly, on ground in undergrowth in scrub jungle. Dist-
tribution: Well-wooded portions of the Indian Union, from about
2500 ft. in the Himalayas southward; Ceylon; East Pakistan.
Resident and locally migratory. Habits: Mainly terrestrial; roosts in
trees. Affects wooded country and fond of dry nullahs and ravines
with tangled undergrowth. Hops along like thrush turning over dead
leaves and digging into damp earth for insects and grubs which com-
prise its food. Stumpy tail wagged slowly and deliberately up and
down. Call: A loud, clear double whistle, wheet-few, uttered chiefly
morning and evening, and oftener on cloudy overcast days. Three or
four birds sometimes answer one another from different directions.
Its local migrations appear to be controlled by the SW. monsoon.
Nesting: Season-May to August. Nest-large, globular, of twigs,
grass, roots, etc., on ground under a bush or more commonly up in the
fork of a low tree. E g g s 4 to 6, glossy china white with spots, specks
and fine hair lines of dull or dark purple.
94. The Yellowfronted Pied, or Mahratta, Woodpecker-
Dendrocopos mahrattensis (Latham)
HINDI NAME : Katphora
Size: Bulbult. Field Characters: A small typical woodpecker with

long, stout, pointed bill and stiff, wedge-shaped tail. Irregularly
spotted black and white above. Whitish, brown-streaked breast and
flanks; scarlet-crimson on abdomen and vent. Female lacks scarlet in
crest. Singly or pairs, in groves and thin jungle. Distribution: Practi-
cally throughout the Indian Union from about 2500 ft. in the Himala-
yas southward. Also Ceylon; both Pakistans; Burma. Habits: Affects
open scrub country, light deciduous forest, mango orchards and
groves around villages. Scuttles up tree-trunks in jerky spurts, tapping
on the bark and digging into rotten wood for insects and grubs.
The tail, pressed against the stem, serves as the third leg of a tripod to
support the clinging bird. The long, extensile barb-tipped tongue helps
to skewer out grubs from borings. Ants also eaten. Flight typical of
woodpeckers', swift and undulating-a series of rapid wing beats
followed by short pause with wings closed. Call: A sharp click, click
or click-r-r-r. Nesting: Season-principally January to May. Nest-
a hole excavated in decaying branch at moderate height, with entrance
on underside. Eggs-3, glossy, white. Both sexes share domestic
duties. I
93. Indian Pitta 94. Yellowfronted Pied Wood-

95. Goldenbacked Woodpecker pecker (male)
(male) 96. Rufous Woodpecker
47
95. The Goldenbacked Woodpecker-Dinopium benglzalerlse
(Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: Katphora (for all woodpeckers)
Size: Myna+. Field Characters: Upper plumage golden yellow and

black; lower buffy white streaked with black, more boldly on breast.
Crown and occipital crest crimson. Female similar, but with foie-
crown black stippled with white, and only occipital crest crimson.
Singly or pairs, on tree-trunks in open wooded country, orchards, etc.
Distribution: Practically the entire Indian Union; both Pakistans;
Ceylon. Four races in India, two in Ceylon, based chiefly on details of
coloration. Burma has three superficially similar but distinct species of
golden-backed woodpeckers. Habits: Affects open tree and scrub
jungle and is partial to mango topes, groves of ancient trees and
coconut plantations. Works up stems and boughs of trees, in jerky
spurts, directly or in spirals, occasionally sliding a few feet down in
'reverse gear', tapping on the bark and chiselling away rotten wood for
beetles and insects hiding in the crannies. Black ants, sometimes
taken on ground, form a considerable proportion of its diet, and
pulp of ripe fruit as well as flower nectar are also eaten. Call: A
loud, harsh, chattering 'laugh' uttered mostly on the wing. Flight
dipping, as typical of woodpeckers. Nesting: Season-March to
August. Nest-an unlined hollow in a tree-stem or branch, excavated
by the birds, 8 to 30 ft. up. Eggs-3, glossy china white. Both sexes
share all domestic duties.
96. The Rufous Woodpecker-Micropternus brachyzirus (Vieillot)

HINDI NAME : Katphora
Size: Myna 2. Field Characters : A chestnut-rufous woodpecker,

cross-barred with black on wings and tail. The pale-edged feathers of
the throat produce a scaly effect. A crescent-shaped crimson patch of
feathers under eye in male; absent in female. Otherwise sexes alike.
Pairs in thin deciduous forest. Distribution: Practically the entire
Indian Union; East Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Plains and hills up
to about 5000 ft. locally. Five races, chiefly on details of coloration.
Habits: A typical woodpecker. Affects open secondary jungle.
Food: Largely the eqgs, pupae and adults of tree ants (Cremato-
gaster) obtained by digging with its bill into the arboreal carton-like
nests of these insects. Occasionally eats the pulp of ripe banyan and
other wild figs, and nectar of Silk Cotton and Coral flowers. Call:
A high-pitched, quick-repeated nasal keenk-keenk-keenk very like
one of the more familiar calls of the Common Myna. Nesting: Season
--chiefly February to April. Nest-a hole excavated in the ball-
shaped carton-like nests of Crematogaster tree ants, strangely enough
while they are alive and swarming with the ferocious insects! Eggs-2
or 3, pure white, unglossed. The eggs and chicks, as well as the in-
cubating parent, seem to suffer no harm from the ants amongst whom
the brood is raised.
97. The Bluethroated Barbet-Megalaima asiatica (Latham)
HINDI NAME: Nilkant basantha
Size: Myna 2.Field Characters: A gaudily coloured dumpy green
arboreal bird with a heavy conical bill. Forehead and crown crimson
with transverse black band above the eyes. Sides of head, chin, throat
and foreneck pale blue. A large crimson spot on each side of the neck
and a crimson speck on either side at base of lower mandible. Sexes
alike. Singly, or parties, in leafy fruiting trees.
Another widely distributed Indian species, oftener heard than seen
on account of its concealing coloration, is the LARGEGREEN BARBET
(Megalaima zeylanica), Hindi: BarG basantha. Its loud familiar call
kor-r-r- kutroo, kutroo, kutroo resounds endlessly in the forest.
Slightly larger than the Myna; grass green above, with the head, neck
and breast brown streaked white, and rest of underparts pale green.
A patch of naked orange skin round eye.
Distribution: The country along the base of the Himalayas from
Chamba to E. Assam. Also East Pakistan and Burma. Plains and
upto about 6000 ft. Several races, of which we are concerned chiefly
with the typical one. Habits: Arboreal. Affects wooded country,
groves and gardens even in populous cities, e.g. Calcutta. Food:
Fruits and berries, figs of the various species of Ficus being special
favourites. Like other barbets, frequently catches flying termites in
the air. Call: Similar to that of the Large Green Barbet, perhaps
somewhat higher pitched, reiterated at all times of the day. Flight
noisy and dipping, a few rapid wing beats followed by a short pause.
Nesting: Season-overall March to June. Nest-a hole in dead tree-
trunk or branch excavated by the birds, 10 to 25 ft. up. Eggs-3 or
4, glossless white. Both sexes share all domestic duties.
98. The Crimsonbreasted Barbet, or Coppersmith-Megalaima
haemacephala (Miiller). HINDI NAME: Chhota basantha
Size : Sparrow+ ; more dumpy. Field Characters : A heavy-billed
grass-green barbet with crimson breast and forehead, yellow throat
and green streaked yellowish underparts. Short truncated tail, dis-
tinctly triangular in flight silhouette. Sexes alike. Singly, or loose
parties, on banyan and peepal trees in fruit. Distribution: The greater
part of the Indian Union from about 2500 ft. in the Himalayas south;
both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Replaced in the humid-forest tracts
of SW. India by the allied CRIMSONTHROATED species. M. rubricapilla.
Habits: Arboreal. Found commonly wherever there are fruiting
trees, especially the various species of wild fig, be it in outlying forest
or within a noisy city. Call: A familiar, loud, monotonous ringing
tEk, tiik repeated every second or two in long runs throughout the
day, reminiscent of a distant coppersmith hammering on his metal.
Food: Fruits and berries; especially fond of banyan and peepal figs.
Sometimes eats winged termites captured by ungainly flycatcher-like
sallies. Nesting: Season-January to June. Nest-a hole excavated
in a snag of a dead softwood branch such as of the Coral or Drumstick
trees, at moderate heights. When in a horizontal branch, the entrance
hole is on the underside. Eggs-3, glossless white. Both sexes share all
domestic duties.
49
99. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo, or Brainfever Bird-Cuculus
varius Vahl. HINDI NAMES: Papiha, Papiya
Size: Pigeon. Slenderer with longer tail. Field Characters: Ashy grey
above; whitish below, cross-barred with brown. Broadly barred tail.
Sexes alike. Superficially very like the Shikra hawk; also in flight and
movements. Singly, in wooded country.
Another common cuckoo of similar appearance, identified by the
broad black subterminal band to its tail, is the INDIANCUCKOO (CUCUIUS
micropterus). I t is best known by its calls, orange-pekoe, bo-kotako,
or cross-word-puzzle, repeated ad nauseam, day or night.
Distribution: The Indian Union from about 2500 ft. in the Himala-
yas south; East Pakistan; Ceylon. Resident and locally migratory.
Habits: Nest-parasitic. Inhabits light forest; also partial to gardens,
groves and mango topes, etc., near human habitations. Mostly silent
during winter, and therefore liable to be overlooked. Becomes in-
creasingly obstreperous with the advance of the hot weather. Call:
A loud, screaming brain-fever, brain-fever, repeated with monotonous
persistency 5 or 6 times, rising in crescendo and ending abruptly.
Heard all through the day and frequently during moonlit nights. The
call is rendered in Hindi as pee-kahtin? ('Where is my love?') and in
Mahratti as pgos-tila ('Rain's coming!'). Food: Hairy caterpillars and
other insects, berries and wild figs, etc. Nesting: Season-March to
June, coinciding with that of Turdoides babblers on whose nests it is
parasitic. Eggs-usually a single in each nest, blue, like that of the
host. Hatchling reared to maturity by foster parents.
100. The Pied Crested Cuckoo-Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert)
HINDI NAMES : Papiya, Chatak
Size: Myna2 ;with longer tail. Field Characters: A handsome,
crested black-and-white cuckoo. White tips of tail feathers, and a
roundish patch on wings conspicuous in flight. Singly, or pairs, in
wooded country. Distribution: Practically the entire Indian Union up
to about 8000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma.
Two races, the larger serratus of N. India being a rains visitor, presu-
mably from Africa. Resident and locally migratory. Habits: Nest-
parasitic. Frequents open, well-wooded country. Commonly found in
the neighbourhood of habitations. Its local migrations are largely
controlled by the SW. monsoon. Arrival and presence in a locality
advertised by the birds chasing one another, flying from tree to tree,
and calling excitedly a rather plaintive, metallic, piu-piu-pee-pee-piu
. ..pee-pee-piu, or merely a tinkling piu. ..piu, etc. Chiefly arboreal,
but occasionally descends to ground and hops about in search of food :
grasshoppers, hairy caterpillars, and sometimes berries. Nesting:
Season--chiefly June to August, coinciding locally with the breeding
of its accustomed hosts. Parasitic chiefly on babblers of the Turdoides
group. Eggs-blue, similar to those of the fosterers, but when
more than one cuckoo egg in a nest, uncertain whether these the
product of the same or different females.
(See also PLAINTIVE CUCKOO and SIRKEER CUCKOO, p. 119.)
97. Bluethroated Barbet 9 7 ~ Large
. Green Barbet
98. Crimsonbreasted Barbet 99. Brainfever Bird
100. Pied Crested Cuckoo
50
101. The Koel-Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : Koel, Kokila
Size: House Crow; slenderer, with longer tail. Field Characters: Male
glistening black, with yellowish green bill and crimson eyes. Female
brown, profusely spotted and barred with white. Familiar shrieking
crescendo calls, kuoo-kuoo-kuoo. Singly or pairs, in groves of trees,
etc. Distribution : The entire Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon ;
Burma. Two races, the Assam-Burma race malayana being larger
than the India-Ceylon scolopacea. Resident and also locally migratory.
Habits : Nest-parasitic. Arboreal. Frequents gardens, groves and open
country abounding in large leafy trees. Silent in winter, thus often
overlooked and recorded as absent. Becomes increasingly noisy with
the advance of the hot weather, and then one of the earliest bird voices
at dawn. The call begins with a low kuoo, rises in scale with each
successive kuoo until it reaches fever pitch at the seventh or eighth,
and breaks off abruptly. It is soon commenced all over again. The
female only utters a sharp, quick-repeated h-ik-kik-kik as she dashes
from tree to tree. Food: Largely fruits and berries; also caterpillars
and insects. Flight straight and swift with rapid wing beats. Nesting:
Season-mainly April to August, coincident with that of its normal
hosts, the House and Jungle Crows. Eggs-smaller but similar to the.
crows': pale greyish green or stone colour, speckled and blotched:
with reddish brown. As many as 13 have been found in a single
crow's nest.
102. The Crow-Pheasant, or Coucal-Centropus sinensis (Stephensj
HINDI NAMES : Mahoka, Kuka
Size: Jungle Crow; with long, broad tail. Field Characters: A clumsy,
glossy black bird with conspicuous chestnut wings and long, broad,
black, graduated tail. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs, stalking along
the ground in undergrowth. Distribution: The Indian Union (from
about 6000 ft. in the Himalayas); both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma,
Three races on size and coloration details. Habits: One of the non-
parasitic cuckoos, and largely terrestrial. Affects open forest, scrub-.
and-bush country interspersed with grassland and shrubbery, and
groves about human habitations. Stalks along the ground, or clam-
bers and hops with agility amongst branches of shrubs in search of.
food: caterpillars, large insects, lizards, young mice, and birds' eggs
and nestlings. Particularly destructive to the last two. Call: A deep,
resonant coop-coop-coop etc., in series of 6 or 7 and up to 20, repeated
quickly in varying tempo. Two birds frequently join in an uneven
duet. Also utters a variety of harsh croaks and gurgling chuckles.
Nesting: Season-February to September, varying locally. Nest-a
large untidy globular mass of twigs, leaves, etc., with a lateral entrance.
Placed in the centre of a tangled thorny shrub at moderate height.
Eggs-3 or 4, chalky, glossless white. Both sexes share all domestic
duties.
101. Koel (male & female) 102. Crow-Pheasant
103. Large Parakeet 104. Roseringed Parakeet
51
103. The Alexandrine, or Large Indian, Parakeet-Psittacula
eupatria (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : R6i-t dta, Hiraman-tbta
+
Size : Pigeon ; slenderer, with long pointed tail. Field Characters :
A large grass-green parakeet with the typical short, massive deeply
hooked red bill, and a conspicuous maroon patch on each shoulder.
The female lacks the rose-pink and black collar of the male. Noisy
parties in cultivation, and wooded country. Distribution: Practically
the entire Indian Union; East Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. In
W. Pakistan apparently only in the environs of Karachi, presumably
the descendants of escaped cage birds. Four races, on differences in
details of size and coloration. Habits: Affects wooded country,
orchards and cultivation. Occasionally collects in large flocks which do
considerable damage to ripening fruit and standing crops of maize and
jowar. Has communal roosts amongst groves of leafy trees where
enormous numbers collect each night to the accompaniment of much
noise and chatter. Voice deeper and more powerful than that of the
commoner Roseringed species. Flight graceful and swift in spite of
the seemingly leisurely wing beats. A popular cage bird, and learns to
repeat a few words rather indistinctly as compared with the Hill
Myna. Nesting: Season-chiefly December to April, varying locally.
Nest-an unlined hollow in a tree-trunk excavated or appropriated
by the birds, at moderate heights and up to 100 ft. up. Occasionally
natural tree hollows or holes in walls of buildings are used. Eggs-2
a 0 4, white, blunt ovals. Both sexes share all domestic duties.
104. The Roseringed Parakeet-Psittacula krameri (Scopoli)

HINDI NAMES : TGta, Lybar tats
Size: Myna+ ; with a long pointed tail. Field Characters: A smaller

edition of the Alexandrine Parakeet, but lacking the maroon shoulder-
patches. Female lacks the black and rose-pink collar of male. Noisy
flocks about cultivation, in lightly-wooded country. Distribution:
Practically the entire Indian Union, from the Himalayan foothills
south. Plains and locally up to 5000 ft. in the peninsular hills. Both
Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Habits: One of the most familiar of Indian
birds, as much at home on the countryside as within villages and towns.
,Often bands itself into large flocks and is highly destructive at all
times to crops and orchard fruit, gnawing and wasting far more than it
actually eats. Call: A loud, sharp screaming keeak, keeak, keeak, etc.
uttered both at rest and on the wing. Flight swift and direct, with
rapid wing beats. Is a popular cage bird, large numbers of young taken
from nest being on sale in all bird markets. Learns to repeat a few
-words, and to perform various tricks like loading and firing off a toy
cannon, Nesting: Season--chiefly February to April, varying locally.
Nest-a natural hollow in a treetrunk, or one excavated by the birds
themselves. Holes in rock scarps and walls of buildings, ruined or in
,occupation, often within noisy towns, are freely utilized. E g g s 4 to 6,
pure white, roundish ovals. Both sexes share all domestic duties.
52
105. The Blossomheaded Parakeet-Psit tacula cyanocephala
(Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Tuia f d t a
Size: Myna ; slenderer and with long, pointed tail. Field Characters:
Distinguished from 104 by smaller size, bluish red head and maroon
shoulder patches. In female, head greyer with a bright yellow collar
round neck, and no maroon shoulder patches. White tips to the two
long central tail feathers diagnostic in flight, as also the sharp, inter-
rogative tooi? uttered on the wing. Flocks in wooded country, about
forest cultivation. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union from
about 6000 ft. in the Himalayas; E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. In
W. Pakistan only in the Himalayan foothills about Murree. Resident
and locally migratory. Three races on details of coloration. Habits:
Typical of the parakeets. Prefers better-wooded country than 104.
Flight very swift. Flocks on the wing turn and twist their way
through stems of forest trees with astonishing celerity and orderliness,
uttering their distinctive shrill tooi or tooi-tooi? as they dash along.
Nesting: Season-chiefly between January and May. Nest-a hole
excavated by the birds in a tree-trunk. Sometimes several pairs nest in
neighbouring trees in a loose colony. Eggs-4 to 6, pure white, smooth,
roundish ovals. Both sexes share all the domestic duties.
106. The Lorikeet-Loriculus verr~alis(Sparrman)

HINDI NAMES : Bhora, Bltoara, Latkan
Size: House Sparrow?. Field Characters: A dainty little bright

grass-green parrot with short square tail and rich crimson rump. A
small blue throat-patch in male; lacking in female. Singly, or small
parties, in orchards and well-wooded country. Distribution: Eastern
Himalayas from Sikkim through Assam. Western India from about
Bombay to Kanyakumari, including the Nilgiri and associated hills.
The Vaisakhapatnam area of the E. Ghats. E. Pakistan; Andamans;
Burma. Resident and locally migratory.
An allied species, L. beryllinus, with crimson crown and orange
nape occurs in Ceylon.
Habits: Arboreal. Affects leafy fruiting or flowering trees where
its small size and green coloration obliterates it completely among the
foliage. Seldom seen except when dashing across from one tree to.
another. Flight swift, several rapid wing strokes followed by a short
pause with closed wings and a consequent slight dip. Call: A pleasant,
sharp, trisyllabic chee-chee-chee repeated every couple of seconds,
uttered in flight as well as while clambering amongst the foliage and
blossoms. Food: Pulp of wild figs and other fruits, and flower nectar.
Coral flowers (Erytkriila) are specially favoured. The Lorikeet is
unique among Indian birds for its habit of roosting at night like a bat,
hanging head downwards. Nesting: Season-January to April-
Nest-a hole excavated by the birds (?) in a rotten branch or tree-
stump; usually a natural hollow. Eggs-3, small white roundish ovals.
53
107. The Roller or Blue Jay-Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : Nilkant, Sabzak
Size: Pigeon. Field Characters: A striking Oxford-and-cambridge-
blue bird, with biggish head, heavy black bill, rufous brown breast,
and pale blue abdomen and under tail. The dark and pale blue portions
of the wings show up as brilliant bands in flight. Sexes alike. Singly
perched on telegraph wires etc., in open cultivated country.
The KASHMIR ROLLER(C. garrulus semenowi) is a common passage
migrant over Sind, Kutch, Saurashtra and Gujarat in autumn. Its
uniformly blue-black flight feathers, and wholly light blue underparts
are diagnostic.
Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Union from the
Himalayan foothills south; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Resident
and partial local migrant. Three races on details of size and coloration.
Habits: Affects open cultivated country and light deciduous forest.
From a lookout on a telegraph wire or other point of vantage it
pounces upon some large insect, frog or lizard on the ground, returning
with it either to the same perch or flying leisurely across to another
nearby. Here the quarry is battered to death and swallowed. Highly
beneficial to agriculture since it destroys vast quantities of injurious
insects. Has a variety of loud, raucous croaks and chuckles. Indulges
in a spectacular courtship display, somersaulting and nosediving in the
air to the accompaniment of harsh, grating screams. Nesting: Season-
chiefly March to July. Nest-a collection of straw, rags and rubbish
in a natural tree-hollow at moderate heights; sometimes in a hole
in wall of building. Eggs--4 or 5, glossy white roundish ovals.
108. The Common Green Bee-eater-Merops orientalis Latham
HINDI NAME : Patringa
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: A dainty grass-green bird tinged
with reddish brown on head and neck. Central pair of tail feathers
prolonged into blunt pins. Slender, long, slightly curved bill. Con-
spicuous black 'necklace'. Sexes alike. Pairs, or parties, in open country
on telegraph wires, fence-posts, etc. Distribution: Throughout the
Indian Union from about 5 0 0 0 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans;
Ceylon; Burma. Resident and locally migratory. Four races, mainly
on depth of coloration. Habits: Inhabits open country-the neigh-
bourhood of cultivation, forest clearings, fallow land, gardens, golf
links, etc. Also partial to the zone above sandy beach along the sea-
coast. Launches aerial sallies after bees etc., snapping them up in
its bill and circling back gracefully on outstretched motionless wings
to the perch, where the quarry is battered to death and swallowed.
Food: Insects, chiefly diptera and hymenoptera. Call: A pleasant
jingling tit, tit or trilly tree-tree-tree constantly uttered on the wing
or at rest. Large numbers collect to roost in favourite leafy trees,
and much noise and flying around in rabbles precedes retirement for
the night. Nesting : Seasorz-principal1 y February to May. Nest-a
horizontal or oblique tunnel ending in a widened egg chamber, dug
in the side of an earth-cutting, borrow-pit or in uneven sandy ground.
E g g s 4 to 7, pure white, roundish ovals. Both sexes share in excavat-
ing nest-tunnel and feeding young.
105. Blossomheaded Parakeet 106. Lorikeet
107. Indian Roller 1 0 7 ~ . Wing of Kashmir Roller
108. Common Green Bee-eater
Plate 28
109. The Bluetailed Bee-eater-Merops philippinus Linnaeus
HMDI NAME : Bara patringa
Size : Bulbul. Field Characters : Distinguished from 108 by larger

size, black stripe through the eyes, deep chestnut throat and breast,
blue rump and tail. Sexes alike. Small flocks in open country, especial-
ly about tanks and jheels. Distribution: Patchily throughout the
Indian Union from about 3000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans;
Ceylon ; Burma. Resident and locally migratory.
The somewhat larger BLUECHEEKED BEE-EATER (M. superciliosus)
has a partly overlapping range in India. No blue on rump; tail bronze-
green; chestnut patch on breast paler and smaller. Both species
subject to seasonal local movements imperfectly understood.
Habits: Inhabits more or less the same type of country as 108
but on the whole definitely prefers better-wooded tracts and the
neighbourhood of jheels and streams. Call: te-tew?, te-few? deeper
and readily distinguishable from that of the Common Beeeater. In
the distance these calls sound rather like thepettigrew notes of the
Redvented Bulbul. In food and general habits there is little difference
between the several bee-eaters. Nesting: Season-overall March to
June. Nest-a tunnel in a river-bank or sandy mound as of 108;
usually in colonies, occasionally in association with Bank Mynas.
Eggs-5 to 7, pure white roundish ovals. Both sexes share in excavating
nest-tunnel, incubation (?)and feeding young.
1 10 . The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater-Merops Ieschenaulti Vieillot

HINDI NAME: Ldsir patringa
Size: Bulbul-. Field Characters: Similar in general effect to 109, but

central pin feathers projecting only slightly beyond tail. Head and
upper back bright chestnut; chin and throat yellow. Sexes alike.
Small flocks on exposed branches of trees in wooded country. Distri-
bution: The W. Ghats country south of about Belgaum; the Himala-
yan terai from Dehra Dun to E. Assam ; Orissa. E. Pakistan ; Ceylon ;
Burma. Rare or absent in central and eastern peninsular India. Habits :
Occurs patchily and locally in fairly well-wooded country intermediate
between the moist evergreen and the dry deciduous types. Prefers
foothills up to 4000 ft. elevation. Large gatherings collect at nightly
roosts in favourite leafy trees. Food and general habits similar to 108
and 109. Voice and notes closely resemble those of the Large Green
Bee-eater. Nesting: Season-overall February to May, varying locally.
Nests-tunnels in earth-cuttings and sandy soil similar to those of the
other bee-eaters, commonly in banks of streams in forested coun try.
Singly or in small colonies. Eggs-5 to 6, glossy, pure white, roundish
ovals.
109. Bluetailed Bee-eater 110. Chestnut-headed Bee-eater

1 1 1. Pied Kingfisher 1 12. Common Kingfisher
1 1 1. The Pied Kingfisher-Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Koryala kilkila
Size: Between Myna and Pigeon. Field Characters: A speckled and

barred black-and-white kingfisher with the typical, stout, dagger-
shaped bill. Female similar to male but with a single black gorget
broken in the middle, as against two more or less complete ones in the
male. Singly or pairs, by streams and tanks, perched on rock or
hovering above water.
The HIMALAYAN PIED KINGFISHER (Ceryle lugubris), much larger
and with a prominent crest, replaces this species above 2500 ft. in the
Himalayas.
Distribution: Throughout the plains of India, both Pakistans,
Ceylon, Burma the race leucomelanura occurs, excepting Kerala to
which is confined the much darker travancorensis. Habits: Frequents
rivers, jheels, irrigation tanks and tidal creeks. Usually seen perched
on a favourite rock or stake near water, flicking up its tail and bobbing
its head now and again. Its chief characteristic is its spectacular method
of fishing. It hovers stationary for considerable periods, 30 ft. or so
above the water, 'standing on its tail', and hurls itself, wings pulled
in at the sides, at fish coming up within striking depth. On emergence
with the quarry, the bird flies off to a convenient rock where the victim
is battered before being swallowed. Call: A sharp, cheery chirruk,
chirruk uttered on the wing. Food: Fish, tadpoles, frogs and aquatic
insects. Nesting: Season-between October and May. Nest-a hori-
zontal tunnel dug in a precipitous mud bank of a stream. Eggs-
5 or 6, glossy white roundish ovals. Both sexes share excavation,
incubation( ?) and feeding the young.
1 1 2 . The Common.Kingfisher -Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus)

HINDI NAME : Chhdta kilkila
Size: Sparrow+. Field Characters: A dapper blue-and-green little

kingfisher, with deep rust coloured underparts, short stumpy tail and
long, straight, pointed bill. Sexes alike. Singly by stream, tank or
puddle; perched on an overhanging branch or flying swiftly over the
water. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans;
Ceylon ; Burma. Three races, on size and details of coloration. Habits :
From time to time as the bird sits scanning the water from an over-
hanging branch, it bobs its head, turning it this side and that, and jerks
its stub tail to the accompaniment of a subdued click. A sharp clzichee,
chichee is uttered as it dashes off at top speed, low over the surface,
from one corner of its beat to another. Its normal method of hunting is
to drop bill foremost upon its quarry from an overhanging perch.
Occasionally it also hovers like 1 1 1 . Food: Small fish, tadpoles and
aquatic insects. Nesting: Season-principally March to June. Nest-
a horizontal tunnel dug into the earth bank of a stream or ditch, a foot
to 4 ft. in length, ending in a widened egg chamber. Eggs-5 to 7,
pure white, glossy, roundish ovals. Both sexes share all the domestic
duties.
56
113. The Whitebreasted Kingfisher-Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES: Kilkila, Kourilla
Size: Between Myna and Pigeon. Field Characters: A brilliant tur-

quoise-blue kingfisher with deep chocolate-brown head, neck and
underparts, a conspicuous white 'shirt front', and long, heavy, pointed
red bill. A white wing-patch prominent in flight. Sexes alike. Singly,
in cultivated and wooded country, both near and away from water.
Distribution: Plains and lower hills throughout the Indian Union;
both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Four races based on size and colora-
tion differences. Habits: The most familiar of our kingfishers and also
the least dependent upon water. Seen at ponds, puddles, rain-filled
ditches, inundated paddy fields and near the seashore, but also in light
forest at considerable distances from water. From a favourite lookout
on telegraph wire or post, it pounces down on creeping prey and flies
off with it to another perch nearby where the victim is battered to
death and swallowed. Food: Fish, tadpoles, lizards, grasshoppers
and other insects. Occasionally also young birds and mice. Call: a
loud cackling chiefly uttered in flight. Also has a loud, not unmusical,
frequently-repeated chattering song, delivered from a tree-top or some
exposed elevated perch. Nesting: Season-principally March to July.
Nest-typical of the kingfishers; in a horizontal tunnel dug into the
side of a dry nullah or earth-cutting. Eggs-4 to 7, white, spherical.
Both sexes excavate, incubate (?), and feed the young.
114. The Blackcapped Kingfisher-Halcyon pileata (Boddaert)

HINDI NAME : Kourilla
Size: Between Myna and Pigeon. Same as 113. Field Characters:

Deep cobalt blueabove; pale rusty below. A velvety black cap on head
separated from back by a prominent white collar on hindneck. Bright
coral red bill. In flight, a large white patch in wing (primaries) con-
spicuous and diagnostic. Sexes alike. Singly, near the seacoast. Dis-
tribution: Practically the entire coastline of India south of about
Bombay; E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Habits: Affects the seacoast
and tidal rivers, frequently ascending along these for considerable
distances inland in forested country. Mangrove swamps bordering
tidal creeks are favourite haunts. Except that it is largely dependent on
the presence of water, chiefly salt or brackish, for its food-fish, crabs,
etc.--its habits are quite similar to those of the more familiar white-
breasted species. Call: like the Whitebreasted Kingfisher's, but some-
what shriller. Nesting: Seasolz-May to July. Nest-a tunnel exca-
vated in the earth-bank of a river or creek ending in a widened egg
chamber. E g g s 4 to 5, white, spherical, also very like those of 113.
115. The Brownheaded Storkbilled Kingfisher-Pelargopsis
capensis (Linnaeus)
~ N D NAMES
I : Giirial, Badzmi kourilla
Size : Pigeon-. Field Characters: Head brown,upper parts pale green-
ish blue, underparts pale yellowish brown or ochraceous. Easily dis-
tinguished from all other brightly coloured kingfishers by its large size
and enormous, compressed blood-red bill. Sexes alike. Singly, or sepa-
rated pairs, at forest streams. Distribution: Practically the entire
Indian Union excepting Rajasthan and the adjoining arid portions;
E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. In India only the nominate race con-
cerns us. Habits: Affects well-watered country, and except in Bengal
and Assam where it is commonly seen on telegraph wires along the
railway, keeps to shady forest streams, jungle pools, and swampy glades.
Also mangrove- and Pandanus-lined tidal creeks. Sits on branches
overhanging water, hidden by foliage. Seen chiefly when coursing up
and down forest streams. Its method of hunting resembles that of the
Common Kingfisher, but it does not hover and plunge from the air.
Call: A raucous, explosive, chattering 'laugh' kd-ke-ke-ke-ke-ke-
(accent on first k8). Also utters a pleasant soliloquy peer-peer-pfir
when resting contentedly on some shady branch. Food: Fish, crabs,
reptiles, frogs, and occasionally also young birds and eggs from nests.
Nesting: Season-January to July. Nest-the typical horizontal tunnel
of kingfishers, excavated in a steep outscoured bank of a forest stream.
E g g s 4 or 5, white, glossy, roundish ovals.
1 16. The Common Grey Hornbill-Tockus birostris (Scopoli)
HINDI NAMES : Chaldtra, DhanZsh
Size: Pariah Kite. Field Characters: A clumsy brownish grey bird
with an enormous black-and-white curved bill surmounted by a
peculiar protuberance or casque, and long graduated tail. In female
the casque is smaller. Small parties, in lightly-wooded country with
groves of ancient trees.
Replaced in the heavy rainfall W. Ghats country north to Bombay,
and Ceylon, by the MALABAR GREYHORNBILL (T. griseus) which lacks
the casque above the bill.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union excepting Malabar,
parts of Rajasthan, and Assam. Absent in East Pakistan; Ceylon;
Burma. Habits: Arboreal. Commonly met with among fig-laden
banyan and peepal trees along roadsides or near villages, feeding in
company with green pigeons and other frugivorous birds, or flying
across from one tree to another in follow-my-leader fashion. Flight
typical of the hornbills, laboured, undulating and noisy-a few rapid
wing strokes followed by a dipping glide with the primaries upturned.
Calls: A loud, cackling k-k-k-kaa and a variety of squealing and
chattering conversational notes. Food: Mainly fruit, but also large
insects, lizards, young mice, etc. Nesting: Seasun-principally March
to June. Nest-a natural tree-hollow, walled up with the bird's dropp-
ings after the female has settled herself within, leaving only a narrow
slit through which the male feeds her during the self-imposed confine-
ment. The wall is broken down after the young hatch out, and both
parents forage for the young thereafter. Eggs-2 or 3, dull glossless
white. (See also MALABAR PIED HORNB~LL, p. 120.)
113. Whitebreasted Kinasher 114. Blackcapped Kingfisher
1 15. Brownheaded Storkbilled 116. Grey Hornbill
Kingfisher
58
Plate 30
1 17. The Hoopoe- Upupa epops Linnaeus
HINDI NAME: Hcdhiid
Size: Myna?. Field Characters: A fawn coloured bird with black

and white zebra markings on back, wings and tail. A conspicuous
fan-shaped crest, and long, slender, gently curved bill. Sexes alike.
Singly or pairs, usually on the ground in lightly-wooded country.
tans; Ceylon; Burma. Resident and also locally migratory. Three
races chiefly concern us, differentiated on details of size and colora-
tion. Habits: Affects open country, plains and hills up to about
5000 ft. elevation. Fond of lawns, gardens and groves in and around
villages and towns. Walks and runs with a quail-like but waddling
gait, probing into the soil for food with bill partly open like forceps.
When digging, the crest is folded back and projects in a point behind
the head. It is flicked open and erected fanwise from time to time.
Call: A soft, musical, penetrating, hoo-po or hoo-po-po repeated in
runs, often intermittently for 10 minutes at a stretch. Food: Insects,
grubs and pupae; hence is beneficial to agriculture. Nesting: Season
-principally February to May. Nest-a natural tree-hollow or hole
In wall or ceiling of a building, untdiily lined with straw, rags and
rubbish. Eggs-5 or 6, white. The nest is notorious for its filthiness
and stench. Both sexes share in feeding the young.
118. The House Swift-Apus afinis (J. E. Gray)
HINDI NAMES : Babila, Bat iisi
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A small smoky-black bird with

white throat, white rump, short square tail, and long narrow wings.
Sexes alike. Flying about gregariously near human habitations.
Distribution: Patchily throughout the Indian Union from about
6000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Five
races, on details of size and coloration. Habits: Fond of ancient
forts, ruined mosques and buildings, and dwelling houses-deserted
o r occupied-often in the midst of noisy cities. Flies about at great
speed almost incessantly throughout the day, hawking flies and midges.
The inordinately widened gape facilitates capture of tiny prey in the
air. Food: Chiefly dipterous insects. Owing to peculiar structure
o f foot-all four toes directed forward-swifts cannot perch in the
ordinary way, but only cling to rough surfaces. In the evenings
disorderly rabbles 'ball' high up in the air in play, uttering shrill
joyous twittering screams. Nesting: Season-February to September.
Nest-a round untidy cup of feathers and straw cemented with the
'birds' saliva, with a slit between wall and nest for entrance. Usually
in colonies, plastered in angle of walls and ceiling in verandahs,
porches and arched gateways of buildings. Eggs-2 to 4, pure white,
longish ovals. Both sexes share in building, incubation (?), and feeding
young.
117. Hoopoe 118. House Swift
119. Palm Swift 120. Alpine Swift
59
119. The Palm Swift-Cypsiurus parvus (Lichtenstein)
HINDI NAMES: T6ri batasi, Tal chatta, Patta deuli
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A slim, plain sooty-grey bird
with narrow deeply forked tail, and long slender bow-like wings.
Sexes alike. Flying about gregariously over open country dotted
with palmyra palms. Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian
Union, coincident with the range of the tad or palmyra palm (Borassus
flabellqer). Also E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Two races based
on size and coloration details. Habits: Inseparable from the tad
palm, the rigid folds and furrows of whose leaves provide it with
eminently suitable roosting and nesting sites. The birds spend the
day hawking tiny winged insects in the vicinity of the palms, turning
and twisting in the air adroitly to the accompaniment of a shrill
joyous triple note ti-ti-tee. The deep fork in the tail is particularly
noticeable when the bird wheels or banks in its flight. Nesting: Seas011
-undefined; varying locally. Nest-a tiny half-saucer of feathers.
and vegetable down agglutinated with the bird's saliva, attached in a
fold on the underside of a tad leaf. In the Garo and Naga Hills of
Assam, nests are sometimes built in the palm leaf thatching of inhabited
huts. Eggs-2 or 3, pure white, long pointed ovals.
120. The Alpine Swift-Apus melba (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Bar6 batasi
.
Size: Bulbul+ Field Characters: A large swift, dark brown above,
white below with a diagnostic dark brown band across the breast.
Tail short and square-cut. Wings, very long, pointed and bow-like.
Sexes alike. Loose parties, dashing at terrific speed around hilltops
etc. Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Union, plains
and hills; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Resident, sporadic, and
locally migratory. Three races, on size and shade of coloration.
Habits: An extremely fast and sustained flier, with a speed estimated
at between 130 and 250 km.p.h. They cover enormous distances during
the day's foraging and make sudden and momentary appearances
in localities a hundred (or pel-haps many hundred) kilometres from
likely roosting sites, passing on as suddenly as they appeared. The birds
spend the daylight hours hawking insects high up in the air, but
descend to lower levels in cloudy overcast weather. In the evenings
they 'ball' up in the heavens with noisy twittering in the manner of
the House Swift. Food: Hemipterous bugs and other tiny winged
insects. Nesting : Season-MaylJune in the north ; DecembertJanuary
in the south. Nest-a rough pad of straw, feathers and rubbish agglu-
tinated with the bird's saliva placed on ledges in fissures of cliffs and
natural caves, in colonies. The cliffs flanking Jog Falls in Mysore are a
well-known nest locality in S. India. Eggs-2 to 4, glossless white,
pointed ovals.
Swifts do not normally cling on wires. The illustration is of one
in captivity, purposely to show the underparts.
(See also CRESTED TREESWIFT,p. 120.)
60
12 1. The Common Indian Nightjar-Caprinzulgus asiaticus La tham
HINDI NAMES : Chhipak, Dab-chiri
Size: Myna?. Field Characters: A soft-plumaged crepuscular and

nocturnal bird, mottled grey brown, buff and fulvous, black-streaked
above, of a complicated camouflaging pattern. White patches on wings
conspicuous in flight. Sexes alike. Singly, in scrub country, crouchilng
on ground by day, hawking insects at dusk.
Several other species of nightjars are locally common. They resemble
one another superficially and are hard to tell in the field except by
their calls which are always diagnostic.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon;
Burma. Resident and partly local migrant. The Ceylon race eidos
is smaller than the Indian asiaticus. Habits: Frequents scrub and
stony country, dry overgrown nullahs, compounds and groves in
the neighbourhood of cultivation and human habitations. Spends the
day squatting under shelter of a bush or along a low bough. Active
after sunset, and all through night, hawking insects. Flight peculiarly
moth-like, silent and wandering-long sailing glides alternated with
somewhat leisurely flapping of the wings. Call: Familiar and diagnos-
tic, chuk-chuk-chuk-clzuk-r-r-r, well likened to a stone gliding over a
frozen pond. Food: Beetles, moths and other insects. Nesting:
Season-not well-defined, chiefly February to September. No nest.
Eggs-2, pale pink to deep salmon colour, spotted and blotched with
reddish brown and inky purple; laid on bare ground in bamboo or
bush jungle.
122. The Barn or Screech Owl-Tyto alba (Scopoli)
HINDI NAMES : Kuraya, Karail
Size: Jungle Crow +. Field Characters: A typical owl, golden buff

and grey above finely stippled with black and white; silky white below
tinged with buff and normally spotted dark brown. Large round head
with a conspicuous ruff of stiff feathers surrounding a comically
pinched white monkey-like facial disc. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs,
about deserted buildings and ruins. Distribution: The entire Indian
Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon ; Burma. Two races chiefly concern
us. In numerous other races, the Barn Owl has an almost world-wide
range. Habits: Inseparable from the haunts of man. Deserted buil-
dings and cities, and ancient forts and ruins invariably hold their
quota. Purely nocturnal. Spends the daytime standing upright and
dozing in some dark niche. Emerges after dusk with a wheezy screech,
flying about silently and ghost-like, hunting for rats and mice. Calls:
A mixture of harsh discordant screams and weird snoring and hissing
notes. Food: Almost exclusively rats and mice, hence of great eco-
nomic usefulness. Nesting: Season-undefined. Practically all year.
Nest-a collection of straw, twigs, rags and rubbish padded into tree-
hollows, holes in ruined walls, or in the space between ceiling and roof
of a dwelling house. The same site is used year after year. Eggs-4 to
7, white, smooth, roundish.
61
123. The Brown Fish Owl-Bubo zeylonensis (Gmelin)
HINDINAMES: ArnrEii-ka-ghughu, Ulloo
.
Size: Pariah Kitef Field Characters: A large heavy brown owl, the
underparts paler with dark vertical streaks, especially about the breast,
Feather tufts projecting above the head like long ears. Large round
yellow forwardly directed eyes. Unfeathered legs diagnostic. Sexes
alike. Singly or pairs, in ancient trees near water. Distribution:
Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Two
races concern us, the Ceylonese zeylonensis being smaller and darker
than the Indian leschenault. Habits: Nocturnal. Affects well-wooded,
well-watered tracts. Fond of overgrown ravines etc., in the neigh-
bourhood of jheels and streams, and groves of ancient densely foliaged
trees about village tanks. Call: A deep hollow, moaning, boom-o-
boom with a peculiar eerie and ventriloquistic quality, uttered at
sundown on leaving the daytime retreat, and during night and early
morning. Food: Fish, frogs, crabs, small mammals, birds, reptiles;
occasionally carrion. Nesting: Season-December to March, but
varying with locality. Nest-a natural tree-hollow or cleft of rock near
water, occasionally lined with a few twigs. Sometimes an old eagle's
nest is used. Eggs-1 or 2, white, roundish with a slightly glossed
though pitted texture. Vicinity of nest invariably bestrewn with cast-
up pellets and remains of birds and small animals.
124. The Indian Great Horned Owl-Bubo bubo (Linnaeus)

HINDI NAME: G h ~ g h ~
Size: Pariah Kitef. Field Characters: Similar to the Fish Owl (123)
in general effect, but fully feathered legs diagnostic. Sexes alike.
Singly or pairs, in wooded rocky ravines or shady groves. Distribu-
tion: The entire Indian Union; both Pakistans; Burma. Not Ceylon.
The only race that concerns us is bengalensis. This genus of Horned
Owls has a practically world-wide distribution. Habits: Mainly
nocturnal. Inhabits well-wooded but open and cultivated country,
and avoids heavy forest. Favourite haunts are bush-covered rocky
hillocks and ravines, and steep outscoured banks of rivers and streams.
Spends the day under shelter of a bush or rocky projection, or in
ancient mango and similar thickly foliaged trees near villages. Call: A
deep, solemn, resounding bu-bo (2nd syllable much prolonged),
not loud but with a curious penetrating quality. Food: Small mam-
mals, birds, reptiles; occasionally large insects, fish and crabs. A
beneficial species on account of the heavy toll it takes of field rats and
mice in agricultural areas. Nesting: Season-principally November t o
April. Eggs-3 or 4, creamy white, broad roundish ovals with a
smooth texture. Laid without nest on bare soil in a natural recess in
earth bank, on ledge of cliff, or under shelter of bush on level ground,
-
121. Common Indian Nightjar 122. Barn Owl
123. Brown Fish Owl 124. Great Homed Owl
125. The Collared Scops Owl-Otus bakkamoena Pennant
HINDI NAME: Tharkavi choghad
Size: Myna+; = Spotted Owlet. Field Characters: A pretty little

'homed' owlet, grey-brown or rufous-brown above, verrniculated and
mottled with whitish. A pale half-collar on upper back. Chin and
throat buffy white, the latter barred and stippled with black. Under-
parts buff streaked with black and with fine wavy reddish brown
bars. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs, in open wooded country. Distribu-
tion : Throughout the Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon ;
Burma. Several races, differing chiefly in details of coloration. Habits:
Nocturnal. Affects open deciduous forest, and groves of trees in or
near towns and villages. Oftener heard than seen. Call: a soft inter-
rogative wiit? repeated monotonously every 2 or 3 seconds over long
stretches of time, between dusk and dawn. Also an occasional bubbl-
ing, chattering note in ascending scale. Food: Beetles and other
insects; occasionally mice and lizards. Nesting: Season-principally
January to April. Nest-a natural hollow in a tree-trunk or bough,
or a disused woodpecker or barbet nest-hole, without any lining.
Eggs-3 to 5, white, spherical.
126. The Spotted Owlet-Athene brama (Temminck)

HINDI NAMES: Khakiisat, Khiisattia, Choghad
Size: Myna*. Field Characters: A squat, white-spotted greyish

brown little owl, with the typical large round head and forwardly
directed staring yellow eyes. Sexes alike. Pairs or family parties,
about villages, in ruins, and groves of ancient trees, etc. Distribution:
Throughout the Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Burma. Not Ceylon.
Three races, on size and depth of coloration. Habits: Chiefly crepuscu-
lar and nocturnal. Our commonest and most familiar owl. Affects
all types of country excepting heavy forest. Particularly abundant
about human habitations. Pairs spend the daytime in some hollow
in an ancient tree-trunk or sitting huddled together on a secluded
branch. They fly out fussily when suspicious of being observed, and
bob and stare at the intruder from a distance in clownish fashion.
Calls: A large variety of harsh chattering, squabbling and chuckling
notes, two individuals frequently combining in a discordant duet.
Food: Chiefly beetles and other insects; also young birds and mice,
and lizards, etc. Nesting: Season-principally November to April.
Eggs-3 or 4, white, roundish ovals. Laid on an untidy pad of tow
or fibres in tree-hollows, holes in crumbling walls, or between ceiling
and roof of deserted as well as occupied dwellings. Both sexes share
all the domestic duties.
125. Collared Scops Owl 126. Spotted Owlet

127. Barred Jungle Owlet 128. Osprey
63
127. The Barred Jungle Owlet-Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell)
HINDI NAME: Jangli choghad
Size: Same as 126. Field Characters: General effect as of 126, but

dark brown above and conspicuously barred (not spotted) with pale
rufous. Underparts rufous and white, closely barred with blackish
brown. Sexes alike. Singly, in open deciduous forest. Distribution:
Patchily over a great part of the Indian Union, excepting Rajasthan
and the adjoining arid portions, and perhaps also the E. Ghats;
East Pakistan (?); Ceylon. Not Burma or W. Pakistan. Habits:
Crepuscular and nocturnal, but apparently little inconvenienced by
sunlight and frequently on the move in daytime. Its preferential
habitat, shared with the Racket-tailed Drongo, is open forest such as
of mixed teak and bamboo. Call: A loud, not unpleasant kao-k6o-
kao, followed by kao-kiik, k6o-kiik, kao-kiik, and so on, in increasing
tempo. It is somewhat reminiscent of the Grey Junglecock's crow
heard in the distance. Food: Mainly beetles and other insects.
Nesting: Season-overall March to May. Nest-a natural tree hollow,
usually unlined. Eggs-2 to 4, white, roundish ovals.
128. The Osprey-Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus)
Size: Pariah Kite+. Field Characters: A dark brown hawk with a

brown-and-white head, and white underparts. Across the upper
breast is a broad brown band, or 'necklace', which is diagnostic both
when the bird is at rest and on the wing. Sexes alike. Singly, at
irrigation tanks, jheels, and on the sea coast. Distribution: In winter
the entire Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Habits:
A fish-eating hawk, commonly found in winter on many of
our larger rivers, irrigation tanks and jheels. Flies up and down
over the water scanning the surface for any fish coming up within
striking depth. Occasionally hovers like a kestrel to investigate more
closely, with legs dangling below in readiness. At a suitable opportu-
nity the bird closes its wings and hurls itself upon the quarry, striking
the water with a great splash and often becoming completely sub-
merged. The fish is grasped in the talons and carried off to some
convenient rock nearby, where it is torn to pieces and devoured.
Call: Seldom heard in its winter quarters; described as a clear kai,
kai, kai. Nesting: In Europe the season is April to June. Its alleged
breeding in the Himalayas, and elsewhere within Indian limits has
not been proven.
129. The Black, or King, Vulture-Torgos calvus (Scopoli)
HINDI NAME : RGj gidh
Size: Peacock+_ minus the train. Field Characters: A huge, black,

turkey-like vulture with deep scarlet naked head, neck and legs. In
overhead flight a whitish band on underside of wings prominent;
also white patches on upper thighs and at base of neck. In sailing,
wings held above plane of body in a wide V. Sexes alike. Singly on the
countryside. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union, from about
5000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Burma. Not Ceylon.
Habits: A carrion-feeder, usually present singly or in twos and threes
among all vulture gatherings at animal carcases. Far less gregarious
than 130. It has a false reputation for boldness and audacity and for
monopolising a carcase until it has had its fill of the choicest tit-bits.
Actually it is timid and cowardly, keeping deferentially aloof of the
scrimmage, sneaking in and hurriedly withdrawing with a gobbet of
flesh only when the pressure of the other feasters has momentarily
eased. Nesting: Season-December to April. Nest-a massive plat-
form of twigs in the top of a large tree 30 or 40 ft. up, often close to a
village. Egg-a singleton, white, fine textured roundish oval.
130. The Whitebacked, or Bengal, Vulture-Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin)

HINDI NAME: Gidh
Size: Peacock+_ minus train. Field Characters: A heavy, dirty

blackish brown vulture with scrawny, naked head and neck. At rest,
and while banking in the air, the white back is diagnostic. In overhead
flight a whitish band stretching along underside of wings, broken in the
middle by the brown body, also helps identification. Sexes alike.
Sub-adult birds brown, without white back and easily confused with
LONGBILLED VULTURE (Gyps indicus), another common Indian species.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Burma.
Not Ceylon. Habits: Our commonest vulture. A carrion-feeder and
useful scavenger on the countryside and in the environs of towns and
villages. Large gatherings collect at animal carcases with astonishing
promptness and demolish them with incredible speed. The obsequies
are attended by a great deal of harsh screeching and hissing as the
birds strive to elbow themselves into advantageous positions, or
prance around with open wings, two birds tugging at a morsel from
opposite ends. Though a repulsive creature at close quarters, a
vulture gliding effortlesslyin the sky is the very embodiment of graceful
motion. Nesting: Season-October to March. Nest-a large untidy
platform of sticks in the top of a banyan, tamarind or similar tree,
often along roadsides or near villages. Egg-a singleton, white,
occasionally speckled and spotted with reddish brown.
131. The White Scavenger Vulture or Pharaoh's Chicken-
Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Saf i d gidh
Size: Pariah Kite. Field Characters: A dirty-white kite-like vulture
with black wing quills, and naked yellow head and bill. Immature
birds brown, rather like the kite, but the wedge-shaped (not forked)
tail diagnostic. Sexes alike. Singly, or twos and threes, in open coun-
try about human habitations. Distribution: The Indian Union with the
exception of Assam; West Pakistan; Ceylon (rarely). Not E. Pakistan
or Burma. Two races, on size and coloration details. Habits: A useful
scavenger. M e c t s open country, invariably in the neighbourhood of
human habitations-town or village environs, rural homesteads or
nomadic herdsmen's encampments. Stalks about on the ground
with a high-stepping, waddling gait-reminiscent of the German
'goose-step'-picking up offal and human excrement which form a
considerable proportion of its diet. Sometimes associates with kites,
crows and other vultures to feed on wayside animal carcases. Nesting:
Season-principally February to April. Nest-a large shabby mass of
twigs, filthy rags, hair and rubbish on a ledge of rock or niche in
ruined fortifications, ancient crumbling mosques, tombs and the like.
Sometimes in the fork of a large banyan or similar tree. Eggs-2,
varying from white to pale brick red, blotched with reddish brown or
blackish, heavily at the broad end; very handsome. Both sexes share
132. The Laggar Falcon-Falco biarmicus jugger Gray
HINDI NAME : Laggar
Size: Jungle Crow?. Field Characters: An ashy brown falcon with
brown-streaked white underparts, and narrow brown moustachial
stripes running down from in front and below the eyes. In overhead
flight, white breast and brown-and-white pattern on underside of the
long, pointed wings are suggestive clues. Immature birds brown
underneath. Sexes alike, but male smaller. Pairs, in open country,
about cultivation and habitations. Distribution: The Indian Union
from about 2500 ft. in the Himalayas; rare in Assam and extreme
south India. West Pakistan. Not in Ceylon or Burma. Habits: One
of our commonest falcons. Affects open scrub country, thin jungle
and neighbourhood of cultivation. Avoids humid forest tracts. Pairs
work in concert, stooping on and chasing down winged prey. Is
capable of sustained pursuit at great speed. In addition to pigeons
which form the chief food item in urban areas, other small birds
as well as field rats, lizards, locusts and dragonflies are also eaten.
Call: A shrill prolonged whi-ee-ee. Before decline in vogue of falconry
was trained to hunt birds as large as florican. Nesting: Season-
principally January to April. Nest-like a crow's, a twig platform
lined with straw, leaves, etc., high up in a tree, on ledge of cliff, or in a
disused or ruined tower. Eggs-3 to 5, pale stone or pinkish cream,
densely blotched and smudged with reddish brown. Both sexes
share in all the domestic duties.
(See also SHAHINFALCON, p. 124.)
129. King Vulture 130. Whitebacked Vulture
131. White Scavenger Vulture 132. Laggar Falcon
66
133, The Redheaded Merlin-Falco chicquera Daudin
HINDI NAME: Tiiriimti
Size: Pigeon t. Field Characters: An elegant little falcon, bluish grey
above, white below closely barred with blackish on abdomen and
flanks. In flight the narrow white edging to end of tail, preceded by a
broad black band are useful clues. The conspicuous chestnut head is
diagnostic. Sexes alike, but female larger. Singly or pairs, in open
thinly-wooded country. Distribution: The drier parts of the Indian
Union; West Pakistan. Absent in eastern Assam, E. Pakistan (?),
Ceylon and Burma. Habits: Affects open plains and scrub country
interspersed with villages and cultivation. Avoids humid forest tracts.
Male and female frequently hunt in concert, one driving and heading
off the quarry while the other pursues and strikes it down. Flight
straight and swift attained by rapid and regular wing beats as in
Sparrow-Hawk. Food: Small birds, rats, mice, lizards and insects;
occasionally also bats. Call: A high-pitched squeal. Nesting: Season
-principally January to May. Nest-a fairly well-made cup or
platform of twigs lined with grass and roots, concealed up in a densely
foliaged branch of large mango or similar tree. Eggs-3 or 4, pale
reddish white thickly speckled with reddish brown. Bold and trucu-
lent while nesting, attacking and putting to flight much larger birds
blundering into the vicinity of the nest-tree.
134. The Kestrel-Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus
HINDI NAME : Koruttia
Size: Pigeon?. Field Characters: A small slender falcon, brick red
above with grey head; light bufF below with brown spearhead spots.
In flight the pointed black wings and rounded grey tail with broad
black terminal band are useful clues to identification. Female rufous
above, including head, cross-barred with blackish. Singly, in opens
country, perched on stake or hovering. Distribution: Winter visitor
from the Himalayas and beyond throughout the Indian Union, both
Pakistans, Ceylon, Burma. Two races. A third race, objurgatus,
smaller and darker, resident in S. India and Ceylon. Habits:
Chiefly distinguished for its spectacular method of hunting. Checks
itself in flight now and again and remains poised stationary in mid-
air on rapidly hovering wing tips for many seconds, intently scanning
the ground below for crawling prey. If the quarry is sighted, the
kestrel pounces upon it silently and bears it away in its talons. Food:
Field mice, lizards, locusts and other large insects. Call: A sharp ki-
.
ki-ki or tit. . wee uttered on the wing; sometimes when hovering.
Nesting: Season-Himalayas April-June; S. India February-April.
Nest-a sketchy affair of twigs, roots, rags and rubbish in hole or
crevice, or on ledge, of cliff. Occasionally in trees and on ruined
buildings. Eggs-3 to 6, pale pinkish or yellowish stone, profusely
speckled and blotched with various shades of red. Both sexes share
133. Redheaded Merlin 134. Kestrel
135. Tawny Eagle 136. Short-toed Eagle
67
135. The Tawny Eagle-Aquila rapax (Temminck)
HINDI NAME: Ok6b
.
=ze : Pariah Kite+ Field Characters: A heavy, variably coloured
raptore ranging from dark umber brown to dirty buff, with typical flat
eagle's head, powerful hooked bill and fully feathered legs. Tail
rounded like vulture's but relatively longer. Wings long, reaching
almost to tip of tail when at rest; broad and ending in 'splayed fingers',
like vulture's, in flight. Female larger than male. Singly or pairs, in
open country; perched on trees or soaring. Distribution: Practically
throughout the drier portions of the Indian Union from about 4000
ft. in the Himalayas, West Pakistan; Burma (part). Not Ceylon.
Habits: Our commonest eagle. Affects dry open plains and scrub
country, often in the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation.
Largely a scavenger and pirate, feeding at carcases or by robbing other
hawks of prey they have secured. Rarely also catches hares and
other small rodents, and sick or disabled birds. Becomes a troublesome
marauder of the poultry yard when it has nest-young to feed. Utters
a variety of loud, raucous cackles. Nesting: Season-November to
April. Nest-a large platform of sticks, thinly lined with grass and
leaves, up at the top of a solitary thorny babool or similar tree, often
near a village. Eggs-2 or 3, white, with a few reddish brown spots
and specks. Both sexes share in nest-building and feeding the
young, but evidently the female alone incubates.
136. The Short-toed Eagle-CircaEtus gallicrrs (Gmelin)
HINDI NAME: Sampmar
Size: Pariah Kite+. Field Characters: A brown, thick-set eagle with
underparts below breast white, broadly barred with dark brown. Head
large and owl-like. In overhead flight, general aspect silvery grey with
darker head, and dark bars (usually 3) across tail. On close view,
unfeathered legs and upwardly directed bristly feathers of face sug-
gest identity. Immature birds brown and often confusing. Sexes alike,
but female larger. Singly, in open country.
The CRESTED HONEY BUZZARD (Pernis ptilorhynchus) is rather like it
on the wing, but slenderer, longer in the neck, and with smaller head.
Seen from below its silvery grey underside has more dark markings, and
usually only two blackish bands in the tail.
Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Union except
Assam; West Pakistan. Absent in E. Pakistan, Ceylon and Burma.
Habits: Affects dry plains and foothills, as well as cultivated
land. Method of hunting rather like the kestrel's. Frequently hovers
in midair to scan the ground for prey, but its movements thus are
cumbrous and ungainly. Food: Principally snakes and lizards, but
also small or sickly rodents and birds. Call: A loud, screaming,
plaintive pieeou, pieeou chiefly during the breeding season, when also
a pair will indulge in remarkable aerial tumbling and darting displays.
Nesting: Season-overall December to May. Nest-a rough, untidy
platform of twigs, sometimes lined with green leaves and grass, on a
medium-sized tree preferably standing by itself in open scrub jungle.
Egg-a singleton, white or bluish white, broad oval.
68
1 37. The Crested Serpent Eagle-Spilornis cheela (Latham)
HINDINAME: D6gra cheel
Size: Pariah Kite+. Field Characters: A dark brown raptore with a

prominent black-and-white nuchal crest, very full when erected.
Underparts fulvous brown, ocellated and finely barred with black and
white. In overhead flight a white bar across the tail (which is seldom
fanned out as in a true eagle) and two similar bars on each of the broad,
rounded wings, are suggestive clues. Sexes alike. Singly, or pairs,
soaring over wooded country with peculiar shrill screaming calls.
Distribution: The better-wooded parts throughout the Indian Union
from about 7000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon;
Burma. Resident and locally migratory. Three races concern us,
differing in size and coloration details. Habits: An inhabitant of well-
watered country and forested tracts, hill and plain. Keeps a lookout
for prey from a branch high up in some lofty tree, preferably one
commanding a clear view of the surrounding country. Commonly seen
in pairs soaring in wide circles high up in the heavens, calling. Call:
A penetrating high-pitched screaming whistle of 3 or 4 notes kek-kek-
kek-keee. Food: Frogs, lizards, rats, snakes, etc. Rarely also takes
junglefowl and peafowl. Nesting: Season-overall December to
March. Nest-a large stick platform, lined with green leaves, high
up in a lofty forest tree, preferably near streams or clearings. Egg-
single, creamy or yellowish white boldly blotched with reddish brown.
13 8. The Crested Hawk-Eagle-SpizaBtus cirrlzatrcs (Gmelin)

HINDI NAME : Shfih B ~ z
Size: Pariah Kite+. Field Characters: A slender forest eagle in

various confusing colour phases. Normally brown above; white
below with black longitudinal streaks on throat and chocolate streaks
on breast. Long narrow crest projecting behind head. In overhead
flight, comparatively rounded wings (upturned at tip), longish tail,
white body (spotted with brown) and grey underside of wings (streaked
and spotted) are leading pointers. Sexes alike; female larger. Singly,
in well-wooded country. Distribution: Practically the entire Indian
Union; E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Several races and closely
allied species, differing in size and other details. Habits: Keeps a
sharp lookout, perched bolt upright on a bough amongst the foliage
canopy of some high tree standing near a forest clearing, for jungle-
fowl, pheasants, hares and other small animals coming out into the
open. Swoops down with a terrific rush, strikes and bears them away
in its talons. Call: A loud, high-pitched ki-ki-ki-ki-ki-ki-ki-kee,
beginning short, rising in crescendo and ending in a scream. Nesting:
Season-December to April. Nest-a large stick platform lined with
green leaves, high up in a forest tree. Egg-a singleton, greyish
white, unmarked or with faint specks and blotches of light reddish at
the broad end.
139. The White-eyed Buzzard-Butastur teesa (Franklin)
Size : Jungle Crow +_. Field Characters : A small greyish brown hawk
with white throat, two dark cheek stripes, brown and white underparts,
and orange-yellow cere. Eyes, white or yellowish white, conspicuous at
close quarters. A whitish nuchal patch and buffish wing shoulders pro-
vide additional clues to its identity. Sexes alike. Singly, in open scrub
country. Distribution: The drier parts throughout the Indian Union
from about 3000 ft. in the Himalayas (scarce in the southern penin-
sula); West Pakistan; Burma. Not Ceylon. Resident, but also
moves locally. Habits: Affects dry open country and thin deciduous
forest; avoids humid and densely-wooded tracts. Rather sluggish.
Perches on dry trees, telegraph posts, etc., and swoops down on its
prey. Food: Locusts, grasshoppers, crickets and other large insects
as well as mice, lizards and frogs. A beneficial species, quite wrongly
accused of destroying game birds. Call: A not unpleasant, plaintive
mewing, usually uttered when pairs soar in circles high up in the air,
often in company with larger birds of prey. Silhouette of the rounded
wings reminiscent of the Shikra. Nesting: Season-principally Feb-
ruary to May. Nest-a loose, unlined cup of twigs like a crow's,
up in the fork of a thickly foliaged tree such as mango, preferably one
in a grove. Eggs-3, greenish white broad ovals of a fairly smooth
texture. Both sexes share nest-building and feeding young; female
alone incubates.
140. Pallas's, or Ringtailed, Fishing Eagle-Haliaeetus leucoryphus

(Pallas). HINDI NAMES : Machhmanga, Dhenk, Machharang
Size: Pariah Kite+. Field Characters: A large dark brown eagle
with pale golden brown head and a broad white band across tail.
particularly conspicuous in flight. Sexes alike; female larger. Pairs.
at jheels and rivers. Distribution: North India including Bengal and
Assam ; both Pakistans ; Burma. Habits : Inseparable from large
rivers and jheels. Captures fish in the manner of the osprey, by
hurling itself on the quarry from the air and seizing it in its talons;
but it does not hover in the air. Food: Fish, snakes, rats, crabs
and even carrion. Lives largely by piracy-attacking ospreys and
other birds with determination, and depriving them of their legiti-
mate prize. Occasionally it also kills coots and other water birds,
or decamps with wildfowl falling to a sportsman's gun. Call: Loud,
raucous screams very like the creaking of an unoiled wooden pulley
of a village well. Nesting: Season-November to March. Nest-a
massive stick platform at the top of some large isolated tree standing
near water. Eggs-3, white, broad ovals. Both sexes share all the
domestic duties.
(See also WHITEBELLIED SEA EAGLE,p. 123.)
-
137. Crested Serpent Eagle 138. Crested Hawk-Eagle
139. White-eyed Buzzard 140. Pallas's Fishing Eagle
141. The Brahminy Kite-Haliastur indus (Boddaert)
HINDI NAMES: Brcihmani cheel, Dhabia cheel
Size: Pariah Kite+. Field Characters: A distinguished-looking
raptore, bright rusty red above with white head, neck and breast
down to abdomen. Immature birds chocolate-brown; separable
from both kite and young Scavenger Vulture by shape of tail which
is rounded, not forked or wedged. Sexes alike. Singly, by water-
river, jheel or seacoast. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union
up to about 6000 ft. in the Himalayas; W. Pakistan (part); East
Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Resident and locally migratory. Habits:
Keeps invariably to the neighbourhood of rivers, jheels, inundated
paddy fields, and fishing villages and harbours on the seacoast.
Spreads inland during monsoon for land crabs and frogs in water-
logged country. Largely a scavenger in sea ports, picking up scraps
and garbage cast overboard ships. Food: Offal, fish, frogs, small
snakes, etc. Winged termites emerging from rain-sodden ground are
hawked in the air. Call: A hoarse, wheezy squeal as of a pariah
kite suffering from sore throat. Nesting: Season-principally Decem-
ber to April. Nest-a loose platform of twigs, lined with green leaves
etc., built up in a large peepal, banyan or similar tree growing near
water. Eggs-2, greyish white, speckled and blotched with dingy
reddish brown. Both sexes share in the domestic duties.
142. The Common Pariah Kite- Milvus migrans (Boddaert)
HINDI NAME: Cheel
Size: Vulture- ; about 24". Field Characters: A large brown hawk,
distinguished from all similar birds by its forked tail, particularly in
overhead flight. Sexes alike. Singly or gregariously, scavenging in
towns and villages. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union to
about 8000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma.
A resident and a winter migratory race, the latter with a white patch
on underside of wings. Habits: Our commonest raptore. A confirmed
commensal of man and usually found in the neighbourhood of human
habitations, whether populated city or outlying hamlet. Remarkably
adroit on the wing, turning and twisting, banking and stooping to
scoop up scraps from a traffic-congested thoroughfare and avoiding
tangles of overhead telephone and electric wires with masterful ease.
Food: Offal and garbage, earthworms, winged termites, lizards, mice,
disabled or young birds, and almost anything else that can be procured.
Call: A shrill, almost musical whistling ewe-wir-wir-wir uttered from
a perch as well as on the wing. Nesting: Season-September to
April, varying locally. Nest-an untidy platform of twigs, iron wire,
tow, rags and rubbish of every description, up in a large tree or on
roof or cornice of a building. Eggs-2 to 4, dirty pinkish white,
lightly spotted and blotched with reddish brown. Both sexes share
in the domestic duties.
- -
141. Brahminy Kite 142. Pariah Kite

143. Blackwinged Kite 144. Pale Harrier
71
143. The Blackwinged Kite+Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines)
HINDI NAMES : Kapassi, Masun wa
Size: Jungle Crow. Field Characters: A dainty hawk, ashy grey above,
white below, with a black line above the eyes and black patches on
shoulders, conspicuous at rest as well as in flight. When closed, the
wing tips extend beyond the short, square, white tail. Distribution:
Patchily throughout the Indian Union from the base of the Himala-
yas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Resident and locally migra-
tory. Habits: Rather crepuscular, but also active in daytime. In-
habits well-wooded country and cultivation; also thin deciduous
forest and grassland. Avoids dense jungle as well as arid plains.
Keeps to a favoured locality, perched on the same pole or tree-top
from day to day, whence to keep a lookout and pounce upon crawling
prey. Cocks tail from time to time, jerking it up and down between
the drooping wings. Also hovers in mid-air to scan the ground, and
parachutes down in steps with motionless wings raised vertically
above the body till when only a few feet above closes them and drops
on the quarry, bearing it away in its claws. Food: Locusts, crickets,
mice, lizards, etc. Flight sluggish; slow deliberate wing strokes
alternated with short glides. Call: A shrill squeal, seldom heard.
Nesting: Season-practically all year. Nest-loose, untidy, crow-
like, of twigs sometimes lined with roots and grass, in small trees.
Eggs-3 or 4, yellowish white, densely blotched with brownish red.
Both sexes share in the domestic duties.
144. The Pale Harrier-Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin)
HINDI NAMES: Dastmal, Girgit-mfir
Size: Pariah Kite- ; much slenderer. Field Characters: A slender,
pale ashy grey hawk with black tips to its long, narrow, pointed
wings, especially conspicuous in flight. Relatively long white tail
cross-barred with grey. Female umber brown with a buff-coloured
owl-like ruff round head. Singly, sailing gracefully over standing crops
and grassland.
Another common winter visitor, seen at jheels etc., is the MARSH
HARRIER (Circus aeruginosus). Adult male chiefly rufous brown with
silver grey wings and tail. Female, and young male, like a slim Pariah
Kite with rounded tail and creamy buff cap on the head.
Distribution : In winter practically throughout the Indian Union ;
both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Habits: Keeps to cultivated and
scrub country, and rolling grassland. Perches on ground in preference
to bush or tree. Quarters the countryside tirelessly on outspread
motionless wings, skimming over the standing crops and grass,
checking itself dead in mid-air when quarry is sighted on the ground,
and wheeling sharply, almost in reverse gear, to pounce upon it.
Food: Lizards, frogs, grasshoppers, nestling or disabled birds, etc.
Nesting: Not within Indian limits; in eastern Europe and central
Asia, April to June. Nest-a bed of leaves and grass on the ground
in a corn field. E g g s 4 or 5, white, spotted and blotched with reddish
brown.
145. The Shikra-Accipiter badius (Gmelin)
HINDI NAME: Shikra
Size: Pigeon?. Field Characters: A lightly built hawk, ashy blue-
grey above, white below cross-barred with rusty brown. Female
browner above, and larger. Immature, brown and rufous above with
broad brown vertical streaks on the underside. Tail with broad,
blackish cross bands. Singly, or pairs, in lightly-wooded country.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union, up to about 5000 ft. in
the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Three races chiefly
conceril us, differing in size and depth of coloration. Habits: Affects
open wooded country and avoids heavy forest. Fond of groves of
large trees in the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation. From its
lookout in a leafy branch it swoops down and carries off its prey
before the victim is aware of danger. Flight swift; several rapid
wing strokes followed by a glide. Usually flies close to ground,
shooting upward to alight on a branch. Food: Lizards, mice, squirrels,
birds, etc. When feeding its nest-young sometimes becomes an
inveterate chicken-lifter from the poultry yard. Call: Loud, harsh,
challenging; rather like Black Drongo's. Nesting :Season-principally
March to June. Nest-an untidy loose platform of twigs, like a crow's
nest, lined with grass and roots, high up in a large leafy mango or such-
like tree. Eggs-3 or 4, bluish white, sometimes faintly speckled and
spotted with grey. Both sexes share domestic duties; apparently female
alone incubates.
146. The Common Green Pigeon-Treron phoenicoptera (Latham)
Size: Pigeon. Field Characters: A stocky yellow, olive-green and

ashy grey pigeon with a lilac patch on shoulders and a conspicuous
yellow bar in the blackish wings. Sexes alike. Yellow legs (not red)
always diagnostic for this species. Flocks, in wooded country. Dis-
tribution : Practically throughout the Indian Union ; East Pakistan ;
Ceylon; Burma. Three races on size and details of coloration. Habits :
Gregarious and arboreal, only rarely descending to the ground.
Affects well-wooded country; commonly found in roadside trees,
particularly banyan and peepal when in fruit, and also in gardens and
groves near towns and villages. Large numbers collect to feed on
banyan and peepal figs. They clamber about deftly among the fruit-
bearing twigs, often clinging upside down to reach out for a ripe one.
Their coloration obliterates them completely in the green foliage so
long as they remain still, and the birds have learnt to take the fullest
advantage of this. The unsuspected numbers that will tumble out of a
banyan and fly away on a shot being fired is often quite bewildering.
Food: Fruits and berries. Call: A pleasant, musical, mellow whistle
up and down the scale, with a peculiar human quality. Flight swift,
strong and direct, accompanied by a noisy, metallic, flapping sound.
Nesting: Season-mainly March to June. Nest-a sketchy twig
platform like a dove's, concealed in foliage up in a moderate-sized
tree. Eggs-2, white, glossy. Both sexes share all the domestic duties.
73
147. The Blue Rock Pigeon-Columba livia Gmelin
Size: House Crow-; about 13 inches. Field Characters: A familiar

slaty grey bird with glistening metallic green, purple and magenta sheen
on neck and upper breast. Two dark bars on wings, and a band across
end of tail. Sexes alike. Flocks and colonies, about cliffs and human
habitations. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union, locally up
to 13,000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma.
Resident, but also partial local migrant. Two races concern us,
differentiated on size and coloration details. Habits: In its perfectly
wild state affects open country with cliffs and rocky hills: Mostly seen
in a semi-domesticated condition, living as a commensal of man and
largely adulterated through interbreeding with fancy artificial strains.
This semi-feral stock has become thoroughly inured to the din and
bustle of urban life and is now well established in most Indian towns.
Grain warehouses, railway stations, and old or disused buildings are
their favourite haunts. Wild birds occupy cliffs, and crumbling
battlements of hill forts, etc., and glean in outlying cultivation. Food:
Cereals, pulses, groundnuts, etc. Call: A deep gootr-goo, gootr-goo.
Nesting: Season-undefined; practically all year in semi-feral birds.
Nest-a flimsy collection of a few sticks on a ledge or in a fissure of
cliff, or on rafters and ceilings of dwelling houses, deserted or occupied.
Eggs-2, white, elliptical. Both sexes share all the domestic duties.
148. The Emerald, or Bronzewinged, Dove-Chalcophaps indica
(Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME:
Size: Myna+. Field Characters: A brownish pink dove, with

glistening emerald bronze-green upper parts (excluding tail) and
conspicuous white forehead and eyebrows. In flight, chestnut under-
side of wings diagnostic. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs, in forest.
Distribution: The entire Western Ghats country including the Nilgiris
and associated hills; the sub-Himalayas from Dehra Dun to eastern
Assam; Eastern Ghats; eastern Madhya Pradesh; East Pakistan;
Ceylon: Burma. The Ceylonese race robinsoni differs from the two
Indian (indica and salimalii) in details of size and coloration. Habits:
Affects bamboo jungle, and deciduous as well as evergreen forest.
Partial to tangles of castor plants growing up on the site of abandoned
forest clearings. Feeds on ground along dusty forest roads etc.
Flight swift, strong and direct. Often seen flying across glades at
top speed. Food: Seeds and berries gleaned on the ground. Call: A
soft, deep and low hoon with a nasal ending. Nesting: Season-January
to May, varying locally. Nest-a flimsy twig platform, typical of
the doves, perhaps slightly more compact, up in a low tree or
bamboo culm. Eggs-2, creamy yellow to 'white coffee' colour.
145. Shikra 146. Common Green Pigeon
147. Blue Rock Pigeon 148. Emerald Dove
74
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149. The Red Turtle Dove-Streptopelia tranquebaricq (Hermann)
HINDI NAMES: Seroti ftZkhta, Girwifcikhta, Biki
.
Size : Myna+ Field Characters : Female differs from male (illus-
trated) in having the mantle pale brownish grey instead of bright
pinkish brick-red. She looks a smaller edition of the Ring Dove.
Loose parties, gleaning in stubble fields etc. Distribution: Throughout
the Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon; Burma. Locally migra-
tory in many areas. Excepting Burma, only the typical race tranque-
baricn concerns us. Habits: The least common of the doves dealt
with here. Affects open cultivated country, usually singly or in pairs
but sometimes large flocks in association with other doves. Gleans
grain and seeds on the ground. Call: A rather harsh rolling groo-
gurr-goo, groo-gurr-goo repeated several times quickly. Nesting:
Season-undefined; practically throughout the year. Nest-a sparse,
flimsy platform of twigs, sometimes lined with wisps of grass, near
the end of a branch 10 to 20 ft. up. Eggs-2, white. Both sexes
:share in building the nest.
150. The Spotted Dove-Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli)

HINDI NAMES : Chitroka f iZkhta, Chitta f iikhta, Perki
'Size: Between Myna and Pigeon. Field Characters: Whitespotted

pinkish brown and grey upper parts, and white-and-black 'chessboard'
on hindneck are leading clues to its identity. Sexes alike. Pairs or
parties, in open wooded country, gleaning in stubble fields, on cross-
country cart tracks, etc. Distribution: All the Indian Union excepting
the arid north-western parts. E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. The
Indian race differs from both the Burmese and the Ceylonese races
.in details of size and coloration. Habits: Affects open well-wooded
and cultivated country; avoids arid tracts. Becomes quite tame and
confiding if unmolested, freely entering gardens and verandahs of
.bungalows. Flight as of other doves, swift and strong, attained
.by vigorous wing strokes. Call: An oft-repeated, pleasant though
somewhat mournful kroo-kriik-kriikroo. . . .kroo-kroo-kroo, the num-
.her of final kroo-s varying from 3 to 6. Nesting: Season-undefined;
practically all year. Nest-the customary flimsy dove structure of
"two crossed sticks' low down in a tree or bush; also under eaves and
o n cornices and beams etc., in verandahs of inhabited bungalows.
Eggs-2, white. Both sexes share in all the domestic duties.
149. Red Turtle Dove (male) 150. Spotted Dove

151. Ring Dove 152. Little Brown Dove
151. The Ring Dove--Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky)
HINDI NAME : Dhor f Ckhta
Size: Pigeon-. Field Characters: A pale vinous grey and brown

pigeon with a prominent narrow black half-collar or ring on the
hindneck. Sexes alike. Pairs or loose flocks, in open scrub and
cultivated country. Distribution: Throughout the drier portions of
the Indian Union, ascending locally and seasonally to 10,000 ft. in
the Himalayas. Both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Only the typical
race concerns us in India. Habits: Affects open, cultivated though
essentially dry country, abounding in groves, e.g. of babool (Acacia)
or dhiik (Butea) trees in which to retire during the mid-day heat.
Locally abundant in the neighbourhood of human habitations, and
freely enters gardens and bungalow verandahs etc. Call: A deep,
trisyllabic kiik-koo-kook, repeated several times in succession. Has
pretty courtship display, rising vertically a few feet on noisily flapping
wings and fanned-out tail, and volplaning down in a graceful spiral
or arc to the accompaniment of an aggressive-sounding prolonged
koon-koon-koon. Nesting: Season-practically all year. ,'Vest-the typi-
cal scanty twig platform in a bush or small tree; rarely in a dwelling
house. Eggs-2, white. Both sexes share all the domestic duties.
152. The Little Brown Dove-Streptopelia senegalensis (Linnaeus)

HINDI NAMES : Chhdta f cikhta, T6rtra f fikhta
Size: Myna+. Field Characters: A small, slim dove earthy brown

and grey above, pinkish brown and white below, with a miniature
'chessboard' in rufous and black on either side of neck. Sexes alike.
Pairs or loose flocks in dry scrub or semi-desert country. Distribution:
The drier portions of practically the entire Gangetic Plain and penin-
sular India east to about Calcutta; West Pakistan. Not Ceylon or E.
Pakistan. Only the one race cambayensis concerns us. Habits: Affects
dry stony scrub country with 'cactus' (Euphorbia and Opuntia) brakes
etc., in the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation, often side
by side with 151. Tame and confiding. Freely enters bungalows
and nests on rafters and cornices. Food: Seeds and grain gleaned
on the ground. Call: A soft coo-cooroo-rooroo. The male has peculiar
courtship display on the ground, bobbing and calling at the female
and advancing on her in ludicrous stiff hops, the whole performance
reminiscent of a Calotes or Bloodsucker lizard. It also has the aerial
display described under 151. Nesting: Season-practically throughout
the year. Nest-the usual ridiculously flimsy twig platform in a
Euphorbia clump; frequently also on rafters etc. in inhabited dwell-
ings. Eggs-2, white, elliptical.
153. The Common Sandgrouse-Pterocles exustus Temminck
HINDI NAME : Bhat ?#tar
Size: Pigeon-. Field Characters: A yellowish sandy brown pin-
tailed pigeon-like ground bird with a narrow black band across the
breast, and brownish black belly. Cheeks, chin and throat dull yellow.
Female streaked, spotted and barred with black all over except the
chin; also with a black band across breast. When overhead, the dark
underside with pointed tail and wings, and swift, direct flight ac-
companied by the characteristic double note, proclaim its identity.
Flocks of up to a dozen or more, on dry fallow land. Distribution:
Dry areas throughout the Indian Union except Assam; West
Pakistan. Not E. Pakistan, Ceylon or Burma. Only the one race
erlangeri concerns us. Habits : Affects barren plains, stubble fields, and
fallow land. Shuffles along the ground on its short legs, gleaning
weed- and grass seeds supplemeilted by grit. Its remarkably obliterative
coloration makes the bird completely invisible while it remains squatted
still. Flocks and parties regularly travel long distances to drink at
favourite spots soon after sunrise and again before sunset, and offer
good sport for the gun as they fly to or from the water. Call: A
penetrating far-reaching double note kut-ro, constantly uttered in
flight. Nesting: Season-undefined ; chiefly January to May. Nest-a
shallow unlined scrape in open stony scrub country. Eggs-3, pale
greyish or yellowish stone colour, spotted and speckled with brown.
Both sexes share in incubation.
(See also PAINTEDSANDGROUSE, p. 124.)
154. The Common Peafowl-Pavo cristatus Linnaeus
H ~ N D NAMES
I : MGr, Manjur
Size: Vulture. Field Characters: The gorgeous ocellated 'tail' of the
adult cock, 3 to 4 ft. long, is in reality the abnormally lengthened
upper tail-coverts. Hen, also crested like cock, but smaller ; mottled
brown with some metallic green on lower neck, and lacking the
ornamental train. Parties or droves, in deciduous forest. Also locally
semi-domesticated about villages and cultivation, where protected by
religious sentiment. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union,
locally up to 5000 ft. in the Himalayas; Ceylon; East Pakistan.
Replaced in Burma by the species P. muticus with a poillted crest.
Habits: Inhabits dense scrub and deciduous jungle-plain and foothill
-preferably in the neighbourhood of rivers and streams. Polygamous;
usually parties of one cock with 4 or 5 hens, but seasonally of the
sexes separately. Always excessively shy and alert. Slinks away
through the undergrowth on its legs, and flies only when suddenly
come upon, or to cross a ravine or open river bed. Roosts at night in
large trees. Food: Grain, vegetable shoots, insects, lizards, snakes,
etc. Call: A loud harsh, screaming may-awe, and short gasping
shrieks ka-aan, ka-aan repeated rapidly 6 to 8 times with a pumping
action of head and neck.Cock displays before his bevy of hens erecting
and fanning out his showy train, and strutting and posturing to the
accompaniment of paroxysms of quivering. Nesting: Season-
January to October. Nest-a shallow scrape in the ground in a dense
thicket, lined with sticks and leaves. Eggs-3 to 5, glossy pale cream
or cafk-au-lait colour.
77
155. The Red Junglefowl-Gallus gallus Linnaeus
HINDI NAME: Jangli miirghi
Size: Village hen. Field Characters : Hen differs from cock (illustrated)
in being plain streaked brown with rufous-brown underparts. Both
sexes very like the 'Game Bantam' domestic breed. Pairs or parties, in
scrub and Sii1 jungle. Distribution: Northern India, especially the
Himalayan foothills country to eastern Assam; south to the Godavari
River in eastern Madhya Pradesh; Burma. Almost completely
overlaps distribution of SZ1 tree (Shorea robusta) and Swamp Deer
(Cervus duvauceli). The Indian race murghi differs from the Burmese
spadiceus in details of coloration.
Represented in Ceylon by the allied species G. Iufayettii with breast
of cock reddish orange instead of black.
Habits: The ancestor of all domestic breeds of fowl. Parties of
perhaps a cock and 3 or 4 hens come out in the early mornings and
afternoons to feed in stubble fields at the edge of forest, or on forest
roads and firelines, etc. Very shy. Roosts up in trees or bamboo-
clumps. Food: Grain, vegetable shoots, insects, lizards, etc. Call: A
crow like that of the domestic Bantam, somewhat shriller and ending
more abruptly; uttered mostly in the morning and again before
turning in to roost, but also sporadically throughout the day. Nesting:
Season-principally March to May. Nest-a shallow scrape in dense
undergrowth, lined with dry leaves. Eggs-5 or 6, like the domestic
fowl's. Cock apparently monogamous.
156. The Grey Junglefowl-Gallus s~nnerat ii (Temminck)
HINDI NAME: Jangli mcrghi
Size: Village hen. Field Characters: General effect of the cock
streaked grey, with a metallic black sickle-shaped tail. Hen dis-
tinguishable from that of Red Junglefowl by her white (not rufous-
brown) breast with blackish borders to the feathers producing a scaly
pattern. Singly or small parties, in forest and scrub jungle. Distribu-
tion: Peninsular India north to a line roughly from Mount Abu to the
mouth of the Godavari River. On the borderline where the two species,
meet they often hybridize. Habits: Inhabits deciduous as well as
evergreen forest, plain and hill. Particularly fond of lantana and
other scrub growing on the site of abandoned forest clearings.
Very shy and wary. Scuttles into cover on the least suspicion, neck
outstretched and tail drooping. Roosts up in trees or bamboo clumps.
Food: Grain, shoots and tubers, berries, termites and other insects,
Call: A harsh crow kuk-kaya-kaya-kuk. When agitated or alarmed,
an angry-sounding knghak, kaghak is uttered rapidly. Ncstingr
Season-undefined: principally February to May. Nest and site
similar to the Red Junglefowl's. Eggs-4 to 7, pale fawn to warm
buff, similar to the domestic fowl's and also to those of 155. In bothh
species the hen alone incubates.
153. Common Sandgrouse 154. Peacock
155. Red Junglefowl (male) 156. Grey Junglefowl (male)
78
157. The Red Spurfowl-Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin)
HINDI NAMES: Chh6ti.jangli miirghi, Chakdtri
Size: Threequarters-grown village hen. Field Characters: Hen differs
from cock (illustrated) in being rufous-brown above with fine black
bars and freckles. Breast pale chestnut-rufous with black spots.
Cock has 2 to 4 pointed spurs on each leg; female 1 or 2. In both
sexes a naked brick red patch around eye. Pairs or family parties, on
ground in stony overgrown nullahs, etc.
The PAMTEDSPURFOWL (G. lunulata) has a widely overlapping distri-
bution. In this the cock has a buff-coloured breast with black spots.
Distribution: Wide but patchy; practically the entire Indian Union
excepting Assam. Three races, differing in coloration details. Absent
in both Pakistans, and Burma. Represented in Ceylon by the species
G. bicalcarata. Habits: Affects deciduous scrub country, particularly
where cut up by dry ravines etc. Overgrown ruins enveloped in
jungle are favourite haunts. Scratches amongst the mulch and dry
leaves for food. A great skulker; scuttles away through the thickets
on the least alarm. Food: Seeds, berries and insects. Call: Of the
cock, a peculiar chuckle-like crow-a quick-repeated rattling krrr-
kwek, krr-kwek, krr-kwek, reminiscent of the guinea fowl. Nesting:
Season-principally January to June, varying locally. Nest-a shallow
scrape in scrub or bamboo jungle, sometimes sparsely lined with
grass and leaves. Eggs-3 to 5, buff coloured, like small eggs of the
domestic fowl.
158. The Common, or Grey, Quail-Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : BatEr, GlzGgus batzr
Size: Dove minus tail; ca. 7 inches. Field Characters: A plump,
squat; almost tailless partridge-like bird, buffish brown with pale
streaks and irregular blotches and bars of reddish brown and black
above. Female lacks the black anchor mark on throat. Differentiated
from Rain Quail (159) by presence of buff bars on outer webs of
primaries. Pairs or gregariously, on ground in cultivation and grass-
land. Distribution : Practically the entire lndian Union ; West Pak-
istan; Burma. Not Ceylon. Two races differing in coloration details.
Resident as well as winter visitor. Habits: Affects open country with
standing crops, and grassland. Our resident population is vastly
augmented during winter by immigrants from W. and C. Asia. Usual-
ly keeps in pairs, but large numbers concentrate in fields where food is
plentiful. When such a field is walked up, the birds do not rise in a
flock or all at once, but in twos and threes, and offer excellent sport
with gun. Flight swift and direct; attained by rapid, vibrating wing-
strokes. After flying a couple of hundred yards the bird drops into
the grass again. Call: A loud whistling note followed rapidly by two
short ones, described as 'a liquid Wet-mi-lips'. Food: Grain and grass
seeds, termites, etc. Quails are excellent eating, and are netted in
very large numbers all along their migration routes. Nesting: Season
--overall February to October; mainly March to May. Nest-a
shallow scrape, sparsely lined with grass, well concealed in grass or
standing crops. Eggs-6 to 14, reddish or yellow buff, speckled and
blotched with dark brown.
157. Red Spurfowl 158. Grey Quail
159. Rain Quail 160. Jungle Bush Quail
159. The Blackbreasted or Rain Quail-Coturnix coromandelica
(Gmelin). HINDI NAMES: China buteva (or bate'r?), Chanak
Size: Grey Quail-. Field Characters: Similar to 158 but with upper
breast black, and frequently also centre of abdomen. Female very like
that of 158 but both sexes distinguishable from Grey Quail by absence
of buff and brown cross-bars on the primaries. Pairs or small parties,
on ground, in cultivation and grassland. Distribution: Throughout
the Indian Union, up to about 6000 ft. in the Himalayas; both
Pakistans; North Burma. Rare in Ceylon. Resident but locally
migratory. Habits: Differ little from those of Grey Quail. Moves
about a great deal locally with the seasons, particularly during the
monsoon when otherwise bare tracts become transformed into luxu-
riant grassland and provide both food and cover. There is, however
still much to be learnt concerning its seasonal movements. Call:
A disyllabic musical whistle which-which, which-which, etc., constantly
repeated mornings and evenings, and in the breeding season also
during the night. It is distinct and unmistakable with the call of the
Grey Quail. Nesting: Seasolz-overall March to October, but chiefly
after the break of the SW. monsoon in June. Nest and site same
as in the Grey Quail. Sometimes the scrape is in the open under an
Euphorhia or similar bush. Eggs-6 to 8, resembling those of 158 but
smaller. Only the female incubates.
(See also MOUNTAIN QUAIL,p. 128.)
160. The Jungle Bush Quail-Perdicula asiatica (Latham)
HINDI NAME: L O W W ~
Size: Rain Quail. Field Characters: Male fulvous-brown above,
streaked and mottled with black and buff; white below, closely
barred with black. Female: lower parts pale pinkish rufous. Both
sexes have a prominent buff-and-chestnut superciliary stripe from
forehead backward and down sides of the neck, and a bright chestnut
throat-patch. Coveys, in scrub country.
The ROCKBUSHQUAIL (P. argoondah) frequently found side by side
with this, has the chin and throat-patch dull brick red instead of
chestnut in the male. The hen has a whitish chin and no throat patch.
Distribution: Locally throughout the Indian Union (excepting
Assam), plains and hills up to 4000 ft., also Ceylon. Absent in both
Pakistans and Burma. Four races concern us. Habits: Affects fairly
open deciduous forest and dry stony grass and scrub jungle. Lives in
coveys of 5 to 20 which rest bunched together and 'explode' or rise
suddenly with a whir of wings when almost trodden on, dispersing in
all directions but soon reuniting. Call: A whistling whi-whi-whi-whi
which brings the scattered members together. Breeding males are
pugnacious and challenge rivals by harsh grating calls similar to the
'argueing' of Black Drongos at the onset of their breeding. Food:
Grass seeds, grain and tender shoots; also termites. Nesting: Season
-not well defined; ranges between August and April. Nest-a
scrape at base of a grass tussock in scrub jungle, lined with grass.
E g g s 4 to 8, creamy white. The hen alone incubates. It is not
certain if the cock is monogamous.
161. The Black Partridge-Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus)
HINDINAME: KG16 teetar
.
Size: Half-grown village hen f Field Characters: A plump, stub-
tailed game bird chiefly black, spotted and barred with white and
fulvous. The glistening white cheek-patches and chestnut collar of the
cock are diagnostic. Hen considerably paler, mottled and speckled
black and white, with a chestnut patch on nape. Singly or pairs, in
well-watered and cultivated country. Distribution: Northern India and
Assam (commonly up to 5000 ft. in the W. Himalayas) south roughly
to a curve from Kutch through Gwalior to C'hilka Lake (Orissa).
Also West Pakistan. Three races, differing in details of coloration.
Habits: Restricted to well-watered scrub, tamarisk and tall grass
jungle. Millet and sugar cane fields in riverain or canal-irrigated
country are favourite haunts, as well as tea gardens and their environs
in the Outer Himalayas. Enters crops to feed in the mornings and
evenings. An exceedingly swift runner, relying on its legs for escape
unless driven or suddenly come upon. Flight strong and direct with
rapid whirring wing beats. Food: Grain, grass seeds, green shoots,
white ants and other insects. Call: A cheerful, ringing, high-pitched
chik-cheek-cheek-keraykek with a peculiar ventriloquistic and far-
reaching quality. Wholesale unregulated netting is causing serious
depletion in its numbers in many areas. Nesting: Season-April to
July. Nest-a shallow scrape lined with grass in tamarisk scrub,
millet or cane fields. Eggs-6 to 8, pale olive-brown to almost choco-
late-brown.
162. The Painted Partridge-Francolinuspictus (Jardine & Selby)
HINDIN A M E : KC16 teetar
Size : Grey Partridge. Field Characters : Brownish black profusely
spotted and barred with white, with some ferruginous-red in the head
and wings. General aspect that of female Black Partridge but without
the chestnut nape-patch. When flying away from observer the blackish
under tail-coverts showing on either side of tail, and the chestnut in
wings are leading clues. Female differs in colour details, usually
having the throat white. Singly or pairs, in grass-and-scrub country
and cultivation, never far from water. Distribution: Peninsular
India south of the range of the Black Partridge, excepting the Malabar
coast; Ceylon. Absent in both Pakistans, and Burma. The Ceylon
race watsoni is darker than the Indian pictrrs. Habits: Very similar in
every way to those of the Black Partridge. Perhaps frequents somewhat
drier country and perhaps is also more arboreal, not only roosting in
trees at night but mounting into them in daytime and calling thence.
particularly during the breeding season. Call: Almost indistinguish-
able from that of 161, the same harsh high pitched chik-cheek-cheek-
keray, rendered in Hindustani as Siibhan teri @drat. Female also said
to call, but this needs confirmation. Nesting: Season-SW. monsoon,
June to September. Nest-similar to that of the Black Partridge,
frequently under a bush on grassy bands separating inundated paddy
fields. E g g s 4 to 8, very like those of 161 but much paler, being
various shades of cream colour.
81
163. The Grey Partridge-Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin)
HINDI NAMES : Teetar, Safed teetar
Size: Half-grown domestic hen; ca. 13 inches. Field Characters: A
plump, stub-tailed greyish brown game bird with chestnut blotching
above and fine wavy black and buff vermiculations, and chestnut tail.
Throat rufous-buff circumscribed by a broken blackish line. Sexes
alike, but cock with a pointed spur on each leg. Pairs or coveys, in dry
scrub country and cultivation. Distribution: The drier portions of the
entire Indian Union (excepting Assam) up to 1500 ft. in the Himalayas;
Ceylon; West Pakistan. Three races, differing in coloration details.
Habits: Affects dry, open grass and thorn-scrub country. Avoids
heavy forest and humid tracts. Commonly found in the neighbourhood
of villages and cultivation. Coveys scratch the ground or cattle dung
for food: grain, seeds, termites, beetle larvae, etc. Largely terrestrial,
but roosts in babiil and similar trees. When flushed, rises with a loud
whir of wings. Flight swift and 'gamey' consisting of a few rapid
beats of the rounded wings, followed by a short glide. Usually trusts
to its legs for escape, being a very fast runner. Call: A ringing, high-
pitched, musical kateetar, kateetar or pateela, pateela quickly repeated-
The female has a less challengingpela, pela,pela, etc. Nesting: Season-
practically all year, varying locally. Nest-a grass-lined scrape in scrub
jungle, ploughed field or grassland. E g g s 4 to 8, cream coloured or
cafd au lait.
164. The Common, or Bluelegged, Bustard-Quail-Turnix suscitator
(Gmelin). HINDI NAMES: Gulu, Glindra
Size: Rain Quail-. Field Characters: A typical little quail, rufous
brown above, rusty and buff below. Chin, throat and breast closely
barred with black. Female larger and more richly coloured, with throat
and middle of breast black. The blue-grey bill and legs, and yellowish
white eyes are diagnostic, as are also the pale buff shoulder-patches on
the wings when in flight. Absence of hind toe distinguishes Bustard-
and Button Quails from true quails. Pairs, in scrub and grassland.
Distribution: The entire Indian Union up to about 8000 ft. in the
Himalayas ; Ceylon ; East Pakistan ; Burma. Seven geographical races
differing in colour details. Habits: Found in every type of country
excepting dense forest and desert. Partial to scrub jungle, light decidu-
ous forest, and neighbourhood of cultivation. Differs from true quails.
chiefly in the female being polyandrous. She fights with other females
for the possession of a cock, uttering a loud drumming drr-r-P-r-r as a
challenge to rival hens and also to announce herself to a cock. Eggs
when laid are left to be incubated by the cock who also tends the
young. The hen goes off to acquire another husband, and perhaps
vet another, and so on, evidently only one at a time. Nesting:
Season-practically throughout the year, varying locally. Nest-a
grass-lined scrape or depression in scrub jungle or crops, often arched
over by surrounding grass. Eggs-3 or 4, greyish white profusely
speckled with reddish brown or blackish purple.
1 61. Black Partridge 162. Painted Partridge
1 63. Grey Partridge 164. Common Bustard-Qu&
165. The Indian, or Yellowlegged, Button Quail-Turnix tanki Blyth
HMDI NAME : Lowwa (cf. 160)
Size: Rain Quail +. Field Characters: The broad orange-rufous half
collar on hindneck of the female (illustrated) and the bright yellow legs
and bill of both sexes are diagnostic. In flight, which is feebler even
than that of 164, the orange-rufous hind collar, breast and flanks, and
whitish underparts are pointers. Male lacks the hind collar and is
less richly coloured. Singly, in damp grassland or crops. Distribution:
Practically the entire Indian Union up to about 4000 ft. elevation;
East Pakistan; Andamans; Nicobars; Burma. Absent in W. Pak-
istan and Ceylon. Habits: Affects scrub and grassland. Rises in feeble
flight when almost trodden upon, only to plunge into cover again a
dozen yards further. Female polyandrous as in 164. Call: A prolonged
drumming drr-r-r-r similar to the foregoing species but softer. Both
are reminiscent of a two-stroke nlotorcycle engine running in the far
distance. Food: Grass- and weed seeds, graic, green shoots and small
insects. Nesting: Season-undefined, varying locally. Nest-a grass-
lined scrape or natural hollow under shelter of a grass tussock in grass-
land. Egps--4, like those of the Bustard-Quail, but usually more
boldly coloured.
166. The Whitebreasted Waterhen-Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant)
HINDI NAME^ : Dauk, Jal miirghi
Size: Partridge*. Field Characters: A familiar slaty grey stub-tailed,
long-legged marsh bird with prominent white face and breast, and
bright rusty red under the tail. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs, near reeds
and thickets on marshy ground. Distribution: Throughout the Indian
Union up to the base of the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon;
Burma; Andamans; Nicobars. Three races. Habits: Affects moist
ground overgrown with tangles of bushes, Pandanus brakes, etc.,
on the margins of jheels and ponds. Wanders considerably afield in the
monsoon when low-lying tracts become water-logged. The stumpy
tail, carried erect as the bird stalks or skulks along, is constantly
jerked up flashing the chestnut colour underneath into prominence.
Ordinarily shy and silent, but exceedingly noisy during the rainy
season when it breeds. Clambers up for calling into the top of a bush
whence it can command a good view of its surroundings, without ex-
posing itself. Call : Beginning with loud, hoarse grunts, croaks and
chuckles, settles down to a monotonous, metallic krr-kwcik-kwcik, krr-
kwtk-kwik, etc. or just kook-kook-kook, rather like the Crimson-
breasted Barbet's but higher in key and faster in tempo. Heard chiefly
on cloudy overcast days and often all through the night. Food: Insects,
worms, molluscs, grain and shoots of paddy and marsh plants. Nesting:
Season-June to October (SW. monsoon). Nest-a shallow cup of
twigs, creeper stems and flags of bulrushes, up in a bush near water.
Eggs--6 or 7, cream or pinkish white, streaked and blotched with
reddish brown.
- -
165. Yellowlegged Button Quail 166. Whitebreasted Waterhen

167. Indian Moorhen 168. Purple Moorhen
167. The Indian Moorhen-Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: Jal miirghi
Size: Partridge?. Field Characters: On land a typical waterhen, on

water like a small duck. A slaty grey and brown marsh bird with white
edges to the closed wings, and conspicuous white under tail-coverts.
Forehead (frontal shield) and base of greenish bill bright red. Longish
green legs and large ungainly feet. Pairs, or gregariously, amongst
partially submerged rushes, swimming or skulking about. Distribution:
Throughout the Indian Union up to 6000 ft. elevation and higher;
both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Only the one race indica concerns us.
Habits: Typical of the rails. Very like the Whitebreasted Waterhen
except that it swims a great deal more. On water its progress is atten-
ded by the same characteristic jerky bobbing of head and flicking up of
tail when the white under tail-coverts flash prominently. Flight laboured
-usually low over the water with rapid wing beats, neck stretched in
front and legs trailing behind. Call: A sharp loud and abrupt kirrik-
crek-rek-rek uttered from within a reed-bed, principally in the mom-
ings and evenings. Food: As of 166. Nesting: Season-June to Sep-
tember (SW. monsoon). Nest-bulky, of sedges and weeds on ground
amongst aquatic herbage, or up in a low shrub near water. Eggs-5 to
12, pale yellowish to warm buff stone colour, blotched with dark
reddish brown.
168. The Purple Moorhen-Porphyrio porphyrio (Linnaeus)

HTNDI NAMES: Kaim, Kharim, Kalim
Size: Village hen. Field Characters: A handsome but clumsy purplish

blue rail with long red legs and toes. The bald red forehead (frontal
shield) continued back from the short heavy red bill, and the white
patch under the stumpy tail (conspicuous when flicked up at each step)
are leading clues. Sexes alike. Pairs, or parties, in swampy reed-beds.
Distribution: Throughout the plains of the Indian Union; both Pakis-
tans ; Burma ; Ceylon. Two races-seistanicus and poliocephalus.
Habits: Typical rail. Affects reedy swamps, and margins of jheels
overgrown with rushes. Stalks or skulks through the vegetation with
the same jerky bobbing of head and flicking of tail as the waterhen,
and the flight and general behaviour of the two are also similar.
Occasionally clambers awkwardly up the reed stems. Food : Shoots and
vegetable matter; also insects and molluscs. Locally destructive to
young paddy crops. Calls: A variety of loud hooting, cackling and
hoarse notes. Particularly noisy during breeding season. Male has
ludicrous courtship display, holding water weeds in his bill and bowing
to female with loud chuckles. Nesting: Season-June to September
(SW. monsoon). Nest-a large pad of interwoven reed flags etc.,
on a mass of floating debris or amongst matted reeds slightly above
water level. Eggs-3 to 7, pale yellowish stone to reddish buff,
blotched and spotted with reddish brown.
169. The Coot-Fulica atra Linnaeus
HINDI NAMES : Aari, Thekari, Khurkul
Size: Village hen or 314 grown duckling. Field Characters: A slaty

black, dumpy, practically tailless waterbird, very duck-like when swim-
ming in the distance. The ivory white pointed (not flat) bill and frontal
shield (on forehead) are diagnostic. The peculiar lobed or scalloped
toes are also characteristic. Sexes alike. Gregariously, on tanks and
jheels. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union up to 8000 ft. in
the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Burma; northern Ceylon. Resident
and also winter visitor. Habits: As a resident found sparingly on rush-
bordered irrigation tanks etc. In winter numbers vastly augmented
by immigrants from central and western Asia and then abundant on
most large jheels, especially in northern India. Skitters along the water
to take off, half running half flying; rises with much labour and patter-
ing, but flies strongly when properly launched. The rapid almost
hovering wing beats, the blunt barrel-shaped body and the legs trailing
behind rail-like, distinguish it from a duck in flight. Food: Grass and
paddy shoots, aquatic weeds and insects, molluscs, etc. Call: A clear
and loud trumpet-like cry, often heard at night. Nesting: Season-
principally July/August. Nest-a large compact mass of rushes among
matted reeds slightly above water level. Eggs-6 to 10 buffy stone-
colour, stippled and spotted with reddish brown or purplish black.
170. The Bronzewinged Ja~ana-Metopidius indicus (Latham)

HINDI NAMES :
Size: Partridge +. Field Characters: A leggy swamp bird somewhat

like a moorhen, with glossy black head, neck and breast, metallic
greenish bronze back and wings, and chestnut-red stub tail. A broad
white stripe behind eye to nape. Enormously elongated spider-like
toes. Immature birds chiefly whitish, rufous and brown. Sexes alike.
Singly, or gregariously, on tanks with floating vegetation. Distribution:
The entire Indian Union (excepting W. Rajasthan); East Pakistan;
Burma. Not Ceylon. Habits: Affects jheels and tanks abounding in
floating vegetation such as waterlily and singgra (Trapa). The elon-
gated, widely spreading toes help to distribute the bird's weight and
enable it to trip along with ease over the floating tangles of leaves and
stems. Becomes tame and fearless on village tanks if unmolested.
A typical rail in flight and general behaviour. Swims well with the
carriage of a moorhen, and also dives on occasion. Food: Seeds, roots,
etc. of aquatic plants; insects and molluscs. Call: A short harsh
grunt; also a wheezy piping seek-seek-seek etc. Becomes noisy during
the breeding season. Nesting: Season-June to September (SW. mon-
soon). Nest-a skimpy pad of twisted weed-stems etc., on floating
leaves often partially submerged, or amongst marginal rushes. Eggs--4,
glossy, handsome, bronze-brown with an irregular network of blackish
scrawls. Female polyandrous, like Painted Snipe.
171. The Pheasant-tailed Ja~ana-Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli)
HINDI NAMES : Piho, Pihuya
Size : Partridge L. Field Characters : In breeding dress (illustrated),
identified in flight by the large amount of white and chocolatebrown in
plumage, and the pointed downcurved tail. Non-breeding birds chiefly
pale brown and white, with a black 'necklace' on upper breast, and
minus the sickle-shaped 'pheasant' tail. Spidery elongated toes as in
170. Sexes alike. Singly, or gregariously, on vegetation-covered jheels
etc. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union, normally up to
5000 ft. in Kashmir; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Habits: Not
appreciably different from those of the Bronzewinged species. In 'off
season' collects in flocks of 50 to a hundred. At rest the non-breeding
plumage is very obliterative in the environment of dry floating water-
lily stems and leaves. As the birds rise in alarm and fly away, the
white wings flash into prominence in the same way as the Pond Heron's.
Call : A peculiar nasal mewing tewn, tewn, etc. Food : Same as of 170-
vegetable matter, aquatic insects, and molluscs. This species possesses
a pointed spur at the bend of the wing whose function is uncertain.
Nesting : Season-June to September (SW. monsoon). Nest-same
as in 170; sometimes lays directly on floating singiira leaves partially
submerged in water. E g g s 4 , peg-top shaped, glossy greenish bronze
or rufous-brown, unmarked. Female polyandrous, like Painted Snipe.
172. The Painted Snipe-Rostratula benghalcnsis (Linnaeus)
-I NAME: RGjchaha
Size: Quail+. Field Characters: A typical rail with long, straight
and slender snipe-like bill, slightly decurved at tip. Upper plumage
chiefly metallic olive-green with buff and blackish streaks and markings;
lower plumage chiefly brown and white. Whitish 'spectacles' with a
white patch behind eye and white bands over shoulders to sides of
breast (like straps of a rucksac), distinctive. Male less showy than
female, lacking the chestnut and black on neck and breast. Singly, or
in wisps, in reedy swamps. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union
up to 5000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma.
Resident and locally migratory. Habits: Affects reed-covered
swamps, margins of jheels and tanks, and inundated paddy fields.
Largely crepuscular. Often flushed when snipe shooting, but it is a
feeble and clumsy flier, indifferent as a table bird and hardly worth
powder and shot. A typical rail also in its other habits and behaviour.
The female, as in the bustard-quails, is polyandrous and the dominant
partner in the courtship ceremonials. She also fights rival hens for
the possession of an eligible cock. Call: A deep, hollow oook likened
to the sound produced by blowing softly into a bottle. Food: Paddy
grains, vegetable matter, insects, worms and molluscs. Nesting:
Season-practically all year. Nest-a pad of rush stems on marshy
ground or on hands separating irrigated rice fields. Eggs-3 or 4,
yellowish stone colour, blotched and streaked with brown.
~ -- - - - --
169. Coot 170. Bronzewinged J a p n a

171. Pheasan t-tailed Jaqana 172. Painted Snipe
86
173. The Sarus Crane-Grus antigone (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: S z r a ~
Size: Vulture+ ; standing 4 to 5 ft. Field Characters: A large, tall
grey bird with long bare red legs, and naked red head and upper neck.
Sexes alike. Pairs, about cultivation and marshland. Distribution:
Northern and central India; both Pakistans; Assam; Burma. Two
races, the Burmese sharpii being darker than Indian antigone. Habits:
Essentially a dweller of open, well-watered plains. Normally seen in
pairs, occasionally accompanied by one or two young. Said to pair for
life, and conjugal devotion has won for the species popular reverence
and protection resulting in tameness and lack of fear of man. Flight
attained by slow rhythmical wing strokes, neck outstretched in front,
legs trailing behind; swifter than it appears and seldom high up in the
air. Call: A loud, sonorous, far-reaching trumpeting, uttered from
ground as well as on wing. During breeding season pairs indulge in
ludicrous and spectacular dancing displays, bowing mutually, prancing
with outspread wings and leaping round each other. Food: Grain,
shoots and other vegetable matter, insects, reptiles, etc. Nesting:
Season-July to December. Nest-a huge mass of reed- and rush
stems and straw, in the midst of a flooded paddy field or a marsh. Eggs
-2, pale greenish or pinkish white, sometimes spotted and blotched
with brown or purple. Both birds are vigilant in guarding the nest.
boldly attacking dogs and cattle encroaching in its neighbourhood.
174. The Demoiselle Crane-Anthrop~aes virgo (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : Karkara, Koord
Size: Duck+; ca. 3 ft. high. Field Characters: A dainty little grey
crane with black head and neck. Feathers of lower neck long and
Zanceolate, and falling over breast. Conspicuous white ear-tufts
behind eyes. Sexes alike. Large flocks in young gram and wheat fields,
and on tank margins. Distribution: Winter visitor to the Indian Union
south to Mysore; West Pakistan; Burma.
The COMMON CRANE (Grus grus lilfordi) also visits us in enormous
numbers, often associating with the Demoiselle. It is larger, with a
naked black crown, distinctive red patch across nape, and no white
tufii behind eyes.
Habits: One of our most prominent and well-known winter immi-
grants. Affects open cultivated country, feeding largely on tender
shoots of young gram and wheat. Flocks rest on sandbanks in rivers
or margins of jheels during the mid-day heat, or soar in circles at
great heights. A fine sporting bird, exceedingly wary and di&icult to
circumvent, and eagerly sought by sportsmen. Call: A loud, musical,
high-pitched trumpet of far-reaching quality. The din of a great con-
course of koonj taking off the ground, with their kurr, kurr calls
uttered in varying keys, has been aptly likened to the distant roaring
of the sea. Food: Besides shoots and grain, insects and small reptiles.
Cranes fly in broad V formation, neck and legs fully extended. Nesting:
In S. Europe, N. Africa and N. & C. Asia east to Mongolia. Nest-
similar to the Sarus's. Eggs-2, yellowish grey, blotched with reddish
brown and grey.
173. Sarus Crane 174. Demoiselle Crane & head of
Common Crane
175. Great Indian Bustard 176. Lesser Florican
87
175. The Great Indian Bustard-Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors)
HINDI NAMES: Tiiqdfir,Hiikna
Size: Vulture+ ; standing ca. 3 ft. to top of head; weighing up to 40
lb. Field Characters: A heavy ground bird reminiscent of a young
ostrich. Deep buff above finely venniculated with black; white below
with broad black gorget on lower breast. Conspicuous black-crested
crown. In flight the white outstretched neck and underparts, black
crown and gorget, and a large whitish patch near tip of wings promi-
nent. Sexes alike; female smaller. Pairs, or parties, on open plains and
about cultivation. Distribution: Locally throughout the Indian Union
(excepting Bengal and Assam) south to Mysore; West Pakistan.
Resident and local migrant. Habits: Affects open sparse grass and
scrub plains country interspersed with cultivation. Usually 3 or 4
loosely together, but scattered droves of 25 to 30 recorded. Is a good
runner and heavy in take-off, but once launched flies strongly with
steady rhythmical flapping of the broad wings. Persecution by shikaris,
and narrowing of its habitat due to spread of cultivation has reduced
the species to near extinction. It is now totally protected by law.
Food: Grain and shoots of various crops, locusts, beetles, centipedes,
lizards, etc. Call: A bark or bellow-something like hook. Cock
polygamous. When in puffed-out strutting display with drooping wings
before his hens, utters a deep, far-reaching moaning call. Nesting:
Season-undefined, chiefly March to September. Eggs-a singleton,
rarely two, drab or pale olive-brown, faintly blotched with deep
brown. Laid in a shallow depression at base of a bush. Only the
female incubates.
176. The Lesser Florican-Sypheotides indica (J. F. Miller)
HINDI NAMES: Likh, Khar mdr
Size: Village hen ; longer neck and legs. Field Characters: Hen sandy
buff, mottled and streaked with blackish. Cock in non-breeding
plumage like hen and minus the upwardly curled head plumes. He
retains a good deal of the white in the wings. Singly, or widely sepa-
rated pairs in tall grassland. Distribution: The greater part of the
Indian plains, excluding Assam. West Pakistan (part). Resident
and locally migratory, chiefly during the rains. Habits: Affects tall
grass country and standing fields of cotton, millets, etc. Not gregarious.
Flight like bustard's but the more rapid wing strokes produce resemb-
lance to a lapwing in silhouette. Food: Green shoots, grain, seeds,
beetles, etc. Is good eating and much persecuted by shikaris during,
breeding season, when displaying cock particularly vulnerable. The
cock's nuptial display consists of constantly jumping or springing
up above cover of long grass or crops. This believed to advertise his
presence to hens and to warn off rival cocks, A short guttural croak
accompanies each jump, and the performer floats down perpendicularly
with tail spread out, vaguely reminiscent of the male Iora's aerial
display. Nesting: Season-July to October (SW. monsoon). Eggs-3
or 4, some shade of olive-brown, mottled and streaked with brown.
Laid on bare ground in a grass field or crops. The female alone in-
cubates and tends the young.
88
177. The Stone Curlew-Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus)
H M D I NAMES: Karwcinak, Barsiri
Size: Partridge+ ; more leggy. Field Characters: A brown-streaked
plover-like ground bird with thick head, long bare yellow 'thick-
kneed' legs, and large yellow 'goggle' eyes. In flight two narrow
white bars on the dark wings conspicuous. Sexes alike. Pairs, or
parties, in open stony country. Distribution: Practically throughout
the Indian Union up to about 3000 ft. in the Himalayas; both Pak-
istans; Ceylon; Burma. The race indicus concerns us mainly. Habits:
Affects dry plains country with scanty scrub, ploughed and fallow
land, shingly stream beds and ravines, light deciduous jungle and
mango topes, etc,, near villages. Largely crepuscular and nocturnal,
and sluggish durlng daytime. When suspicious or alarmed, squats
with body pressed to ground and neck extended when its coloration
affords perfect camouflage. Food: Insects, worms, small reptiles,
etc., to which a quantity of grit is added. Call: A series of sharp,
clear whistling 'screams' pick, pick, pick, pick. . . .pick-wick, pick-
wick, pick-wick, etc. (accent on second syllable). Mostly heard at
dusk and during moonlit nights. Nesting: Season-February to
August. Eggs-2, pale buff to olive-green, boldly blotched with
brownish or purplish; remarkably obliterative. Laid on ground in
scrape in dry river bed, open country or mango grove. Both sexes
178. The Indian Courser-Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin)
.
Size: Partridge f Field Characters: A sandy brown lapwing-like
bird with chestnut and black underparts. Rich rufous crown; a
black and a white stripe through and above eyes; long bare china
white legs. Sexes alike. A good example of obliterative coloration.
Scattered pairs, or parties, on fallow land and semi-desert. Distribu-
tion: The drier portions of the Indian Union (excepting Assam):
W. Pakistan; northern Ceylon. Resident and locally migratory.
Largely replaced in W. Pakistan by the Palaearctic cream coloured
species, C. cursor, without chestnut and black underparts.
Habits: Bare stony plains, waste and fallow land adjoining culti-
vation, and ploughed fields is the Courser's typical habitat. Runs
about swiftly, zig-zagging and dipping forward obliquely now and
again in the characteristic plover manner to pick up some insect. On
alarm or suspicion spurts forward a few yards with rapid mincing
steps, halts abruptly and stretches itself erect to survey the intruder,
makes another spurt, and so on. When pressed, rises with a peculiar
note, flying fairly low over the ground and commencing to run im-
mediately upon touching down a hundred yards or so farther. Food:
Beetles and their larvae, crickets, grasshoppers and other insects.
Nesting: Season--chiefly March to August. Eggs-2 or 3, stone-
coloured, thickly spotted and blotched with black. Laid in shallow
scrape or on bare ground in open, arid country, where they are per-
fectly camouflaged.
(See also JERDON'SCOURSER,p. 128.)
89
179. The Brownheaded Gull-Larus brunnicephalus Jerdon
HINDI NAME: Dhotnra
Size : Jungle Crow +. Field Characters: A typical gull, grey above
white below with coffee-brown head in summer. In winter, while
birds mostly with us, head greyish white. Distinguishable from the
equally comon somewhat smaller BLACKHEADED GULL(L. ridibundus)
by the prominent white patch or 'mirror' near tip of the all-black first
primary (see pl. 78). In ridibundus first primary all white, with black
.edges and tip. First year birds (both species) have a black subterminal
bar to white tail. Gregariously, on the seacoast; sparingly on large
rivers and jheels. Distribution: The western and eastern seaboards
of India, and to a lesser extent also on inland waters; W. & E. Pakis-
tan; Ceylon; Burma. Winter visitor. Habits: Arrives about Sept-
ember/October, departs end April. Frequents harbours and coastal
fishing villages, circling in effortless gliding flight round ships lying at
.anchor or escorting outgoing and incoming vessels and fishing boats
.for scraps or garbage cast overboard. These are either scooped off
the surface in flight, or by the bird alighting on the water beside them
and gobbling them up. In seaports it has to compete for the food
with other gull species and with Pariah and Brahminy Kites. In inland
localities it also eats insects, grubs, slugs and shoots of various crops.
Call: A variety of loud, raucous notes, one commonly heard being a
querulous scream keeah rather like the raven's. Nesting: Breeds in
colonies in Ladak and Tibet, in bogs around Rhamtso, Manasarovar,
Rakhas Tal and other lakes, JuneIJuly.
180. The River Tern-Sterna aurantia J. E. Gray
HINDI NAMES : Tehari, Koorri
Size: Pigeon -+; much slimmer. Field Characters: A slender, grace-
ful, grey and white tern with long, deeply forked 'swallow' tail; deep
yellow bill and short red legs. In summer entire forehead, crown and
nape glossy jet black; in winter greyish white flecked and streaked
with black, especially on nape. Sexes alike. Gregariously, on rivers
and jheels, flying up and down. Distribution: Throughout the Indian
Union ; both Pakistans ; Burma. Not Ceylon.
Another common tern of inland waters is the BLACKBELLIED (Sterna
acuticauda) while the GULLBILLED (Gelochelidon nilotica) occurs on the
Beacoast as well. The latter is distinguished from all our other terns
by its black bill and legs.
Habits: Flies over the water a few feet above with deliberate beats of
the long, slender, pointed wings intently scanning the surface for fish
venturing within striking depth. From time to time it plunges in with
,closed wings, often becoming completely submerged but soon re-
appearing with the quarry held across the bill. As it resumes its flight,
the victim is jerked up in the air and swallowed head foremost. In
addition to fish, crustaceans, tadpoles and water insects are also eaten.
Nesting: Season-chiefly March to May. Eggs-3, greenish grey to
buffy stone blotched and streaked with brown and inky purple. Laid
o n bare ground on sandbanks of large rivers in colonies.
177. Stone Curlew 178. Indian Courser
179. Brownheaded Gull, and wing 180. River Tern
of Blackheaded Gull
90
181. The Indian Whiskered Tern-Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas)
HINDI NAMES: Tehari, Koorri (all terns)
Size: Pigeon t;considerably slimmer. Field Characters: In winter
plumage rather like the river tern, grey above white below. Distin-
guishable by its much shorter and only slightly forked (almost square
cut) tail, a characteristic of this group known as 'marsh terns'; also by
red instead of yellow bill. At rest, tips of closed wings project beyond
tail. In summer dress, black cap and black belly conspicuous. Sexes
alike. Numbers at jheels, inundated paddy fields, etc. Distribution:
*Our race indica is found throughout the Indian Union; West
Pakistan; Ceylon. Only as a winter visitor south of central India
and in Ceylon. Habits: AfTects jheels and marshes inland, and
tidal creeks and mud flats on the seaboard. Flies gracefully back and
forth over a marsh, bill and eye directed intently below for signs of
life. Plunges into water after fish or stoops on insects or crabs on the
ground and bears them away in its stride. Although possessing webbed
feet, terns hardly ever alight on the water. When not hunting they
rest on a rock or mudbank on their ridiculously short legs. Food:
Tiny fishes, tadpoles, crabs, grasshoppers and other insects. Nesting:
Senson-in N. India and Kashmir, June to September. Nest-a
rough circular pad of reeds and rushes on tangles of floating singEra
and such-like aquatic vegetation in jheels and swamps, usually in
colonies. Eggs-2 or 3, greenish, brownish, or bluish, spotted and
.streaked with dark or purplish brown. Both sexes share the domestic
duties.
182. The Little Ringed Plover-Charadrius dubius Scopoli
HINDI NAME: Zirrea
Size: Quail-. Field Characters: A typical little plover with thick
head, bare yellow legs, and short pigeon-like bill. Sandy brown above,
white below. White forehead; black forecrown, ear coverts and
round the eyes. A complete black band round neck separates the
white hindneck collar from back. Absence of white wing-bar distin-
guishes it in flight from the very similar K E N ~ SPLOVER
H (C. alexand-
finus). Sexes alike. Pairs or small scattered flocks by rivers, tanks, etc.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union up to about 4000 ft. in
the Himalayas; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Smaller race jerdoni
resident; larger curonicus winter visitor. Habits: Essentially a bird of
mudflats, shingle banks and sandspits by rivers, estuaries and tanks.
'Scattered parties run about in short spurts with a swift mincing gait,
,stopping abruptly now and again to pick up some tit-bit in the charac-
teristic plover manner. Coloration remarkably obliterative; birds
aften completely invisible till betrayed by movement. Though scattered
when feeding, the party flies off together on alarm uttering a short
plaintive whistling phiu, twisting and wheeling in the air in unison.
Food: Insects, sand-hoppers, tiny crabs, etc. Nesting: Season-
March to May. Eggs--4, buffish stone to greenish grey with hierogly-
phic scrawls and spots of dark brown, and phantom purple markings.
Of the typical 'peg-top' shape of all plovers' eggs, broad at one end
abruptly pointed at the other. Laid on bare shingle on sandbanks
where they harmonize perfectly with their surroundings.
181. Indian Whiskered Tern 182. Little Ringed Plover
183. Redwattled Lapwing 184. Yellow-wattled Lapwing
91
183. Tbe Redwattled Lapwing-Vanellus indicus (Boddaert)
HINDI NAMES : Titzri, Tit iiri
Size: Partridge+ ; more leggy. Field Characters: A familiar plover,

bronze-brown above, white below, with black breast, head and neck,
and a crimson fleshy wattle in front of each eye. A broad white band
from behind eyes running down sides of neck to meet the white
underparts. Sexes alike. Producer of the well-known Did-he-do-it?
calls. Scattered pairs at tanks, puddles, etc. Distribution: Throughout
the Indian Union up to about 6000 ft. in the Himalayas and peninsular
hills; both Pakistans: Ceylon; Burma. The Indian race indicus
concerns us mostly. Habits: Affects open country, ploughed fields,
grazing land, and margins and dry beds of tanks and puddles. Also
met with in forest glades around rain-filled'depressions. Runs about
in short spurts and dips forward obliquely to pick up food in the
typical plover manner. Is uncannily and ceaselessly vigilant, day o r
night, and foremost to detect intrusion and raise the alarm. Call:
A loud, penetrating, Did-he-do-it? or Pity-to-do-it? repeated placidly
or frantically as the occasion demands. Food: Insects, grubs, molluscs,
etc. Nesting: Seasort-chiefly March to August. E g g s 4 , stone
colour or greyish brown, blotched with blackish; peg-top shaped.
Laid on bare ground in open waste land, occasionally with the depres-
sion ringed around with a few pebbles. They match the soil to perfection
and are difficult to find.
(See also SPURWINGED PLOVER, GREYPLOVER, GOLDEN PLOVER,
pp. 122, 123.)
184. The Yellow-wattled Lapwing-Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert)

HINDI NAME : Zirdi
Size: Partridge f;more leggy. Field Characters: A sandy brown

plover with white belly, black cap and bright yellow fleshy lappets
above and in front of the eyes. In flight. a white wing-bar conspicuous
on the black wings. Sexes alike. Pairs, or small parties, on dry waste
land. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union excepting Assam;
W. Pakistan (part); E. Pakistan; Ceylon. Not Burma. Resident and
locally migratory. Habits: Inhabits dry open country and fallow land,
and is less dependent upon the neighbourhood of water than 183.
Also less noisy and demoi~strative,but otherwise similar to it in
general habits and food. Call: A sharp, plaintive, bisyllabic ti-ee
uttered every couple of seconds, punctuated from time to time by a
high-pitched, quick-repeated twit-twit-twit-twit. Nesting: Season-
chiefly April to July. Eggs-4; typical plovers' in shape, buff to
olive stone-colour, irregularly blotched with dark brown and purplish
grey. Laid on bare soil in dry waste land, with the scrape sometimes
encircled by pebbles. Both eggs and newly-hatched downy chicks are
remarkably obliterative in their natural environment. As in 183,
the parents demonstrate noisily when the nest or young are in danger,
circling overhead frantically and diving at the intruder.
92
185. The Blackwinged Stilt-Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : Gaz-ptZun, Tinghiir
Size: Partridge+; with bare slender legs about 10 inches long. Field
Characters: A lanky black, greyish brown and white wading bird with
a straight slender black bill and enormously long, thin reddish legs.
The sexes differ in details of coloration, as also the summer and
winter plumages. Pairs or flocks at jheels etc. Distribution: The
Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon ; Burma. Resident and locally
migratory; also winter visitor. Habits: Affects marshes, jheels, village
tanks, salt pans and tidal mudflats. Its stilt legs enable it to wade into
comparatively deep water where it probes into the squelchy bottom
mud for worms, molluscs, aquatic insects, etc. head and neck sub-
merged at a steep angle and hind part of body sticking out, rather
like a duck 'up ending'. Also swims well. Flight weak and flapping
with neck extended and long red legs trailing beyond the tail. Call:
A squeaky, piping chek-chek-chek-chek, somewhat like a moorhen's,
uttered when alarmed and flying off. Nebting: Season-principally
April to August. Nest-a depression in the ground on the margin of
a jheel, or a raised platform of pebbles in shallow water, lined with
vegetable scum or flags of reeds. Often breeds in large colonies.
Eggs-3 or 4, light drab in colour, densely blotched with black; closely
resembling eggs of 183.
186 The Avocet-Recurvirostra avosetta Linnaeus

HINDI NAME: Kusya chaha
Size: Partridgef ; more leggy. Field Characters: An elegant black-

and-white marsh bird with long bare bluish legs. Its chief diagnostic
feature is the slender black upcurved bill. Sexes alike. Pairs or
parties, at marshes and on tidal mudflats, etc. Distribution: The entire
Indian Union, rare in Assam, sparse in the south; W. Pakistan;
Ceylon. Not E. Pakistan. Rare in Burma. Chiefly winter visitor, but
partly also resident. Habits: Runs about actively on squelchy ground
and wades into shallow water for food. The partially webbed toes
enable it also to swim with ease. Occasionally in large flocks. In feed-
ing the curiously upturned bill is wielded rather like a hockey stick, the
curved part skimming the semi-liquid mud with a back and fore
rotatory or churning motion, washing out the food particles: small
crustacea, worms, aquatic insects, etc. Call :A clear, loud, high-pitched
kleet repeated quickly, usually on the wing. Nesting: Season-at the
only known breeding place within Indian limits, the Great Rann of
Kutch-April. E g g s 4 , closely resembling those of both the Stilt
and the Redwattled Lapwing in shape, colour and markings. Laid on
bare sunbaked ground, on the surface or in a shallow depression.
Colony of many nests a few yards from one another.
(See also OYSTERCATCHER, P. 123.)
187. The Curlew- Nurnenius arquata (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES: Goar Goungh, Bada gulinda
Size: Village hen. Field Characters: A darkish sandy brown wading
bird, streaked with black and fulvous to produce the well-known
'game-bird pattern'. Lower back and rump white, conspicuous in
flight. Its most characteristic feature is the downcurved slender bill
five or six inches long. Sexes alike. Singly or small parties, on jheels,
rivers and the seashore.
The WHIMBREL (Numeniusphaeopus), a smaller edition of the Curlew
is also found in similar habitats during winter. A whitish stripe along
the centre of its dark crown ('centre parting') and whitish eyebrows
are diagnostic. Call: A musical tetti-tetti-tetti-tet. Usually keeps in
larger flocks.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Cey-
lon; Burma. Winter visitor; chiefly the race orientalis with finely
streaked underparts. Habits: Runs or stalks along the water's edge
or on the seashore at low tide, probing into soft ooze for food: mol-
luscs, crustaceans, insect larvae, etc. Also eats berries of marsh
plants, grass shoots, seaweed and other vegetable matter. Call: A
shrill and wild, plaintive scream coor-lee or cur-Zew uttered chiefly
on the wing. Usually exceedingly wary and difficult to circumvent.
A good sporting bird and esteemed for the table. Nesting: Season-in
N. Europe east to Siberia, April to June.
(See also BLACKTAILED GODWIT,I). 121.)
188. The Wood, or Spotted, Sandpiper-Tringa glareola Linnaeus
HINDI NAMES : Chupka, Chobalza, Tutwari
+.
S h e : Quail Field Characters : A snipe-like wader, sepia brown
above, indistinctly spotted with white. Lower back and rump white.
Breast pale brownish. Whitish stripe above eye from bill to nape.
Summer (breeding) plumage brighter, with spots more defined. In
flight, the white rump and barred brown-and-white tail diagnostic.
No wing-bar. Sexes alike. Singly or small flocks, at jheels and marshes.
The GREENSANDPIPER (Tringa ochropus), another common species
in winter, is somewhat larger than above with dark bronze-green gloss.
on upperparts. In flight white rump and unbarred white tail conspicu-
ous. The low whistling titui uttered as it flushes is also diagnostic.
Usually seen singly.
Ceylon; Burma. Winter visitor. Habits: One of the commonest and
also most gregarious of the group of little wading birds found near
inland waters and at marshes, flooded paddy fields and tidal mudflats,
popularly and collectively known as 'snippets'. They run along OD
the squelchy mud picking up tit-bits, or probe with their bills for
food; insects, larvae, worms and molluscs, wagging the tail end of
the body ridiculously up and down. The flushing notes of the different
species are useful pointers to their identity. The Spotted Sandpiper
utters a shrill chiff-chiff-chiff as it makes off. Nesting: Season-in
Europe and N. Asia, MayIJune. Nest-a scantily lined depression o n
a dry patch in marshy grass-covered localities.
185. Blackwinged Stilt 186. Avocet
187. Curlew 188. Spotted Sandpiper
94
189. The Redshank-Tringa totanus (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: Chhota batan
Size: Partridge--. Field Characters: A large sandpiper, greyish brown
above, white below finely streaked with brown on breast. In flight,
white lower back and rump prominent; also the broad white semi-
circular band along the trailing edge (hind border) of wing, and the
long slender red legs projecting behind. Tail white, barred with brown.
In summer (breeding plumage) upperparts somewhat streaked and
spotted with black and fulvous, and breast more heavily streaked
with brown. Sexes alike. Singly, or small flocks, at jheels, estuaries, etc.
Another large sandpiper seen singly in winter is the GREENSHANK
(Tringa nebularia). Slightly larger than the Redshank, dark greyish
brown above, white below. White forehead, lower back, rump and
faintly barred tail. N o wing-bar, olive-green legs, and slightly upcurved
bill distinguish it.
Distribution : The entire Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon ;
Burma. Winter visitor. Two races. Habits: Typical sandpiper. Often
seen in mixed flocks with other species. The flushing notes of this
species and the Greenshank are rather similar, a shrill piping tiwee-
diwee-tiwee or tiu-tiu-tiu. Nesting: Season-within Indian limits
(Kashmir, Ladakh, etc.) May to July. Eggs--4, yellowish to greenish
stone-colour, handsomely blotched with reddish brown or purplish
black with underlying lavender or reddish grey spots. Laid in a
depression within a grass clump near a bog.
(See also RUFFAND REEVE,p. 121.)
190. The Common Sandpiper-Triifga hypoleucos Linnaeus
HINDI NAME:
Size: Quail+. Field Characters: Greyish olive-brown above, white
below with pale dusky breast and a few dark streaks on foreneck. In
flight the brown rump and tail (excepting only the white outer feathers)
distinguish it from the Spotted Sandpiper (188). Also a prominent
wing-bar usually present. Sexes alike. Singly, at ponds, tanks, tidaI
creeks and on rocky seashore. Distribution: Throughout the Indian
Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Winter visitor. Habits:
One of our earliest immigrants (August) and also one of the last to
leave (May). A few non-breeding individuals remain in their winter
quarters all the year. Never collects in flocks, but a few scattered
examples sometimes seen together as when driven up the seashore
rocks by the rising tide. Flies with characteristic stiff rapidly vibrating
wing strokes close over the water, uttering a shrill piping tee-tee-tee.
Besides this flushing note has a pretty, long-drawn trill wheeit, wheeit
repeated several times when the bird is perfectly undisturbed. Food:
As of other sandpipers, insects, worms, molluscs, etc. Nesting:
Season-in Indian limits (Kashmir, Garhwal, Kumaon, etc.) May/June.
Nest-a slight depression sparsely lined with leaves and rubbish, on a
shingle bank or islet amid stream. E g g s 4 , yellowish buff or stone-
colour, blotched and speckled with reddish brown, with phantom
marks of lavender or pinkish grey.
189. Redshank 190. Common Sandpiper.
191. Little Stint 192. Fantail Snipe
95
191. The Little Stint-Calidris minutus (Leisler)
HINDI NAME: Chhata pan-loha
Size: Quail-. Field Characters: A diminutive wader, mottled greyish

brown or dusky above white below, with blackish legs and bill. Rump
and middle tail feathers dark brown, outer tail feathers smoky brown.
In flight, a faint narrow whitish bar on the pointed wings noticeable.
Summer plumage richer-more black and rufous. Sexes alike. Flocks
on tidal mudflats, tanks margins, etc.
The similar TEMMINCK'S STINT(C. temminckii) frequently found
associated with it, is slightly darker above and with outer tail feathers
white instead of brownish. Legs olive-green.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union ; both Pakistans :
Ceylon; Burma. Winter visitor. Habits: Sociable and gregarious.
Keeps in flocks, often mixed with other small waders. Affects
marshes inland, and tidal mudflats on the seaboard. The flock
spreads itself out to feed, running about actively on the mud, picking
up tiny insects, crustaceans and molluscs. When disturbed, the birds
fly off swiftly, all together in an orderly compact mass, their white
undersides flashing in the sun from time to time as they turn and
twist in unison. Call: A soft musical wit-wit-wit or a low tr-rr uttered
on the wing. Nesting: Season-in NE. Europe and Siberia, JuneIJuly.
Nest-a cup-shaped depression lined with willow leaves, on grassy
marshland. Eggs--4, pyriform, greenish to buffish stone-colour,
spotted and blotched with reddish brown.
192. The Common, or Fantail, Snipe-Capella gallinago (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Chahci
Size: Quail+. Field Characters : An obliteratively coloured marsh

bird with straight slender bill about 2+ inches long. Dark brown
above, streaked with black, rufous and buff; whitish below. Sexes
alike. Singly or in wisps, on marshes.
The PINTAILSNIPE(C. stenura) often found alongside it, is difficult
to distinguish in the field except with much practice. Its stiff narrow
pin-like outer tail feathers help diagnosis in the hand.
Distribution: Practically the entire Indian Union; both Pakistans;
Ceylon; Burma. The typical race concerns us mainly. Resident in
Kashmir and the Himalayas; winter visitor elsewhere. Habits:
Arrives in the plains about September; leaves by April. Frequents
squelchy paddy stubbles, and grassy margins of jheels, tidal creeks,
etc. Completely invisible when crouching on mud, even in the open.
Flushes abruptly on close approach of observer with a characteristic
harsh note-pench or scape-and flies off at great speed in a series of
lightning zigzags. This is what supplies the element of 'sport' to snipe
shooting and is usually responsible for disappointing bags. Food:
Worms, insect larvae, etc. obtained by probing into soft mud with the
long, slender bill. Nesting: Season-in Kashmir and the Himalayas,
MayIJune. Nest-a shallow grass-lined depression in grassy marsh-
land. E g g s 4 , variable, yellowish stone-colour or olive-green,
blotched or mottled with chocolate-brown or black.
96
193. The Spottedbilled, o r Grey, Pelican-Pelecanus philippensis
Gmelin. HINDI NAME: HawZsiI
Size: Vulture+. Field Characters: A large squat water bird, chiefly
grey and greyish white, with a brown nuchal crest. Short stout legs,
large webbed feet and enormous heavy flattened bill, underhung
throughout its length by an elastic bag of dull purplish skin. Large
blue-black spots along edge of upper mandible, blackish wing quills
and greyish brown tail diagnostic. Sexes alike. Flocks, a t jheels etc.
Distribution: Well-watered tracts throughout the Indian Union;
both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Resident but capricious; also loc-
ally migratory. Habits: Flocks float buoyantly or rest on mud banks
preening themselves. They fish by cooperative effort, swimming in a
semi-circle, driving the fish before them into the shallows with vigorous
splashing of their great wings, and scooping them up in their pouch
which acts like a landing net. Considering their size, the birds take
off the water with little effort, and when once launched fly strongly
with steady rhythmical wing beats, head drawn in between the
shoulders. Frequently seen during mid-day soaring in circles at great
heights in company with storks. Nesting: Season-November to
April. Nest-a large stick platform in tall trees and palms, often far
from water; several nests in the same tree, and the colony often
covering large areas. Eggs-3, chalky white, becoming considerably
dirty as incubation proceeds.
194. The Little Cormorant-Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot)
Size : Jungle Crow +. Field Characters : A glistening black duck-like

water bird with a longish stiff tail, and slender, compressed bill sharply
hooked a t the tip. A small white patch on throat, and suggestion of a
crest at back of head. Sexes alike. Singly, or gregariously, at tanks,
jheels, etc.
The LARGECORMORANT (P. carbo) and the INDIAN SHAG(P. fusci-
collis) are often found associated with it. The former is the size of
the domestic duck, black, but in the breeding season with some white
in head and neck, and a large white patch on either flank conspicuous
in flight. The Shag is intermediate in size and easily confused except
in breeding dress when white feather tufts behind eyes and white
speckles on head and neck distinguish it.
Ceylon; Burma. Habits: Found on all inland waters; also brackish
lagoons and tidal creeks. Lives exclusively on fish which it chases
and captures under water, being an expert diver and submarine
swimmer. Flocks occasionally hunt in concert like pelicans. When
satiated, perches upright on a rock or stake near water, drying itself
with outstretched wings. Nesting: Season-in N. India chiefly July to
September; S. India November to February. Nest-a shallow twig
platform, like a crow's, in trees usually in mixed colonies of egrets,
storks, etc., both near and away from water. E g g s 4 or 5, pale bluish
green, with a chalky surface.
97
195. The Darter, or Snake-bird-Anhinga rufa (Daudin)
HINDI NAME: P6n diibbi
Size: Kite +. Field Characters: A black cormorant-like water bird
with silvery grey streaks on the back, and velvety brown head and
neck. Chin and throat whitish; tail long, stiff, wedge-shaped. The
slender, snake-like neck, narrow head and pointed dagger bill are
diagnostic features. Sexes alike. Singly, or loose parties, on tanks
and jheels. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pak-
istans; Ceylon; Burma. Habits: Very like the cormorants' except that
it is more individualistic, less gregarious and does not hunt in coopera-
tive flocks. When swimming the body remains submerged; only the
slender, snake-like neck shows above the surface, swaying and turning
this way and that, aptly suggestive of the bird's name. Its staple food
is fish. The Darter chases them below the surface with speed, wings
held half open and head and neck swaying back and forth like a
javelin-thrower poising his missile. A special contrivance in the neck
bones enables the bird to shoot out its bill at the quarry as by a power-
ful spring. When suddenly come upon, resting in a tree overhanging
water, the birds flop plumb down, 'dragging' through the intervening
branches as if shot dead; they dive and scatter in all directions,
surfacing again a safe distance away. Nesting: Season-N. India June-
August; S. India November-February. Nest-a twig platform, similar
to the cormorant's, built gregariously in trees amongst a mixed heron-
ry, usually near water. Eggs-3 or 4, elongated, pale greenish blue.
196. The Spoonbill-Platalea lerlcorodia Linnaeus
HINDI NAMES : Chamach btiza, Chamclta
Size : Domestic duck +. Field Characters : A long-necked, long-legged
snow-white marsh bird with black legs and a distinctive, large,
flat, black-and-yellow spoon-shaped bill. A pale yellowish brown
patch on foreneck. A long, full nuchal crest in the breeding sea-
son. Sexes alike. Individually, or flocks, at jheels etc. Distribution:
Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma.
Only the one race major concerns us. Habits: Affects marshes and
jheels, mudbanks in rivers, and also estuarine mudflats. Feeds
actively in the mornings and evenings. A flock wades into shallow
water, and with outstretched necks and obliquely held partly open bills
the birds move forward sweeping in a half circle from side to side and
raking up the bottom mud with the tip of the lower mandible. Food:
Tadpoles, frogs, molluscs, insects and vegetable matter. Flight
rather slow, with steady wing beats, neck and legs extended. Flocks fly
in V-formation or in diagonal single lines. A low grunt and a clatter-
ing of the mandibles are the only sounds uttered. Nesting: Season-
between July and November, later in S. India, varying with monsoon
conditions. Nest-rather massive stick platforms amongst a mixed
heronry on trees standing in or near water. Eggs-4, sullied white,
sparingly spotted and blotched with deep reddish brown.
-
193. Spottedbilled Pelican 194. Little Cormorant
195. Darter 196. Spoonbill
1 97. The White Ibis-Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham)
HINDI NAMES: Miinda, Safed bciza
Size: Village hen+. Field Characters: A large white marsh bird with
naked black head and neck, and long, stout, black, dow~~curved
curlew-like bill. In breeding plumage some slaty grey on scapulars and
in wings, and ornamental plumes at base of neck. Sexes alike. Parties,.
on marshy land. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both
Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Resident and locally migratory. Habits:
A close relation of the Spoonbill (196) and very like it in habits and
habitat. Walks about actively on marshy land probing with its bill into
the soft mud, mandibles partly open like forceps. Often feeds in
shallow water with the head momentarily submerged. Like storks andl
the spoonbill, it lacks true voice-producing mechanism and is silent
except for peculiar ventriloquial grunts uttered when nesting. Nesting:
Season-in N. India June to August; in the south November to
February. Nest-a platform of twigs in trees standing in or near water,
frequently on village outskirts, and usually amongst mixed heronries.
Eggs-2 to 4, bluish or greenish white, sometimes with delicate spots
of yellowish brown.
198. The Black Ibis-Pseudibis papiffosa (Temminck)

HINDI NAMES : Baza, Kcila biiza
Size: White Ibis-. Field Characters: A largish black bird with long
curlew-like downcurved bill, a conspicuous white patch near the
shoulder, and brick red legs. Naked black head with a triangular patch
of crimson warts on the crown. Sexes alike. Pairs, or scattered parties,
on the open countryside.
The rather similar but smaller GLOSSY IBIS(Pfegadis falci~~elfus)
is
found at marshes. Glistening blackish and chestnut, with slenderer bill
and feathered head.
Distribution: The drier portions of the Indian Union (excepting
the western seaboard) south to Mysore; W. Pakistan; E. Pakistan
(rare). Not Ceylon. The closely allied species P. davisoni occurs in
Burma. Habits: Though often found in the neighbourhood of rivers
and jheels it is by no means so dependent on water as the White
Ibis, usually feeding around the dry margin higher up and in the
surrounding stubbles and fallow land. Keeps to favoured localities,
and roosts in accustomed treks. Parties fly in V-formation by steady
wing beats alternated with short glides. Food: Insects, grain and small
reptiles. Call: A loud, nasal screaming cry of 2 or 3 notes reminiscent
of the Ruddy Sheldrake (217), uttered mostly on the wing. Nesting:
Season-ill-defined. March to October in N. India; November1
December in south. Nest-large, cup-shaped, of twigs, lined with
straw, feathers, etc. High up in a tree, generally away from water;
built singly and not in colonies or amongst mixed heronries. Old
eagle's or vulture's nest sometimes utilised. Eggs-2 to 4, bright pale
green, either unmarked or with spots and streaks of brown.
197. White Ibis 198. Black Ibis
199. White Stork 200. Whitenecked Stork
199. The White Stork-Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME: Laglag
Size: Vulture?; standing about 34 ft. high. Field Characters: A

long-legged, long-necked egret-like bird, pure white except for the
black wings. Legs and heavy, pointed bill red. Sexes alike. Singly,
pairs or parties on and about marshland. Distribution: Winter visitor
in small numbers. Practically throughout the Indian Union (rare south
of the Deccan); both Pakistans; Ceylon (straggler); Burma. Two
races: the European-W. Asiatic ciconia, and the E. Asiatic boyciana.
Habits: Keeps in pairs or small parties, collecting into large flocks
for the northward migration in spring. A young stork ringed in
Germany was recovered in Bikaner, about 4000 miles distant. Flight
seemingly leisurely, but swift, and strong-rapid wing beats punctuated
with short glides. Much given to soaring and circling on thermal
currents high up in the air along with vultures etc. Food: Frogs,
lizards and large insects. Takes heavy toll of locusts and their eggs.
Lacks voice muscles; the only sound produced is a loud clattering of
the mandibles, especially during the breeding season, with the neck
bent right over so that the crown touches the back. The gular pouch,
puffed out, serves as a resonating organ. Nesting: Season-in W. Asia
and C. Europe May to July. Nest-a large stick platform on chim-
neys, tops of buildings, tall trees, etc. Eggs-3 to 5, pure white.
200. The Whitenecked Stork-Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert)
Size: White Stork-; about 3 ft. high. Field Characters: A glistening

black stork with conspicuous white neck and black 'skull cap'. Abdo-
men and vent white. Long red legs; heavy blackish bill. Sexes alike.
Pairs, or parties, on or near marshland. Distribution: Practically
throughout the Indian Union up to about 3000 ft. in the Himalayas;
W. Pakistan (rare) ; E. Pakistan ; Ceylon ;Burma. Resident and locally
migratory. Habits: AtTects well-watered plains country. Partial to
water-logged ground, and the environs of rivers, jheels and ponds
especially where the latter are in the process of desiccation leaving
fish and frogs high and dry. Soaring aloft and other habits similar to
those of the White Stork. Food: Fish, frogs, reptiles, crabs, molluscs,
large insects, etc. Nesting: Season-practically all year, varying
locally. Nest-a large stick platform with a central depression lined
with grass and rubbish; high ur, in a Silk Cotton (Salmalia) or similar
tall tree, usually near water and often also close to a village. Eggs-3
or 4, white, obtuse ovals.
201. The Adjutant Stork-Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin)
HTNDI NAMES: Hargila, Gariir
Size: Vulture+ ; standing about 4 ft. high. Field Characters: A large,

sad coloured black, grey and dirty white stork with an enormous
yellow wedge-shaped bill, and naked head and neck. The long naked
ruddy pouch pendent from the chest is diagnostic. Sexes alike. Singly,
or parties, on marshes.
The SMALLERADJUTANT (L. javanicus) occurs sparingly in well-
watered tracts over the greater part of our area, including Malabar
and Ceylon. It is smaller4hiefly glossy metallic black above, white
below-and lacks the hanging pouch.
Distribution: Northern India and Assam; East Pakistan; Burma.
Local migrant. Habits: A close relation of the African Marabou;
called Adjutant from its measured martial gait as it paces up and
down. An efficient scavenger, often consorting with kites and
vultures to feed at carcases and garbage dumps on outskirts of
villages. Also eats frogs, fish, reptiles, large insects, etc. Heavy in
the take-off, but flies strongly with noisy rhythmical flaps when once
properly air-borne, and also circles aloft gracefully on motionless
wings as most other storks do. A loud clattering of the mandibles
is the only sound normally produced. Nesting: Scattered colonies
in N. India, Assam, and the Sundarbans. Its real breeding grounds
lie in S. Burma where enormous colonies mixed with pelicans and
Smaller Adjutants, are active between October and December.
Nest-an immense stick platform on rock pinnacles or lofty forest
trees. Eggs-3 or 4, white.
202. The Blacknecked Stork-Xenorhy~zchus asiaticus (Latham)

HINDI NAMES : Loharjang, Loha sorang
Size: White Stork+ ; about 4 ft. high. Field Characters: The large
size, enormous black bill, glistening black head and neck, white under-
parts, and pied black and white wings readily identify this stork. Sexes
alike but iris brown in male, lemon yellow in female. Solitary, on
marshland and jheels. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union;
both Pakistans ; Ceylon ; Burma. Habits : Confined to rivers, j heels
and marshes. Usually met with as a solitary bird wading in shallow
water. It is more of a fish eater than other storks, but also eats frogs,
reptiles, crabs, etc. Though widely distributed, the species is nowhere
common or abundant. Nesting: Season-between August and Jan-
uary, varying locally. Nest-an enormous deep platform of twigs
with a depression in the centre lined with leaves and grass. Placed
near the top of a large peepal or similar tree standing near water or
amidst cultivation. Eggs-3 or 4, white, like those of other storks.
203. The Painted Stork-Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant)
HINDI NAMES : Janghil, Dbkh
Size: White Stork +_. Field Characters : A typical large stork with
long, heavy, yellow bill slightly decurved near tip, and unfeathered
waxy yellow face. Plumage white, closely barred and marked with
glistening greenish black above, and with a black band across breast,
Delicate rose pink about the shoulders and on wing. Sexes alike.
Pairs, parties or large congregations at jheels, and marshes. Distribu-
tion: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma.
Resident and locally migratory. Habits: In general similar to those
of other storks. Spends the day standing 'hunched up' and inert or
sauntering about sedately on grassy marshland in quest of fish and
frogs. Also wades into shallow water moving forward with neck craned
down, bill immersed and partly open swaying from side to side with a
scythe-like action. Nesting : Season-between August and January,
varying with local conditions. Nest-a large stick platform with a
shallow depression in the middle lined with leaves, straw, etc. Built
on trees standing in or near water, often 10 to 20 nests in a single
tree and almost touching one another. Breeds in enormous heronries,
often sharing these with cormorants, egrets, openbilled storks, white
ibises, etc. Eggs-3 to 5, dull sullied white, occasionally with sparse
brown spots and streaks. Both sexes share all the domestic duties.
204. The Openbilled Stork-Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert)

HINDI NAMES : GEngla, Ghorlghila
Size: White Stork-; about 24 ft. high. Field Characters: A small

white or greyish white stork, with black in the wings. In the distance
rather like the White Stork, but the peculiar reddish black bill with
arching mandibles leaving a narrow open gap between them is diag-
nostic. Sexes alike. Twos and threes, or flocks, at jheels and marshes.
Occasionally also tidal mudflats. Distribution: Throughout the Indian
Union ; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Resident and locally migra-
tory. Habits: One of our commoncst storlts with a wide and general
distribution. General habits typical of the storks. The precise signi-
ficance and function of the curiously shaped bill is obscure and calls
for special investigation. It may have to do with opening the thick
shells of the large Amp~illariasnails found on marshes, the soft body
and viscera of which form a large proportion of its food in due season.
It also eats frogs, crabs, large insects and other small living things.
Nesting: Season-mostly between July and September in N. India;
Novembsr to March in the south and in Ceylon. Breeds in colonies
amongst mixed heronries of cormorants, egrets, painted storks, etc.
Nest-a circular platform of twigs with the central depression lined
with leaves. Eggs-2 to 4, white, close textured.
--
201. Adjutant Stork 202. Blacknecked Stork
203. Painted Stork 204. Openbilled Stork
102
205. The Grey Heron-Ardea cinerea Linnaeus
HINDI NAMES: Nari, Kabiid, Anjan
Size: Openbilled Stork?. Field Characters: A lanky stork-like bird,
ashy grey above with white crown and neck; greyish white below, with
long slender S-shaped neck, narrow head, and pointed dagger bill.
A long black occipital crest, and elongated white feathers on the
breast with some black streaks. A conspicuous black dotted line
down middle of foreneck. Female similar, but crest and pectoral
plumes less developed. Solitary, at reedy jheels, rivers, etc.
The PURPLEHERON(A. purpurea), somewhat smaller but of the
same general habits, is also seen in similar habitats. Bluish grey above
with rufous head and neck; black and chestnut below.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union up to 5000 ft. in the
Kashmir Valley; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Resident and loc-
ally migratory. Habits: Somewhat crepuscular. Wades circumspectly
into shallow water with neck craned and bill poised, or stands hunched
up but alert waiting for a frog or fish to blunder within striking range.
Flies with steady wing beats, neck folded back and head drawn in bet-
ween the shoulders, the long legs trailing behind. Call: A deep harsh
croak uttered in flight. Nesting: Season-mainly July to September in
N. India; November to March in the south and in Ceylon. Nest-a
twig platform with the central depression lined with grass etc. Built
gregariously in trees, often amongst mixed heronries. Eggs-3 to 6,
deep sea-green. Both sexes share all domestic duties.
206. The Little Egret-Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : Kilchia or Karchia bagla
Size: Village hen; longer neck and legs. Field Characters: A lanky
snow-white marsh bird differentiated from the very similar Cattle
Egret (207) in non-breeding plumage by its black bill and parti-
coloured black and yellow feet. A long drooping crest of two narrow
plumes acquired in the breeding season; also dainty filamentous
ornamental feathers ('aigrettes') on both back and breast. Sexes alike.
Flocks on marshland and jheels etc.
The solitary LARGEEGRET(E. alba) and the more sociable MEDIAN
EGRET(E. intermedia), both pure white, are found in the same habitat
and often in association with it. In breeding plumage the Large Egret
(heron size) has flimsy ornamental dorsal plumes ('aigrettes') falling
over beyond the tail. In the slightly smaller intermedia these plumes
are present on both breast and back as in 206, but the crest is lacking.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans ;
Ceylon ; Burma. Habits : Gregarious. Affects marshes, jheels and
rivers; also tidal mudflats. Flies with steady wing beats, neck pulled
in like a heron; roosts in trees. Food: Insects, frogs and small reptiles.
In former years 'aigrettes' were in great demand in western countries
for millinery purposes. The trade is now illegal. Nesting: Season-
principally July/August in N. India; November to February in the
south. Nest-a shallow twig platform, like a crow's, lined with straw,
leaves, etc. Built in trees, amongst mixed heronries, often near a
village. Eggs--4, pale bluish green.
206. Little Egret
ian Reef Heron
207. The Cattle Egret-Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : Surkhia bagla, Glii-bagla
Size: Little Egret. Field Characters: In non-breeding pure white

plumage distinguished from the Little Egret by colour of bill which is
yellow, not black. The orangebuff head, neck, and back of the breed-
ing plumage render it unmistakable. Sexes alike. Parties, attending
on grazing cattle. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both
Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Only the race corornandus concerns us.
Habits: Gregarious. Mostly seen with grazing cattle, stalking ener-
getically alongside the animals, running in and out between their legs
or riding upon their backs, and lunging out to seize insects disturbed
by their movements amongst the grass. Food : Chiefly grasshoppers,
bluebottle flies and other insects; also frogs, lizards, etc. Roosts at
night in favourite trees, sharing these with crows, mynas and other
birds. Nesting: Season-chiefly June to August in N. India.; Novem-
ber to March in the south and in Ceylon, varying according to mon-
soon conditions. Nest-an untidy twig platform like a crow's. In
mixed colonies with cormorants, paddy birds, etc., in large leafy
trees, not necessarily near water and often in the midst of a noisy
town. Eggs-3 to 5, pale skim-milk blue.
208. The Indian Reef Heron-Egretta gularis (Bosc)
Size: Little Egret+. Field Characters: General effect of the Little

Egret but has two colour phases: (1) pure white, (2) bluish slaty with a
white patch on throat. Some examples parti-coloured. A backwardly
drooping crest of two narrow plumes is acquired in the breeding
season. White phase difficult to differentiate from the Small Egret,
but its seashore habitat is suggestive. Sexes alike. Singly, on rocky
seashore, mangrove swamps, etc. Distribution: The coast of western
India; W. Pakistan; Ceylon. Only the race schistacea concerns us.
The allied EASTERNREEF HERON(E. sacra) with a bushy crest,
occurs in Burma and Andaman Islands.
Habits: Not appreciably different from other egrets and herons,
except that it is essentially a bird of the seacoast, seldom found far
inland above tidal influence. Food: Mainly crustaceans, molluscs and
fish, especially the mud-crawler (Periophthalmus). Wades into the
shallow surf or in a rock pool left by the receding tide, crouching
forward on flexed legs, 'freezing' with poised neck and bill and jabbing
at quarry blundering within range. Nesting: Season-March to July,
varying with locality. Nest-a twig platform like that of other egrets,
commonly built in colonies on mangrove trees in a tidal swamp, or
in a large peepal or jambul, often in association with other egrets,
paddy birds, etc. Eggs-3 or 4, pale sea-green or blue-green, un-
marked.
209. The Paddy Bird, o r Pond Heron-Ardeola grayii (Sykes)
HINDI NAME : Andha bagla
Size: Cattle Egret-. Field Characters: An egret-like marsh bird

chiefly earthy brown when a t rest, but with the glistening white wings,
tail and rump flashing into prominence immediately it flies. In breed-
ing season acquires maroon hair-like plumes on back, and long
white occipital crest. Sexes alike. Singly, or loose parties, at jheels,
ponds, etc. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakis-
tans; Ceylon; Burma. Plains and up to about 3000 ft. elevation.
Habits: Found wherever there is water; river, jheel, roadside ditch,
kutcha well, or temple pond, often even in the midst of populous
towns. Also on the seacoast in mangrove swamps, tidal mudflats,
etc. Its normal method of feeding is to stand hunched up at the water's
edge watching patiently for movement and jabbing at the quarry when
opportunity offers. Sometimes it wades into the shallows, moving
forward stealthily and with circumspection, neck craned and bill
poised in readiness. Food: Frogs, fish, crabs and insects. Flight
typically heron-steady wing beats with neck pulled in. Roosts in
large leafy trees in mixed congregations of crows and other birds. Call:
a harsh croak uttered when flying off. A low conversational note,
wciku, and a variety of peculiar mumblings is produced by nesting
pairs. Nesting : Season--chiefly May to September (SW. monsoon) ;
November to January in S. India. Nest-an untidy twig platform
like a crow's up in large mango, tamarind and such-like trees, shared
with other egrets. Frequently within town limits; not necessarily
near water. Eggs-3 to 5, pale greenish blue.
210. The Little Green Bittern-Butorides striatus (Linnaeus)

HINDI NAME : Kancha bagla
Size: Paddy Bird+. Field Characters: Like the Paddy Bird in gene-
ral effect, but largely blackish grey, glossy dark green and bronzegreen
above; ashy grey below. Crown and long occipital crest glossy green-
ish black. Chin and throat white. Sexes alike. Solitary, in brush-
wood a t water's edge. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union;
both Pakistans ; Ceylon ; Burma. Several races. Habits : Largely cre-
puscular, but also active in daytime, particularly in cloudy overcast
weather o r in shady spots with bushes bordering water. Affects
streams and inland waters as well as mangrove swamps and tidal
creeks. Food: Crabs, shrimps, mud-fish, etc. Flight and general
behaviour similar to the Paddy Bird's but is less common and more
secretive. Silent. Nesting: Season--overall March to August, varying
locally. Nest-a rough stick platform up in a small tree on the edge
of water, o r in a mangrove swamp. Built singly, not in colonies.
Eggs-3 to 5, very like the Paddy Bird's, pale greenish blue.
21 1 . The Night Heron-Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES: WGk, KwGk, Kokrai
Size: Paddy Bird+; Kite. Field Characters: General effect of a
stocky Paddy Bird, with stouter bill. Ashy grey above with glistening
black back and scapulars; white below. Crown, nape and long
occipital crest black; the last with some white plumes intermixed.
Young birds streaked brown, rather like Paddy Bird. Sexes alike.
Gregarious. Flying at dusk with loud, raucous kwaark. Distribution:
Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans ; Ceylon; Burma.
Resident and locally migratory. Habits: Largely crepuscular and
nocturnal. Affects jheels and other inland waters as well as tidal
creeks and mangrove swamps. Colonies spend the daytime resting
in some clump of leafy trees, often far from water, and fly out to
their accustomed feeding grounds a t dusk in straggling ones and
twos uttering a distinctive kwnark from time to time. Flight like
the Paddy Bird's-steady flapping, neck pulled in; in silhouette
resembles both the flying fox's and the gull's. The same communal
roosts and nesting trees are occupied year after year. Food: Crabs,
fish, frogs, aquatic insects, etc. More actively procured and not usually
in the 'wait and strike' manner of herons. Nesting: Season-between
April and September in N. India; December to February in the
south. Nest-the usual twig structure of egrets. Built in colonies in
canopy of large leafy trees or screwpine brakes, near or removed
from water. E g g s 4 .or 5, pale sea-green. Both sexes share all
domestic duties.
2 1 2. The Chestnut Bittern-Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin)
HINDI NAME: LuE bagla
Size : Paddy Bird-. Field Characters : An unmistakable cousin of
the Paddy Bird. Upper parts chestnut-cinnamon; chin and throat
whitish with a dark median stripe down foreneck. Upper breast
chestnut and black; rest of underparts pale chestnut. Female duller
with brown-streaked rufous-buff underparts. Solitary, in and about
reedy marshes etc.
The YELLOWBITTERN (I. sinensis) is another locally common
species of similar size and habits, also found in the same marshy
habitats. Upperparts chiefly yellowish brown; crown and crest black.
Upper breast blackish with buff streaks; rest of underparts pale
yellowish buff.
Distribution: The greater part of the Indian Union; both Pakistans;
Ceylon ; Burma. Resident and locally migratory. Habits: Very similar
to those of the Little Green Bittern (210). When surprised on its nest
or cornered, it assumes the characteristic attitude of its tribe (the bit-
terns), aptly termed the 'On Guard'. The neck is stretched perpendi-
cularly, bill pointing skyward, while the bird 'freezes', becoming asto-
nishingly obliterated amongst its reedy environment. Nesting: Season
-July to September (SW. monsoon). Nest-a small twig platform
among reeds in a swamp, or in bushes at the edge of a monsoon-filled
pond. E g g s 4 or 5, white.
209. Paddy Bird 210. Little Green Bittern
21 1. Night Heron 212. Chestnut Bittern
213. The Flamingo-Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas
HINDI NAMES: Bog-hans, RCj-hans, hanj
Size: Domestic goose; standing about 4 ft. high. Field Characters: A
long-legged, long-necked rosy white stork-like bird, with a heavy pink
bill turned down a t an angle ('broken') from about half its length.
Sexes alike. In flight the long outstretched legs and neck, and the black-
bordered brilliant scarlet wings are diagnostic. Parties, or flocks, at
shallow jheels, tidal mudflats, etc. Distribution: Capriciously through-
out the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon. Not Burma. Resi-
dent, sporadic and locally migratory. Habits: Affects jheels, lagoons,
salt pans, estuaries, etc. Feeds in shallow water with the slender neck
bent down between the legs and head completely submerged. The
.curious bill is inverted so that the ridge of the culmen scrapes the
ground. The upper mandible thus forms a hollow scoop into which
the churned up liquid bottom mud is collected and strained by means
of the lamellae and the fleshy tongue, sifting the minute food particles.
Food: Crustaceans, worms, insect larvae, seeds of marsh plants, and
organic ooze. Call: A loud goose-like honk; a constant babbling
uttered while feeding in company. Flocks fly in V-formation, in
diagonal wavy ribbons, or in single file. Nesting: Season-in the
Great Rann of Kutch depending upon the requisite shallowness of
water on the ntsting ground; September/October, February to April.
Nest-a truncated conical mound of hard sun-baked mud 6 to 12
inches in height with a slight pan-like depression at top. Built in
hundreds close to one another in a compact, expansive 'city'. Eggs-
1 or 2, white with a faint bluish tinge.
214. The Nukta o r Comb Duck-Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant)
HINDI NAME: Nukta
Size: Domestic duck+. Field Characters: A large duck, black above
glossed with blue and green; white below. Head and neck speckled
with black. The swollen knob at base of drake's bill, much enlarged
during breeding season, is diagnostic. Female similar but much smaller,
and minus comb. Small flocks on reedy jheels. Distribution: Through-
o u t the Indian Union; W. Pakistan (patchy and rare); E. Pakistan;
Ceylon; Burma. Resident and locally migratory. Habits: Affects
jheels with reeds and floating vegetation interspersed with patches of
open water. Walks and dives well and perches freely on boughs of
trees. Food: Chiefly grain and shoots or wild and cultivated rice,
and other vegetable matter. Procured chiefly by grazing in squelchy
inundated fields or by 'up-ending' in shallow water. Occasionally
frogs, aquatic insects, etc. Call: A low, grating croak (drake); also
a loud honk in the breeding season. Nesting: Season-mainly July
to September (SW. monsoon). Nest-a natural hollow In a tree-
trunk standing in water, sometimes with a scanty lining of sticks,
grass and leaves. Eggs-8 to 12, pale cream coloured with the texture
and appearance of polished ivory. Evidently the female alone incu-
bates.
21 3. Flamingo 214. Nukta or Comb Duck
215. Cotton Teal 216. Barheaded Goose
2 15. The Cotton Teal- Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin)
HMDI NAMES : Girria, Gur-giirra
Size: Pigeon+. Field Characters: The smallest of our wild ducks;.

white predominating in plumage. Bill short, deep at base, and
goose-like. Male glossy blackish above, with white head, neck,
and underparts; a prominent black collar and white wing-bar..
Female paler, without either. In non-breeding plumage male
resembles female except for his white wing-bar. Flocks on jheels
etc. Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Union; W.
Pakistan (patchy and rare); E. Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. Resident
and locally migratory. Habits: Found on all inland waters-
jheels, rain-filled ditches, inundated paddy fields, irrigation tanks, etc.
Becomes very tame on village tanks wherever it is unmolested and has.
become inured to human proximity. Swift on the wing, and can dive
creditably on occasion. Call: A peculiar clucking, uttered in flight.
Food: Chiefly vegetable matter; also insects, crustaceans, etc. Nest-
ing : Season-July to September (SW. monsoon). Nest-a natural
hollow in a tree-trunk standing in or near water, sometimes lined
with grass, rubbish and feathers. Eggs-6 to 12, ivory white.
(See also PINKHEADED DUCK,p. 127.)
216. The Barheaded Goose-Anser indicus (Latham)
HINDI NAMES: Hans, Rtijhans, Birwa, Saw5,n
Size: Domestic goose+. Field Characters: A grey, brownish and

white goose, with white head and sides of neck, and two distinctive
broad black bars across nape. Sexes alike. Gaggles, on rivers and
jheels, and about young winter cultivation.
The GREYLAG GOOSE(Anser anser) believed to be the ancestor of
all our domestic breeds, is also a common winter visitor. Size and
general effect that of the normal brown phase of the domestic goose.
The grey rump and white nail to the flesh pink bill are leading clues to
its identity. Keeps more to jheels than to rivers.
Distribution: In winter throughout northern India and Assam; rare
in central India, straggling as far south as Mysore. Both Pakistans;
Burma. Habits: Arrives about October; departs by mid March.
Rather crepuscular and nocturnal. Congregates in large gaggles when
grazing in young gram fields, or when resting during the daytime on
sandbanks in the middle of large rivers. Usually excessively wary and
difficult to circumvent. Skeins flight in V-formation or in straight
ribbons over a wide front to and from their feeding grounds. Food:
Chiefly green shoots of winter crops such as wheat or gram. Call:
A musical aang, aang. Produced in varying keys by skein after skein
going over, it is one of the most unforgettable and exhilarating sounds
to the wildfowler. Nesting: Season-in the nearest breeding localities
to us, Ladakh and Tibet, April to June. Nest-a depression in lush
herbage bordering the high altitude lakes, thickly lined with down
and feathers. Eggs-3 or 4, ivory white.
217. The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck-Tadorria ferrugineu
(Pallas). HINDI NAMES: Chakwa-chakwi, Siirkhclb
.Size: Domestic duck+. Field Characters: A large orange-brown duck
with paler head and neck and sometimes a faint black collar at its base.
Wings white, black, and glistening green. Tail black. Female similar,
but lacking the black collar and with much paler (almost whitish)
head. Pairs or parties, at open tanks and on shingle banks in rivers.
Distribution: In winter throughout the Indian Union; rare in extreme
S. India. Both Pakistans; Ceylon (straggler); Burma. Habits: Oftener
seen on mudspits and sandbanks than actually on water. Walks well
and with ease, and grazes like a goose at water's edge. Food: Vege-
table matter, molluscs, crustaceans, aquatic insects, fish and reptiles.
Occasionally said also to eat carrion in company with vultures. Seldom
shot by sportsmen, but nevertheless is amongst the wariest and most
vigilant of our ducks. Call: A nasal aang, aang, rather like a Bar-
headed Goose's honking in the distance, and also reminiscent of the
cries of the Black Ibis. Nesting: Season-in Ladakh and Tibet, its
nearest nesting grounds, April to June. Nest-a thick pad of down
feathers in holes in cliffs or even in a building, often at a considerable
distance and height from water. Eggs-6 to 10, pearly white, smooth
textured.
One of our commonest residefit wild ducks is the LESSER
WHISTLING TEAL(Dendrocygna javanica). It is smaller than the
domestic duck, chestnut coloured and confusable with no other of
the same size. I t keeps in flocks on vegetation-covered tanks and has
a feeble flapping flight reminiscent of the ja~ana's. The wheezy
whistling notes constantly uttered on the wing, sea-sick, sea-sick are
similar to some notes of the Large Pied Wagtail. It nests during the
SW. monsoon in natural tree hollows.
218. The Common Teal-Anas crecca Linnaeus
HINDI NAMES : Chhdti murghiibi, Kerra
Size : Domestic duck-; Cotton Teal (215) +. Field Characters:

Male pencilled greyish, with chestnut head and a broad metallic green
band running backward from eye to nape, bordered above and below
by whitish lines. A tricoloured wing speculum-black, green, and buff
-particularly conspicuous in flight. Female mottled dark and light
brown, with pale underparts and black and green speculum. Flocks
on tanks, jheels and marshes, etc. Distribution: In winter throughout
the Indian Union ; both Pakistans ; Ceylon ; Burma. Habits : Perhaps
our commonest migratory duck, and an excellent sporting bird, swift
o n the wing and good for the table. Largely vegetarian in its diet,
grubbing for grain and tender shoots of rice and marsh plants in the
squelchy mud of inundated paddy fields and grassy tank margins.
Also 'up-ends' in shallow water. Call: A low toned krit uttered by the
drake, and a subdued wheezy quack by the duck. Nesting: Season-
in the Palaearctic Region (northern Europe to E. Siberia) April to
June. Nest-of reeds, rushes, etc. lined with down, on the edge of
swamps. Eggs-7 to 10, cream coloured, with a glossy texture.
109
2 19. The Garganey or Bluewinged Teal-Anas querquedula Linnaeus
HINDI NAMES: Chaitwa, Khira
Size : Domestic duck-; Common Teal +. Field Characters: Drake

recognisable by his pink-brown white-speckled head, with conspi-
cuous broad white eyebrows, and bluish grey on wing and shoulders.
Duck closely resembles female Teal (218) but is paler. In flight,
her very indistinct speculum as compared with the Teal's is suggestive.
At close range the pure white throat (instead of brown-speckled)
and the prominent superciliary stripe distinguish her. Flocks on
grassy jheels etc. Distribution: In winter throughout the Indian
Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Habits: Along with the
Common Teal, one of our earliest migrants, commencing to arrive
by August. Very similar to it in habits. Also a swift flier and a good
sporting and table bird. Food: Largely vegetarian. Nesting: Season-
in the Palaearctic Region (N. Europe to E. Siberia), MayIJune.
Nest-a depression in the grass in wet meadows, sometimes lined
with a layer of finer grasses but always with plenty of down feathers.
Eggs-6 to 12, buffy white with a glossy texture.
(See also WIGEON,p. 125; GADWALL, MALLARD, p. 126.)
220. The Pintail-Anas acuta Linnaeus
Size : Domestic duck-. Field Characters: Drake : Upper plumage

pencilled grey. Head chocolate, with a white band on either side
running down into the white neck and underparts. Long, pointed
pin-like feathers projecting well beyond the tail, usually sufficiently
diagnostic. Duck: mottled brown and buff with characteristic elon-
gated body and tapering tail, but without the pins. Differs from female
Gadwall by absence of white in the wing; from female Mallard in
lacking the bright wing-speculum. Pairs, or flocks, on reed-fringed
vegetation-covered jheels. Distribution: In winter throughout the
Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Habits: One of our
commonest migrant ducks. Amongst the first species to rise out of
gunshot after shooting has commenced on a jheel, as if conscious of
the esteem it enjoys as a sporting and table bird. Largely vegetarian
in its food preferences. Grubs in squelchy mud in inundated cultiva-
tion and on grassy tank margins. Also 'up-ends' in shallow water.
Nesting: Season-in the Palaearctic Region (Europe, N. and C. Asia)
May to July. Nest-a depression in grass in open marshy grassland,
compactly lined with rushes and down feathers. Eggs-7 to 12, pale
sea-green with a buflish tinge.
217. Ruddy Sheldrake 21 8. Common Teal

219. Garganey Teal 220. Pintail
110
221. The Spotbill o r Grey Duck-Anas poecilorhyncha Forster
HINDI NAMES : Garm-pEi, Gugral
Size: Domestic duck. Field Characters: The large size, scaly patterned
light and dark brown plumage, and the white and metallic green wing-
bar o r speculum are leading pointers. Bright orange-red legs, yellow-
tipped dark bill with 2 orange-red spots at its base (one on either side
of the forehead), confirm the diagnosis. Sexes alike. Pairs, or small
flocks on jheels. Distribution: Throughout the Indian Union; both
Pakistans; Ceylon (rare); Burma. Resident and locally migratory.
Three races, of which the typical poecilorhyncha mainly concerns us.
Habits: One of our most widely distributed resident ducks, but no-
where really abundant. I t is among the species that seem fully con-
scious of their good qualities as sporting and edible birds, and one
of the first to make itself scarce when gunfire commences on a jheel.
Food: Chiefly vegetable matter. A surface feeder, obtaining its food
chiefly by tipping or 'up-ending' in shallow water. When reaching
down for food thus, the tail end of the bird sticks out comically above
the surface, the vertical stance being maintained by a kicking of the
legs. Call: A hoarse wheezy note by the drake, and a loud quack by
the duck, particularly when suddenly alarmed. Very silent on the
whole. Nesting: Season-not rigidly defined; chiefly July to Septem-
ber (SW. monsoon). Nest-a pad of grass and weeds amongst herbage
on marshy margins of tanks. Eggs-6 to 12, greyish buff or greenish
white.
222. The Shoveller-Anas clypeata Linnaeus
HINDI NAMES : Tidari, Punana, Ghirah
Size: Domestic duck-. Field Characters: Drake: head and neck
glossy dark green; breast white, rest of underparts mostly chestnut.
Pale blue on forewing, with a white bar between it and the metallic
green speculum. Duck: mottled dark brown and buff, with greyish
blue on wings, green speculum, and conspicuous bright orange bill
(at base). Broadened shovel-shaped bill and orange legs diagnostic in
both sexes. Parties, and small flocks, on jheels, irrigation reservoirs,
village tanks, etc. Distribution: In winter throughout the Indian
Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Habits: Another of the
more common migratory ducks visiting us in winter, and amongst
the last to leave. The peculiar spatulate bill is adapted to its special
method of feeding. Swims with neck and bill stretched rigidly in
front, the lower mandible immersed and furrowing the water while
the upper is exposed and skims flat along the surface. The minute
food particles so collected are strained out by means of the comb-
tooth edges of the bill. Occasionally also tips or 'up-ends' in shallow
water. Food: Largely animal matter. It is not exacting in its food
preferences, and therefore its flesh is usually rank and unpalatable.
But in flight and other respects it is a good sporting bird. Nesting:
Season-in the Palaearctic Region (N. Europe etc.) April to June.
Nest-a pad of grass and rushes, on marshes etc. Eggs-7 to 16,
pale stone or buff, sometimes with a greenish tinge.
221. Spotbill 222. Shoveller
223. White-eyed Pochard 224. Dabchick
223. The White-eyed Pochard-Aytliya nyroca (Giildenst ldt)
HINDI NAME : Kurchiy~
Size: Domestic duck-. Field Characters: In general aspect rufous
brown and blackish brown, with a whitish wing-bar conspicuous in
flight. When overhead, the abdomen seen as an oval white patch is
diagnostic. Female duller coloured. Iris white in adult male; brown
in female and young male. Flocks on jheels, irrigation tanks, coastal
lagoons, etc. Distribution: In winter practically throughout the Indian
Union and W. Pakistan.
The allied BAER'SPOCHARD (A. baeri) uncommonly winters in W.
Bengal, Assam, E. Pakistan, Burma.
Habits: Perhaps the most widespread and abundant of our migra-
tory ducks. Frequents every type of water. Rests during the day in
the middle of open irrigation tanks etc., or on the sea beyond the
surf zone, safe from human molestation, and flights inland after
dusk to feed in inundated paddy fields and on grassy tank margins.
Also obtains much of its food by diving. Food: Vegetable matter,
insects, molluscs, small fish, etc. Swift on the wing and a good
sporting bird, but on the whole poor eating. Call: A harsh koor-
ker-ker. Nesting: Season-in Kashmir, the only breeding locality
within Indian limits, MaylJune. Nest-a pad of rushes lined with
finer grasses and a thick layer of down feathers. Built amongst
reeds close to water. Eggs-6 to 10 pale buff.
(See also TUFTEDPOCHARD, p. 125 ; REDCRESTED POCHARD, p. 127.)
224. The Little Grebe or Dabchick-Podiceps ruficolIis (Pallas)
HINDI NAMES : Pcndiibi, Diibdiibi
Size: Pigeon?; squat and tailless. Field Characters: A drab colour-
ed, plump and squat little water bird with silky white underparts,
short pointed bill, and no tail. In breeding plumage head and neck
dark brown and chestnut, upper plumage slightly paler. Yellow
swollen gape then conspicuous. Sexes alike. Pairs, or parties, on
jheels, village tanks, rain-filled ditches and ponds, etc. Distribution:
Throughout the Indian Union; both Pakistans; Ceylon: Burma.
Plains and up to about 5000 ft. elevation. The only race that con-
cerns us is capensis. Habits: A good swimmer and expert diver.
Vanishes below the surface with astounding rapidity, leaving scarcely
a ripple behind. When fired a t with a shot gun, the bird has often
dived before the charge can reach it! Normally sedentary, but is
capable of flying strongly and for long distances on its diminutive
wings when forced by drought to change its habitation. Call: A
sharp tittering heard chiefly when the birds are disporting themselves
of an evening, pattering along the water, half running half swimming,
with rapid vibrations of their stumpy wings and chasing one another
around. Food: Aquatic insects and larvae, tadpoles, frogs, crusta-
ceans, etc. procured by diving and under-water pursuit. Nesting:
Season-ranging principally between April and October. Nest-
a rough pad of sodden weeds and rushes on floating vegetation or a
raft of debris, often half submerged. Eggs-3 to 5, white but soon
becoming brown-stained through contact with the sodden weeds with
which the bird usually covers them up before leaving the nest in alarm
or to feed.
225. The Redtueasted Flycatcher-Muscicapa parva Bechstein
HINDI NAME: Turra
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A plain brown flycatcher with

partly cocked black-and-white tail and wings drooping on either side
of it. In adult male chin, throat, and breast bright orange-chestnut;
in female and young male breast ashy fulvous, underparts white. The
white patches at base of black tail feathers diagnostic in flight, and
when tail switched up. Singly in leafy trees on village outskirts,
roadsides, bungalow compounds, and forest plantations, etc. Distribu-
tion: Winter visitor practically throughout India; both Pakistans;
and Ceylon. Three races, of which only one (subrubra) breeds within
our limits, in Kashmir and Garhwal, at 6500 to 7500 ft. altitude.
Habits: Typical flycatcher. Flits among branches of trees, launching
short twisting sallies to capture winged insects. Descends to the
ground momentarily to pick up crawling prey and flits back into an
overhanging branch. From time to time the cocked tail is twitched
upright to the acco,mpaniment of a sharp click-click. Has a pretty
song of leaf warbler quality, but not heard in its winter quarters.
Nesting: (subrubra) Season-JunelJuly. Nest--of leaves, moss, and
hair in a tree-hole 10-20 ft. up. Eggs--4 or 5, pale green marked with
pinkish brown chiefly at the broad end.
226. The Greyheaded Flycatcher-Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson)

HINDI NAME:
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A tiny, restless greenish yellow

flycatcher with ashy grey head, neck, and breast, and bright yellow
underparts. Sexes alike. Singly, flitting and flycatching from branches
in well-wooded country. Distribution: Practically the entire Indian
Union, both Pakistans (except the arid northwest portions), and
Ceylon. Two races. Resident and local migrant. The species extends
east to China, south to Malaysia. Habits: Very active. Makes lively
aerial swoops after flies, turning, twisting, looping-the-loop dex-
trously and returning to its perch. Calls: A sharp, rather prolonged
twittering note. Also a pretty, surprisingly loud whistling song of
five notes chik-whichee-whichee? ending interrogatively. Nesting: Sea-
son-April to June. Nest-a tiny half cup of moss and lichens attached
like a bracket against a mossy tree-trunk, or in the angle of outflaking
bark, 10-20 ft. up, usually in hilly, forested areas up to 8000 ft. alti-
tude. Eggs-3 or 4, greyish or cream coloured with sparse blotches
of yellowish grey often forming a ring at the broad end.
227.. The Bluethroat-Erithacus svecicus (Linnaeus)
HINDINAMES : Hiiseni pidda, Nilkunthi
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: A sprightly, robin-like olive-brown
bird with whitish eyebrow and moustachial streaks. Adult male has
brilliant blue throat with a white or chestnut patch in the middle
(as illustrated); female and young male merely a gorget of brown
spots across the whitish breast. In both sexes the black-tipped orange-
chestnut tail is conspicuous in flight, and when spread. Singly on
damp ground, in tamarisk beds, reedy tank margins, sugar cane
fields, etc. Distribution: Winter visitor from N. Europe and N.
Asia practically throughout India; both Pakistans; and Ceylon.
Only one race (abbotti) breeds within Indian limits (Ladakh). This
form is dimorphic usually having a white spot on the blue, but some-
times red. Habits: Hops about quietly with tail cocked and wings
drooping, at the water's edge or in and out of marshy reeds and bushes,
stopping every now and again to pick up an insect. When alarmed or
suspicious the head and tail are lowered and the bird scuttles away
with a rapid mincing gait, erecting itself every few feet to scan the
intruder. Food: Mostly caterpillars, tiny beetles and other insects.
Call: In winter only a harsh subdued cltur-r or chuck, chuck. In
summer (breeding) a sweet, loud, and rich song delivered by the male
from a bush or other perch, or in his pipit-like display flight. Nesting:
Season-in Ladakh, JuneIJuly. Nest-a deep cup of dry grass on wet
ground, hidden amongst grass and scrub. E g g s 4 , sometimes 3,
olive-green to olive-brown, minutely freckled all over with pale dull
light reddish.
228. The Large Grey Babbler-Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes)
HINDINAMES : Ghoghoi, Gangai, Bhaina
Size: Myna. Field Characters: Similar to the Jungle Babbler (p. 4),
but pale greyish- (against earthy-) brown, with grey forehead. Tail
longer and more graduated, with white outer feathers conspicuous in
flight and when tail is spread. Sexes alike. 'Sisterhoods' of a dozen
or so, or larger flocks, rummaging on the ground in open cultivated
plains country. Distribution: East of a line from Kutch to Punjab
(Ferozepur); west of one from eastern U.P. (Ghaziabad) to eastern
Maharashtra State (Chanda). Common on the Deccan Plateau ; local
and patchy in some areas. An endemic species, absent in Ceylon and
the Pakistans. Habits: Sociable, with the same flight, food and general
behaviour as the Jungle and Common Babblers (pp. 4, 5). Differs
from them chiefly in its habitat-cultivated plains country dotted with
babool, mango, and neem trees. Avoids the better-wooded jungly
tracts preferred by the former, as well as the drier semi-desert facies
of the latter, but sometimes overlaps with either species in marginal
localities. Call: A loud discordant, almost inane, kay, kay, kay, kay,
etc. monotonously repeated by several individuals at the same time,
with plumage frowzled, wings partly drooping, and tails loosely
jerked from time to time. Nesting: Season-irregular; more or less
throughout the year. Nest-a loosely built cup of twigs, roots, and
grass, usually under 15 ft. up in a mango or other leafy tree. Eggs-3
or 4, blue, slightly larger but very similar to those of the Common
Babbler. Nests commonly parasitized by Pied Crested and Hawk-
Cuckoos.
225. Redbreasted Flycatcher 226. Greyheaded Flycatcher
227. Bluethroat 228. Large Grey Babbler
114
229. The Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher-Monarcha azurea (Boddaert)
HINDT NAME:
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: A partially fantailed bright blue

flycatcher with whitish abdomen, velvety black patch on nape (tuft),
and black gorget across foreneck. Female browner, less blue, with
grey and white underparts, and lacking the black marks. Singly o r
separated pairs, in wooded country; partial to mixed bamboo jungle,
Distribution: The Indian race styani occurs south and east of a line
from Khandesh to Lucknow ; East Pakistan ; Burma ; Thailand ; etc,
Ceylon has an endemic race (ceylonensis). Habits: Typical flycatcher.
Keeps chiefly to middle and lower storey of vegetation, often in the:
mixed foraging parties of other insectivorous birds. Hunts in trees,
undergrowth, and on ground, making agile aerial pursuits, or flitting
and prancing about with tail spread and partly erected, wings droop-
ing on either side like the Whitespotted Fantail (p. 18). Food: Flies
and midges; also larger insects like cicadas. Call: A distinctive, harsh
but lively sweech-which?. No song. Nesting: Season-April to August.
Nest-a deep cup of fine grasses and moss, draped outside with
spiders' egg-cases, lichens, etc., in fork of slender branch 5 to 25 ft.
up. Eggs-3 or 4, pale creamy pink with reddish brown blotches.
Very similar to those of Paradise Flycatcher (p. 18) but smaller.
230. The Lesser Whitethroat-Sylvia curruca (Linnaeus)

HINDI NAME:
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: Earthy brown above, whitish

below, purer white on the throat. The darker, greyer cap on the head
contrasting with brown back and sharply cut off from the throat
serves to accentuate its whiteness. The white edges and tip of tail,
conspicuous in flight, are further pointers. Sexes alike. Singly, in
thorn scrub and babool trees in and about fallow cultivation and
waste land, and semi-desert country. Distribution: The Indian race
blythi is a winter visitor practically throughout the plains of W.
Pakistan, and northern and peninsular India; east to W. Bengal
south to Ceylon. Breeds in Siberia east to Manchuria south to Tian
Shan and Altai, and possibly Baluchistan. Habits: Similar, in
general, to those of the Orphean Warbler (231). Creeps or flits restless-
ly amongst tangles of twigs and foliage in search of caterpillars and
insects. In common with leaf and tree warblers (P~~ylloscopus and
Hippolais) has an amusing trick, while hunting, of lunging out at an
insect just out of reach of the bill and nearly toppling over in the
attempt. It also feeds regularly on the nectar of Capparis flowers.
Call: A subdued tek. . .tek, like the low clicking of one's tongue
against the palate, uttered every few seconds. Usually no song in
its winter quarters.
-----
229. Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher 230. Lesser Whitethroat
23 1. Orphean Warbler 232. Jungle Myna
-1-15
231. The Orphean Warbler-Sylvia hortensis (Gmelin)
HINDI NAME:
Size: Between Sparrow and Bulbul. Field Characters: A slender,

bush-haunting, arboreal bird, slaty grey above buffy white below,
with a black skull cap covering eyes and ear-coverts. Tail black,
partly white-tipped and with outer feathers largely white; conspicuous
in flight. In female cap dark grey. Singly, in babool scrub on waste
land about cultivation, or amongst thorn bushes in semi-desert
country. Distribution: Eastern race jerdoni breeds in NW. Pakistan ;
Afghanistan to Iraq; winters in West Pakistan and India east to
Bihar-Orissa, south to Madras (Tiruchirapali). Habits: Insectivorous,
shy skulking. Hops singly amongst thorny bushes, hunting insects
and caterpillars, occasionally descending to ground. Fond of flower
nectar. Feeds regularly from blossoms of wild caper (Capparis aphylla)
and probably effects cross-pollination. Calls: A harsh chuck, chuck,
varied sometimes by a longer chichirichich. In breeding season male
has a magnificent warbling song delivered from bush-tops etc. Nesting:
Season-MaylJune. Nest-a deep cup of grass and leaves, lined with
finer grass, often plastered outside with vegetable down; 2 to 5 ft. up
in a bush. Eggs-3 to 5, greenish white, speckled and blotched with
blackish and grey chiefly at the broad end.
232. The Jungle Myna-Acridotheres fuscus (Wagler)

HINDI NAME: Jungli myna
Size: Same as Common Myna (p. 30). Field Characters: Very like
Common Myna but more greyish brown overall; with similar white
wing patches, conspicuous in flight. Absence of bare bright yellow
skin round eyes, and the bushy upstanding tuft of feathers on forehead
are diagnostic points. Pairs or parties on well-wooded countryside;
seldom about human habitations. Distribution: Practically the entire
Indian Union and both Pakistans up to 6000 ft.; Burma; northern
Ceylon. Resident but curiously local and patchy. Two races: north-
ern fuscus more slaty grey on upper parts, with bright yellow iris;
southern mahrattensis less grey on upper parts with bluish white iris.
Other races extend the species to China and Malaysia. Habits: Less
sophisticated than Common Myna and usually keeps away from habi-
tations. Attends grazing cattle, hunting the grasshoppers and other
insects flushed by their movements. Largely omnivorous. Also eats
wild figs and berries, and flower nectar (pl. 83). Calls: Indistinguish-
able from Common Myna's, but the characteristic keek-keek-kok-kok
etc. (nuptial "song") of the latter has not been recorded. Nesting:
Season-mainly February to July. Nest-a collection of twigs, roots,
grass, and rubbish stuffed in a tree-hole (woodpecker's) 8-20 ft. up,
or in the weep-holes of a roadside revetment. Eggs-3 or 4, glossy
turquoise blue.
233. The Pied Myna-Sturnus contra Linnaeus
HMDI NAME: Ablak myna
Size: Bulbul+ ; Common Myna-. Field Characters: A trim black

and white myna with orange orbital skin, and deep orange-and-
yellow bill. Sexes alike. Parties and flocks about villages and culti-
vation. Distribution: India east of a line from Ambala (Punjab) to
Hyderabad and Masulipatam (Andhra); East Pakistan; Burma. The
two races that chiefly concern us are the nominate contra, and
the NE. Assamese sordidus. They are differentiated on details of
coloration. Habits: Rarely met with away from the neighbourhood
of villages, towns, and cities where refuse dumps afford attractive
feeding. Commonly seen in attendance on grazing cattle, particularly
on moist or marshy environs of village tanks. Calls: A number of
pleasant high-pitched notes, some reminiscent of snatches from the
flight song of the finch-larks. Nesting: Season-March to September.
Nest-large, untidy, globular, of twigs, leaves, grass and rubbish,
with a lateral entrance. In branch of mango or similar tree 15 to 30
ft. up, sometimes 3 or. 4 nests in the same tree. E g g s 4 or 5, glossy
blue. Both sexes share in building and care of the young.
234. The Green Munia-Estrilda formosa (La tham)

HINDI NAMES : Hari n~iinia,Hari 161
Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: Very like the Red Munia (pl. 17)
but light olive-green above, yellow below, the flanks barred with green-
ish brown and white. Tail black, rounded (not pointed). Bill deep
scarlet. Female similar but much paler. Flocks in open deciduous
forest and stony scrub jungle, to about 3000 ft. elevation. Distribution:
A broad belt of central India between a line from Sirohi (Rajasthan)
to Hazaribagh (Bihar) in the north, and Khandesh (Bombay) to Visa-
khapatnam Ghats (Andhra) in the south. Local and patchy. Habits:
Sociable. Similar to those of the Red Munia (p. 33), but is less depend-
ent on damp localities. Lantana scrub country is widely favoured.
Flocks of 20 or more birds not uncommon, flying about in the charac-
teristic disorderly undulating rabble and uttering feeble cheeps. Food:
Chiefly grass seeds. Nesting: Curiously enough very little known.
Season-ill-defined; October to January, and July, mentioned. Nest-
globular, of coarse grass lined with finer grasses. Placed in a growing
sugar cane plant with some of the leaves interwoven into the structure
for support. The lateral entrance hole is prolonged to a short neck.
Several nests built in close proximity. Eggs-5(?), white, Both sexes
recorded as building the nest and incubating the eggs.
235. The Blackbreasted Weaver Bird-Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAMES : Sarbo baya, Shor baya, Kantawala baya
Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: Male in breeding plumage has

brilliant golden yellow crown, white throat and a black band separat-
ing it from the fulvous-white underparts. In non-breeding male
(illustrated), and female, crown brown like rest of upper plumage;
black pectoral band less developed. A prominent supercilium, a
spot behind ear, and narrow moustachial streaks, pale yellow. Flocks
about cultivation and around reedy margins of tanks and jheels, or
extensive tall grass areas. Distribution: Northern India east to
Assam (common in the Himalayan terai); south to Gujarat. Both
Pakistans. Patchy and local. Habits: Polygynous; colonial; on the
whole similar to those of the Common and Striated weavers (p. 31). In
courtship bows low before visiting female, presenting golden crown
a t her. Flaps wings deliberately and sings softly tsi-tsisik-tsisik-tsik-tsik
like chirp of cricket or subdued squeaking of unoiled bicycle wheel.
Nesting: Season-June to September. Nest-similar to the Striated
Baya's; somewhat smaller and normally with shorter entrance tubes.
Built in reed-beds in marsh with some of the growing reeds incorpo-
rated into the dome as support. Singly or in scattered groups of 4
or 5; sometimes larger colonies. Eggs-3 or 4, white, in'distinguish-
able from those of the other two weavers.
236. The Thickbilled Flowerpecker-Dicaeum ngile (Tickell)

HINDI NAME:
Size: Sparrow-; smaller than sunbird. Field Characters: Ashy

olive-brown above; greyish buffy white below, faintly brown-streaked.
Stout bluish finch-like bill readily distinguishes it from Tickell's
Flowerpecker (p. 46). Sexes alike. Singly, on mistletoe-laden trees
in open wooded country. Distribution: Indian race ngile found prac-
tically throughout India (barring the arid NW. portions) up to 5000
ft. in Himalayas; East Pakistan. Ceylon has an endemic race, zeylo-
nense. Habits: Similar, in general to Tickell's Flowerpecker. Feeds
largely on ripe berries of Loranthus and Viscrlm plant parasites, but
unlike Tickell's does not normally swallow them entire. The edible
pulp is stripped off by manipulating berry in bill, the viscous seed
being wiped on to a neighbouring branch. Thus it spreads the in-
festation among branches of the same tree rather than to distant ones.
Also eats peepal figs, lantana berries, and other fruit. Call: A
sharp metallic chik-chik-chik distinct from Tickell's. Spreads stumpy
tail and screws it restlessly from side to side while perched. Nesting*
Season-January to June. Nest-an oval felted pouch of vegetable
down, similar to Tickell's, brown in colour, and well camouflaged.
Eggs-2 or 3, pinkish white, blotched and speckled with brick-red.
-
233. Pied Myna 234. Green Munia
235. Blackbreasted Weaver Bird 236. Thickbilled Flowerpecker
(non-breeding male)
118
237. The Sirkeer Cuckoo-Taccocua leschenaultii Lesson
HINDI NAME: Jungli t dta
Size: House Crow+; with longer, broader tail. Field Characters:
An obvious relation of the Crow-Pheasant. A heavy-tailed earthy
brown and rufous bird, with fine black shaft-streaks to the feathers.
White tips to the graduated cross-rayed tail feathers prominent.
Also the bright cherry-red and yellow stout hooked bill. Sexes alike.
Singly or pairs, on ground in broken scrub country and deciduous
secondary jungle. Distribution: All India south and east of a line
from Kutch to Simla; East Pakistan; Ceylon. Three races, differen-
tiated on size and details of coloration. Habits: Largely terrestrial.
Stalks about amongst thickets like Crow-Pheasant, searching for food :
insects, lizards, fallen fruits and berries, etc. Runs swiftly through
undergrowth looking like mongoose, but is a feeble flier. Ascends
trees rapidly, hopping from branch to branch with great agility.
Call: Occasional. A sharp loud kek-kek-kek-kerek-kerek-kerek of
quality of Roseringed Parakeet's shrieks; also reminiscent in a way of
call of Barred Jungle Owlet (Glaucidium radiatum, p. 64). Nesting:
Non-parasitic. Season-March to August, varying with locality.
Nest-a shallow saucer of twigs lined with green leaves, in a thorn
bush or sapling 5 to 20 ft. up. Eggs-2 or 3, white, with a chalky
texture.
238. The Plaintive Cuckoo-Cacomantis merulinus (Scopoli)

HINDI NAME :
Size: Between Bulbul and Myna. Field Characters: A slim arboreal
bird, dark grey above, whitish below with grey chin and throat,
White-tipped black tail, and a white patch on underside of black wings.
prominent in flight. Female similar but sometimes "hepatic", i.e. bright
chestnut above and on throat, barred with black on back and on white
underparts. Singly, in scrub and openly wooded country. In normal
plumage confusable with DARK GREYCUCKOO-SHRIKE (Coracina
melaschistos); in hepatic phase with BAYBANDED CUCKOO (Cacomantis
sonneratii). The latter has a very different call wZE-ti-tEZ-ti reminiscent
of crosswordpuzzle of Indian Cuckoo (p. 50) but in much higher key.
Distribution: Indian race passerinus practically throughout India
south of the Himalayas (except the arid NW. portions), east to W.
Bengal; Ceylon (winter). Replaced by the Burmese querulus (paler
above; rufous below) in Assam and E. Pakistan. Habits: Solitary,
arboreal, insectivorous, with hawk-like flight. Food: Plant bugs,
caterpillars, and other insects. Calls: Normally a high-pitched
p'teer, p'teer, p'teer, or peter-peter. Also a pleasant, plaintive whistling
song pi-pi-pipeepeepi-pipeepee etc. delivered from exposed tree-top,
with tail depressed and wings drooping. Nesting: Season-July to
September (SW. monsoon). Parasitic chiefly on Tailor Birds and
Ashy Wren-Warblers (pp. 25, 26), its eggs matching theirs in colora-
tion and markings in varying degree.
237. Sirkeer Cuckoo 238. Plaintive Cuckoo
239. Malabar Pied Hornbill 240. Crested Tree Swift
119
239. The Malabar Pied Hornbill-Anthracoceros coronatus (Boddaert)
HINDI NAMES : Dhan churi, Suleimani mfirghi
Size: Kite. Field Characters: A heavy-billed arboreal bird with

black neck, back, and wings, white tips to the flight feathers, and
white underparts. Tail longish, with outer feathers all white. A
ponderous wax-yellow and black horn-shaped bill surmounted by a
casque sharply ridged along top, flat on sides, ending in a point.
Female differs only in colour details of soft parts. Noisy flocks
in fruit-laden trees in well-wooded deciduous country. Distribution:
Ceylon ; south and central India; north to southeastern. U.P. ; Bihar;
and Orissa.
The very similar LARGEPIEDHORNBTLL (A. rnalabaricus) with outer
tail feathers white-tipped black, and sides of casque convex, has a
more northerly range, Kumaon into Assam. The GREATINDIAN HORN-
snL (Buceros bicornis) of the W. Ghats and tropical E. Himalayas
is much larger: black with white neck, black-and-white wings and tail,
and concave-topped casque.
Habits: Sociable, mainly frugivorous. Also eats lizards, mice, and
baby birds. Flight: a few noisy flaps followed by a glide, with wing-
tips upturned. Calls: A variety of loud raucous cackling and inane
screams reminiscent of the protestations of a dak bungalow miirghi
seized by the cook, and also the yelps of a smackedpuppy! Nesting:
Season-March to June. Little recorded, but presumably of the same
general pattern as other hornbills (cf. p. 133). Eggs-2 to 4, white,
usually woodstained brownish.
240. The Crested Tree Swift-Hemiprocne longipennis (Tickell)

HINDI NAME: Tajdiir abGh.il
Size: Bulbul-. Field Characters: A slender swift, blue-grey above,

paler and whitish below, with a prominent erectile crest on forehead,
long pointed wings, and deeply forked tail. Chin and throat chestnut
in male, grey in female. In overhead flight very like Palm Swift
(p. 60), but larger and with more deeply forked tail. Pairs or small
parties hawking midges and tiny winged insects over deciduous forest.
Distribution: Ceylon; practically all India (except the arid NW.
portions) up to and along the base of the Outer Himalayas into
Assam; East Pakistan; Burma; Thailand, etc. Local and patchy.
Habits: Perches bolt upright on bare topmost twigs with wing-tips
crossed on either side of the spiky tail feathers. Calls: A variety of
loud and harsh but not unpleasant notes uttered from perch and also
on the wing, the commonest being whit-uck, whit-uck, whit-uck, etc.
Others are reminiscent of the 'scolding' of a shikra hawk (Accipiter
tadius). Nesting: Season-December to July and possibly later,
varying with locality. Nest-a ridiculously tiny, shallow and flimsy
half saucer of scraps of bark and feathers gummed together with the
bird's saliva. Attached to upper surface of a slender leafless branch
12 to 40 ft. up, difficult to detect from the ground. Egg-a singleton,
pale grey, elliptical, almost completely filling the nest.
120
241. The Ruff and Reeve-Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME : Geh-wala
Size: Male (Ruff) = Partridge; female (Reeve)= Quail+. Field
Characters: A rather dumpy greyish brown wader with bold scaly
patterned upper plumage and relatively short sandpiper-like bill.
In flight a narrow white wing-band and whitish patches on either side
at base of tail, suggestive clues. Sexes alike, but Reeve considerably
smaller. In summer plumage, sometimes partially acquired before
emigration (AprilIMay), Ruff extremely variable with much black,
white, purple, chestnut, and buff in it, and with a peculiar ruff and
ear tufts. Reeve.as in winter, but blacker above. Flocks on marshes
and tidal mudflats, etc. Distribution: Winter visitor to practically all
India; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma. Commoner in N. India.
Breeds in temperate Europe and N. Asia. Habits: Gregarious; on
first arrival in N. India sometimes seen in enormous concentrations.
Behaviour, food, etc. not markedly different from other migrant
waders, but takes larger quantities of weed seeds. A good sporting
bird. Ruff best known for its promiscuous breeding habits and its
fantastic communal sparring tournaments or courtship displays.
A number of Ruffs in variegated breeding plumages gather at selected
spots known as "leks" or "hills", each occupying an adjacent
"territory" of a few square inches. The neighbours posture threaten-
ingly with ruff and ear tufts erected, legs flexed, head lowered, bill
pointing to ground, and tilt and leap at one another. Ready-to-breed
females visit the "hills" from time to time and mate with the Ruff
of their choice. He takes no part in the nesting chores.
242. The Blacktailed Godwit-Limosa limosa (Linnaeus)
HTNDI NAMES: GudEra, Gairiya, Jangral, Khcig
Size: Partridge+. Field Characters: A variegated brown and white
wader very like the Whimbrel or Curlew (p. 94) in general effect, but
with a slender, straight, slightly upcurved bill. In flight the broad
black band across end of white?tail, and a white band along the
trailing edge of the wings are diagnostic points. In summer plumage,
sometimes acquired before emigration in MarchIApril, the head, neck,
and breast become rusty red (as illustrated). Sexes alike. Small
parties or large flocks on marshy jheels and tidal mudflats.
Rarer, and sometimes seen in association with the above in W.
Pakistan and NW. India, is the slightly smaller and relatively shorter
legged BARTAILED GODWJT(Limosa lapponica). Shorter legs, barred
(instead of black-ended) tail, white rump, and absence of white wing-
bands are its distinguishing characters.
Distribution : Winter visitor to practically all India; both Pakistans;
Ceylon; Burma; in two races which breed from N. Europe and E.
Siberia to Japan. Habits: Similar to those of the Curlew and Whirn-
brel. Keeps to marshes of both fresh and brackish water, often
in large close-packed flocks and in association with other waders.
Food: Worms, molluscs, crabs, insects. Godwits are excellent for the
table, and this combined with their swift flight and ever watchful
alertness makes them good sporting birds, eagerly sought by sportsmen.
121
243. The Spurwinged Plover-Vanellus spinosus (Linnaeus)
HINDI NAME:
Size: Partridge+. Field Characters: An obvious cousin of the Red-
wattled Lapwing. Vinous grey and light brown above and on breast,
white below. Forehead, crown, occipital crest, and throat black
bordered with white. A black patch on abdomen. Rump and tail
white with a broad black tip to latter. In flight a large white patch or
bar on the wing, black wing-tips, and contrasting black and white
pattern on head diagnostic. On ground, the hunched posture with
head and neck almost furtively drawn in is a notable feature. Sexes
alike. Pairs or small parties on sand- and shingle banks of large
rivers. Distribution: A large portion of northern and eastern India
from western U.P. south through western M.P. and Andhra. East
Pakistan; Burma. Not Ceylon. Extends into the Indochinese sub-
region. Habits: Affects shoals and sandbanks in the larger rivers and
hardly ever met with away from them. Flight, movements, and
behaviour in general very like those of the Redwattled Lapwing.
Call: A single-noted high-pitched, insistent did, did, did, etc. of the
quality of the Yellow-wattled Lapwing's call. The pointed black
horny spur on the bend of the wing could be an effective weapon of
offence, but it has not been observed to be so used. Nesting: Season-
March to June. Nest-a shallow scrape in sand on an exposed river
bank or shoal. Eggs-3 or 4, olive-stone or yellowish stone, blotched
and spotted with shades of brown and black-very like those of the
Redwattled Lapwing.
244. The Golden Plover-Pluvialis dominica P.L.S. Muller
KINDI NAME: Chhota battan
Size: Partridge. Field Characters: Typical plover with thick head,
slender bare lsgs, pigeon-like bill. Brown above, spangled with white
and gold; whitish below mottled on breast with brown, grey, yellow.
In flight narrow pointed wings without wing-bar, and fanned-out
h r o ~ ~tail
n conspicuous. In summer (breeding) plumage underparts
black. On arrival in India (autumn) and before departure (spring)
commonly with parti-coloured black and white underparts. Sexes
alike. Flocks on wet pasture land, moist grassy edges of jheels, etc.
The GREYPLOVER (Pluvialis squatarola), easily confused with this,
has upper parts mottled only with silver-grey, no gold. On arrival
(Sept./Oct.) and again before leaving (Mar./April) seen in partial
breeding plumage: black above barred and spotted with silver-white;
underparts black. White tail, brown-barred near tip; a conspicuous
black oval patch (axillaries) at armpit, and white wing-bar diagnostic
in flight. Usually on sea coast; seldom inland.
Distribution: The Golden Plover (eastern race julva) is a winter
visitor practically throughout India; both Pakistans; Ceylon; Burma.
Breeds in N. Siberia, JuneIJuly. Habits: Typical plover. Runs about
on moist grassland, stopping erect now and again and dipping for-
ward steeply to pick up food-tiny snails, crabs, insects, berries,
etc. When one bird rises on alarm the scattered flock follows almost
simultaneously, wheeling and banking on rapidly beating wings in
compact formation. Call: A clear high-pitched rather mournful
double whistle tu-ee. Its palatability combined with its natural wari-
ness and speed on the wing make it a coveted sporting bird.
24 1. Ruff and Reeve 242. Blacktailed Godwit
243. Spurwinged Plover 244. Golden Plover
122
Plate 61
245. The Oystercatcher-Haematopus ostralegus Linnaeus
HINDI NAME :
Size: Partridge+. Field Characters: A striking black-and-white shore

bird with stoutish bare red legs and long, straight, compressed orange-
red bill, snipe-like but blunt or truncated at tip. In flight the broad
white band across the black wings, white lower back and underparts
contrasting with the black head, breast, and tail, are diagnostic points.
Sexes alike. Pairs or parties on sea coast. Distribution: Practically
world-wide. Winter visitor to India and both Pakistans; in two
races: NW.-Asiatic ostralegus, NE.-Asiatic osculans. The latter form
(presumably) has recently been discovered breeding in the Sundar-
bans. Habits: Keeps to rocky seashores and tidal estuaries where it
runs about and feeds at low tide. Food: Chiefly oysters and mussels,
the shells being prised open and contents chiselled out with the specially
adapted bill. Also small crabs and marine worms probed out of the
wet sand. Call: A shrill, plaintive piping, reminiscent of the Whistling
'Teal. Nesting: Only once recorded within Indo-Pakistan limits
(Khulna Sundarbans), in April. Nest-a scrape on an open sandbank
paved with shells and pebbles. Eggs-3 or 4, brownish buff spotted
with black and dark grey, somewhat more heavily at the broad end.
246. The Whitebellied Sea Eagle-Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin)

HINDI NAME. Kohassa
Size: Pariah Kite+. Field Characters: A large handsome eagle, ashy

brown above with pure white head, neck, and underparts and terminal
third of tail. In overhead flight the broad blackish border to white
underside of wings, and the wedge-shaped tail are diagnostic features.
When sailing, the wings are held above the line of the back in a wide
V. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs, by the sea coast. Distribution: The
seaboard of India from about Bombay south, and up the eastern side;
Ceylon; Burma; Malaysia to Australia. Habits: Keeps to the sea
coast and tidal estuaries. Where undisturbed, pairs occupy the same
localities for many years in succession, almost traditionally. Call:
A distinctive loud, nasal cackling kenk-kenk-kenk etc., quickly re-
peated. Food: Fish and, principally, sea snakes scooped up in its
talons from near the surface of the water. It does not dive after them
like the Osprey. Nesting: Season-October to June. Nest-a huge
platform of sticks lined with green leaves, high up in a casuarina or
other lofty tree near the seashore. Also on rocky offshore islets.
Usually the traditional nest is renovated from year to year. Eggs-2,
white, unmarked.
245. Oystercatcher 246. Whitebellied Sea Eagle

247 Shahin Falcon 248. Painted Sandgrouse
247. The Shahin Falcon-Falco peregrinus peregrinator SundevalF
HINDI NAMES : Shahin (female), Kohi or Koela (male)
Size: Jungle Crow. Field Characters: A powerful, alert, broad-

shouldered falcon, slaty above with black head, nape, and conspicuous
moustachial stripes. Throat and breast white; rest of underparts
ferruginous. Young birds vary but are blacker above, striped on
breast and heavily barred on flanks. Fel~iale larger. Solitary, or
pairs, on cliffs, rock pinnacles, about hill forts, etc. Distribution:
Resident practically throughout the hilly portions of India; East
Pakistan; Ceylon; Burma. The north Asian race of the Peregrine
(F. p. iaponensis)-paler above, almost white below-is a winter visitor.
~ a b i t s : A typical falcon with pointed wings. Flight. swift and
powerful, on rapidly beating wings interspersed with long glides.
Lives largely on birds like duck, partridges, pigeons, and parakeets
stooping on them with tremendous velocity, striking in mid-air with its
powerful hind claw, and bearing them away to its favourite perch on a
crag to be devoured. In the breeding season pairs indulge in a spectac-
ular aerial display, stooping at each other, looping, turning, and
twisting with phenomenal speed. Nesting: Season-March to May.
Nest-a platform of twigs, grass, etc. on a ledge on a cliff-face. Eggs-
2 or 3, variable, pinkish buff to pinkish red marked lightly or heavily
with dark brick-red or purplish.
248. The Painted Sandgrouse-Pterocles indicus (Gmelin)

HINDI NAMES : Pahliri blzat-titar, Bhat-ban, Handeri
Sire: Between Myna and Pigeon. Field Characters: Smaller than the
Common Sandgrouse (p. 77), with close-barred plumage and no pin
feathers in tail. White forecrown cut across by a black band, tri-
coloured gorget on breast (chestnut, buff, and black), and close-barred
underparts diagnostic of male. Female finely barred above and below
with chocolate, black, and buff. Pairs or small parties in dry, stony
scrub country, and open forest. Distribution: Peculiar to India.
Resident over the greater part of peninsular and central India and
NW. Pakistan; locally migratory in rainy season. Not in Assam,
E. Pakistan, or Ceylon. Habits: Terrestrial; usually pairs, seldom
flocks. Walks and runs better than Common Sandgrouse. Extra-
ordinarily well camouflaged when squatted. Rises suddenly when
almost trampled on, with a clucking yek-yek-yek and noisy clapping
of wings. Has swift flapping flight. Partly crepuscular. Large numbers
concentrate to drink at a favourite water-hole at dusk, arriving in small
parties, and continuing till almost quite dark. Said to drink in the
morning also well before sunrise. When flying to and from water,
utters a distinctive chirik-chirik which in the dark is often the only
indication of the trafic. Food: Grain, seeds and shoots. Nesting:
Season-Practically throughout the year, chiefly March to June.
Nest-a scrape on stony ground under protection of a bush or grass
clump. Eggs-3, cream to salmon pink, sparsely spotted and blotched
with purplish red or reddish grey.
124
249. The Tufted Pochard-Aytlzya fuligula (Linnaeus).
HINDI NAMES: Dubaru, Ablak, Rahwdira
Size: Domestic duck-; about same as Gadwall. Field Characters: The

boldly contrasting black-and-white plumage of the drake, and the limp
occipital tuft, prominent when seen in profile, simplify identification at
rest. In flight a broad white band along trailing edge of wing, in both
sexes, provides a further clue. Duck dark brown where drake black,
with no tuft and less white in lower plumage. Parties or small flocks on
reed-fringed jheels and open irrigation tanks. Distribution: Winter
visitor to practically all India; both Pakistans; Burma. Rare vagrant
in Ceylon. Breeds in Europe, N. and C. Asia. Habits: Along with
White-eyed Pochard (p. 112) one of our commonest migratory
diving ducks, a group distinguished by the possession of a broadly
lobed hind-toe. Legs set far back in the body, ill-adapted for walking
but admirably suited for diving and swimming both above and below
the surface. Feeds in deep water by diving; hence oftener seen on open
expanses in the middle of jheels and irrigation reservoirs. It can
remain submerged for considerable periods, and wounded birds are
hard to retrieve, especially from vegetation covered tanks where they
hold on to weeds below the surface. Food: Molluscs, crustaceans,
water insects, etc. Also water weeds.
250. The Wigeon-Anas penelope Linnaeus

HWI NAMES: Peasan, Patari, Pharia, Chhota Id-sir
Size: Domestic duck-; about same as Gadwall. Field Characters:

General aspect of drake grey. The chestnut head with cream coloured
patch on forecrown, brownish pink breast, black tail coverts, large hori-
zontal white patch on closed wing, and small narrow blue-grey bill, are
diagnostic points. In flight a broad white shoulder-patch near leading
edge of wing, and the whitish "bald" forecrown, are conspicuous.
Duck like female gadwall but with speculum of different pattern
(not contrasty black and white), and small blue bill like drake's.
Flocks on shallow, reedy jheels and marshes. Distribution: Winter
visitor. Common in W. Pakistan and N. India; locally abundant in
some years. Less common in peninsular and eastern India and in
Burma; sparse and irregular in Ceylon. Breeds in the northern
Palaearctic Region. Habits: Frequents shallow grassy jheels and
marshes. A mixed surface feeder, largely vegetarian. Besides up-
ending in shallow water for food, is often seen walking about on
marshes grazing on grass shoots and aquatic weeds in the manner of
geese. A swift and powerful flier, with a peculiar rustling sound of
wings. Like other coveted sporting ducks, e.g. mallard, pintail and
gadwall, is usually amongst the first species to climb high and get
well out of gunshot soon after firing has commenced on a jheel.
A shrill pipe or whistle is uttered in flight as well as on the ground and
when swimming.
251. The Gadwall-Anus strepera Linnaeus
HINDI NAMES: Mila, Bhuar, Beykhur
Size: Domestic duck-. Field Characters: General effect of drake

dark brown and grey, with whitish belly and very black tail end.
A glistening white patch on trailing edge of wing, broadly bordered
in front with black, conspicuous in flight. At rest a chestnut patch
in front of this black-and-white speculum is a good pointer. Duck
dark brown mottled with buff, a duller and slightly smaller edition
of the Mallard, also with yellow legs. Diagnosed in flight by white
wing mirror as in drake, though at rest this usually concealed. Parties
and flocks on shallow, reedy jheels and marshes. Distribution: Winter
visitor. Perhaps one of our commonest and locally abundant migra-
tory wildfowl, particularly in W. Pakistan and N. India. Less common
in peninsular India; vagrant in Ceylon. Breeds in sub-arctic northern
Europe and Asia. Habits: Keeps in parties or flocks in association
with other ducks on suitable waters. A mixed surface feeder like the
Mallard, largely vegetarian, and also possessing the same good quali-
ties as a sporting bird and for the table. A number of call notes have
been described, but it is a very silent bird in its winter quarters.
252. The Mallard-Anus platyrhynchos Linnaeus
Size: Domestic duck. Field Characters: Drake largely grey above

and below, finely pencilled and vermiculated with black. Glistening
dark green head and neck separated from chestnut breast by narrow
white collar. Rump, tail-coverts, and two upcurled central tail feathers
black. Metallic purplish blue 'mirror' on wing bordered in front and
behind by black and white lines, conspicuous in flight. Yellowish
green bill; orange legs. Duck (and drake in eclipse plumage): brown
and buff, streaked and spotted with black. Orange legs. Distinguished
from the very similar female Shoveller (p. 11I), also orange-legged,
by bill shape and purple speculum (as against green). Parties or flocks
on reedy shallow jheels. Distribution: Winter visitor. Common in
W. Pakistan and NW. India; less common or rare east to Assam,
south to Bombay. Breeds in the Palaearctic Region; sparingly in
Kashmir. Habits: A typical surface-feeding or dabbling duck, the
ancestor of all our domestic breeds; largely vegetarian. Dabbles for
food as it walks about on a marsh, or tips ('up-ends') in water with
forepart of body submerged, tail sticking comically skyward. A fast
flier, excellent for the table, and much sought after by sportsmen.
Call: Of drake normally a wheezy murmur; of duck a loud quack-
quack, especially when alarmed and rising almost vertically, off the
water. Nesting: Season-in Kashmir, MayIJune. Nest-a pad of
rushes and weeds thickly lined with down, under a bush or grass
clump near edge of lake. Eggs-6 to 10, greenish grey to yellowish
stone.
249. Tufted Pochard 250. Wigeon
251. Gadwall 252. Mallard
253. The Redcrested Pochard-Netta rufina (Pallas)
HINDI NAMES: LEl-chanch, Liil-str
.
Size: Domestic duckf Field Characters : Drake: Head and fluffy,
ful1,mop-like crest rich chestnut and golden orange, with bright crimson
bill. Upper parts light brown with white patches on shoulders, and
white wing mirror. Lower plumage black; flanks white. In flight,
red head and bill, black body, white flanks, white underside of wing
and the broad white bar on its trailing edge above, provide satisfac-
tory identification. Duck: dull sooty brown above, largely whitish
below, with dark brown crown and nape sharply demarcated from
whitish face and foreneck. A whitish speculum. Identifying un-
accompanied female needs practice. Flocks on vegetation-covered
tanks and jheels. Distribution: Winter visitor. Common and locally
abundant in W. Pakistan and N. India, decreasingly so in the Penin-
sula. Not found south of Madras or in Ceylon. Sparingly in Burma.
Breeds in the southern Palaearctic Region, nearest in Baluchistan.
Habits: A diving duck though commonly feeding on the surface,
dabbling and up-ending like the Gadwall or Mallard. Food: Shoots
and roots of water plants, molluscs, crustaceans, insects, etc. Very
silent in its winter quarters, and on the whole wary.
Since this species is often mistaken for and reported as the rare
and virtually extinct Pinkheaded Duck particular attention is invited
from birdwatchers and sportsmen to the diagnoses of the two.
254. The Pinkheaded Duck-Rhodonessa caryophyllacea (Latham)
HINDI NAME : Giilcb-sir
Size : Domestic duck +. Field Characters: Drake : blackish brown
above and below with a light pinkish buff speculum prominent in
flight. Partially tufted bright pink head, and bill-the colour of new
blotting paper. Underside of wings pale shell pink. Duck: above and
below dull brown with pale brownish buff speculum. Head suffused
with bright pink but the pink area not sharply demarcated as in drake.
Long thin neck and gradual slope of forehead rather reminiscent of
Whistling Teal (p. 109). Pairs and small flocks "from 8 to 30 or even
40" on wooded jheels. Distribution: The swampy jungles of the
Himalayan terai and duars from Nepal to Assam; Manipur; E.
Pakistan; Burma (?). Obtained as far south as Nellore (Andhra)
and Jalna (Maharashtra). Last authentic record from Darbhanga
district, Bihar, June 1935. Apparently never common or abundant,
but was occasionally seen amongst sportsmen's bags of wildfowl.
Reduction in numbers noticed as early as 1878, although until about
1890 a half dozen or so still turned up in Calcutta bird market every
season. Since 1956 its killing or capturing is totally banned by law,
but possibly the bird is already extinct. Habits: Resident and local
wanderer. In captivity, observed to behave like dabbling ducks,
not diving for its food. Nesting: Formerly bred in swampy dense
forests amongst tall grass areas. Season-recorded as May to July.
Nest-a round pad of grass on ground, well concealed. Eggs-5 to 10,
roundish, smooth, ivory white.
253. Redcrested Pochard 254. Pinkheaded Duck
255. Mountain Quail 256. Jerdon's Courser
127
255. The Mountain Quail-Ophrysia superciliosa (Gray)
HINDI NAME:
Size: Between Quail and Partridge. Field Characters: Male: slaty

grey-brown above tinged with olive. Forehead and prominent broad
supercilium white, bordered above and below with black. Crown
greyish brown with black streaks. Chin, throat, and face black, the
last patterned with whi.ce. Under tail-coverts black with broad white
terminal bars. Short, stout coral-red bill (shaped rather like bush
quail's), red legs, and relatively long tail for partridge make it un-
confusable with any other game bird. Female: cinnamon-brown above,
paler below, spotted and broadly streaked with black. Face pinkish
grey; bill and legs duller red than in male. Distribution: Known only
from the western Himalayas between 6000 and 7000 ft. altitude, in the
neighbourhoods of Mussooree and Naini Tal. Last specimen pro-
cured near latter place in 1876. Habits: Was found in patches of
long grass and brushwood on steep hillsides, in small coveys of 5 or
6. Flew reluctantly almost when trampled on, heavily and for short
distances, soon pitching into the grass again. Call: A shrill whistle.
Less than a dozen specimens exist in museums, and nothing is
known about its biology. All recent efforts to re-discover the bird
have failed.
256. Jerdon's or Doublebanded, Courser-Cursorius bitorquatus (Blyth)

HINDI NAME:
Size: Partridge?. Field Characters: An unmistakable first cousin of

the Indian Courser (p. 89). Upper parts pinkish sandy brown. Crown
and hindneck dark brown with broad whitish supercilium from lores
to nape. Chin and throat whitish. Foreneck rufous, separated from
brown breast by a white band. A second white band across lower
breast. Rest of underparts whitish. Tail white and black. A white
wing-bar prominent in flight. Sexes alike. Distribution: Indigenous
to peninsular India though its nearest relations are African. Only
known from the Godavari Valley in Andhra-Nellore, Cuddapah,
Sironcha, Bhadrachalam, and Anantpur neighbourhoods. First dis-
covered in 1871; last authentic record in 1900 since when, in spite of
careful search, it has not been found again in the same localities or else-
where. Habits: Apparently not very different from those of the com-
mon Indian Courser except that it is (or was) found in broken forested
and scrub country instead of open wasteland; in pairs. Nesting: Eggs,
very similar in coloration and markings to the Indian Courser's, are
anonymously claimed to have been taken once on bare ground in thin
scrub jungle. That was in 1895 since when further information is
lacking.
SOME NESTS AND NESTING BEHAVIOUR
IN the Introduction I said that 'For the safety of their eggs and young,
birds build nests which may range from a simple scrape in the ground
as of the Lapwing to such elaborate structures as the compactly
woven nest of the Weaver Bird'. To complete the picture, it may be ad-
ded that most birds incubate their eggs with the heat of their bodies by
brooding them, and show considerable solicitude for their young until
they are able to fend for themselves. In this chapter I shall consider the
main types of nests built by Indian birds and deal briefly with the
nesting behaviour of some of the builders.
Nesting seasons
Broadly speaking, the majority of our resident birds have more or
lcss well-marked seasons in which they lay their eggs and rear their
young. The periods favoured by different species vary somewhat in
the different portions of their distribution, depending upon geogra-
phical position and local climatic conditions. The season in India as
a whole is perhaps nowhere as clearcut as in the Temperate and Arctic
zones. In the lower Himalayas and the country about their base,
most species commence their nesting operations with the advent of
Spring, which may be put down as the beginning of March. The
farther south one moves towards the Equator the more equable does
the climate become, so that the most important seasonal change in
those parts is the one brought about by the monsoons, particularly
the South-west Monsoon. Birds that nest in tree-holes, as well as the
ground-nesting species, must be discharged of their parental duties
before the onset of the SW. Monsoon in June. In North India it is
of vital importance for such birds as nest on sandbanks in the larger
rivers to have finished their activities before the rivers swell in summer
due to melting of the Himalayan snows. Therefore, March and April
are the principal months in which to look for the eggs of river birds.
The SW. Monsoon-June/July to September/October-is the time
when the annual vegetation is at the height of its luxuriance and insect
life at its peak. In these respects the season corresponds to Spring in
the more northerly latitudes. A large section of Indian birds of divers
families and species find optimum conditions for bringing up families
during this period of plenty. By about mid-October the majority of
young birds of the monsoon-breeding species have left their nests.
The raptores, or birds of prey, commence their nesting activities about
this period and are busy throughout the winter months up till about the
end of February. It is often quite late in March or even the middle of
April before the young of some of the larger forms-vultures and eagles
-have launched into the world. Young raptores have astonishingly
healthy appetites. The continuous supply of animal food the parents
are obliged to procure for them makes the choice of this season a
happy one; young birds are then plentiful and easily hunted, and
their numbers are augmented by vast hordes of winter immigrants
from beyond our borders.
Territory, courtship and song
Individual breeding pairs usually occupy a 'Territory' in the sur-
roundings of their nest which is treated as their special preserve and
into which intrusion by other members of the same species is regarded
as an unfriendly act, to be actively resented. The acquisition of breed-
ing territories is a fairly general practice among birds, but not universal.
Their existence is particularly noticeable in the more aggressive species,
like the Black Drongo. Territory is acquired by the male. In migrant
species this accounts in a measure for the fact that on Spring passage
when journeying to their breeding grounds, the males usually precede
the females. Having arrived in the breeding locality, the male proceeds
to stake out and establish possession of an area, usually more or less
definable and varying in extent according to species and to the density
of its avian population. In the process it may have to fight for owner-
ship with another male already in occupation, or in defence of its
territory against an interloper. Once in secure possession, the male
awaits the arrival of the body of females and advertises his presence
and the availability of a nesting site by singing full-throatedly from
exposed situations. The song serves not only to attract likely females,
but also as a warning to rival males to keep off. Having secured a
female, in the process of which again there is often much active hostility
between rival males, courtship displays commence. These take nu-
merous forms; fluffing out of the ornamental plumage, fanning and
erecting the tail and dancing or posturing in front of the female,
as in the Peacock and many pheasants, being some of the more specta-
cular. The extravagant aerial contortions of shooting skywards
and nose-diving to the accompaniment of raucous screams indulged in
by the Roller or 'Blue Jay' in love are a familiar sight at the commence-
ment of the hot weather. There is an infinite variety of courtship be-
haviour ranging from the sublime to the ridiculous. Again, Song-
which reaches the climax of its intensity in the breeding season-plays
a predominating part in the courtship ceremonials of certain birds,
the skylark and thrush for example. All this feverish activity is in-
dulged in either by one partner or by both, and has for its ultimate
object the rousing of the necessary physiological response for successful
breeding.
In birds where the sexes differ in coloration it is the male who is the
more showy and who takes the initiative in the display and courtship
ceremonials (except in the case of polyandrous species where the
normal conditions are reversed). In birds where the sexes are out-
wardly alike, as in larks and pipits, they apparently recognise each
other's sex only by the mutual response to each other's behaviour.
Coloration of eggs
The colour patterns of birds' eggs are almost as varied as the birds
themselves, or as the architecture of their nests. Egg-coloration
suggests an advanced stage of evolution; the ancestors of birds-
the Reptiles-lay only white eggs. Birds that nest in tree-holes or
earth-tunnels also lay white eggs since, as in reptiles, the required
130
Photo: Loke Wan-Tho-
Redwattled Lapwing and nest -
-
Plate 45
-
Photo: Arlthor
Mixed heronry of Cormorants, Painted Storks and White Ibises
Plate 66
protection is afforded them by the situation. It cannot be denied that in
the main the coloration of eggs is a protective device and in a general
way bears a direct relation to the types of nests in which they are laid.
The eggs of the Yellow-wattled Lapwing deposited on barren, open
wasteland, and of the Tern in a sandy river bed are convincing exam-
ples. They match the soil and blend with their surroundings to such
perfection that they are quite invisible at a few feet's distance even
when diligently looked for. The eggs of the Pheasant-tailed J a ~ a n a ,
often laid directly upon floating singiira (Trapa) leaves, resemble the
surrounding olive-brown vegetation so closely as to be completely
obliterated from view (pl. 70). Anomalies, however, are not wanting.
Thus the eggs of the Rain Quail laid in grassland are obliterative,
whereas those of the Bush Quail, laid in not much more sheltered sites,
are white !
Types of nests
The following are the main types of birds' nests found in India:
1, S i m p 1 e s c r a p e s in the ground sparsely lined with grass
and leaves, e.g. quail, junglefowl and other game birds, or with no
semblance of lining, e.g. tern and lapwing (pl. 65). Protection is secured
by the eggs and young of such birds through their remarkably oblitera-.
tive coloration.
2. T w i g n e s t s like platforms with a cup-like depression irrt
the centre usually lined with softer material-grass, tow, feathers, etc..
This type, built in trees or on buildings or cliffs, is common to a large-
number of birds of different families: e.g. crow, kite, dove, vulture,
cormorant, stork (pl. 66), etc.
-
3. N e s t s i n t r e e h o 1 e s either excavated in living or
decayed wood, or in natural hollows, and either with a sparse lining
of soft material or unlined, e.g. tits, yellowthroated sparrow, wood-
peckers, barbets, hornbills (pl. 68), owls, some mynas and most of our
resident ducks (pl. 71). The holes are in the first instance cut by wood-
peckers, parrots or barbets and subsequently appropriated in rotation
by many other species. Nesting in natural tree hollows is a common
habit among our resident ducks, all of whom breed during the SW.
monsoon. The raised situation gives security against sudden rise of
water level in the jhesls due to cloud-bursts or the swelling of streams
flowing into them. The ducklings reach the water by tumbling out of
the nest and are not carried down by the parents as has sometimes
been asserted.
4. N e s t s i n e x c a v a t e d t u n n e l s i n e a r t h b a n k s ,
or in clefts of buildings, rock cliffs, etc., e.g. bee-eaters, king-
fishers, hoopoe. The tunnels are driven horizontally into the side
of an earth-cutting or bank of a stream, the bird using its bill to dig
and its feet to kick back the loose earth. The tunnels are from a few
inches to several feet in length and usually bent near the extremity
where they widen into a bulbous egg chamber.
5. N e s t s b u i l t e n t i r e l y o f m u d or in which mud
predominates, e.g. whistling thrush, blackbird, swallows (pl. 73),
131
martins. The wet mud is commonly collected at rain puddles. It is
mixed with a certain amount of saliva in the case of swallows. There is
a marked increase in the size of the salivary glands of these birds and
swifts during the breeding season. Swallows' nests have perforce to be
built very gradually, pellet by pellet, so that not too much of the mate-
rial is daubed on at one time before the underlying layer is sufficiently
dry.
6. C u p - s h a p e d n e s t s o f g r a s s and fibres in crot-
ches or forks of branches, usually well plastered over with cobwebs,
e.g. iora, fantail and other flycatchers, orioles (pls. 67, 72), white-eye,
minivets, reed warblers, cuckoo-shrikes, etc. Cobwebs are very ex-
tensively employed as cement in bird architecture, for binding the
material compactly and neatly together. It is collected by being twisted
round and round the bill and is then unwound and attached on the
exterior of the nest, or used in securing the nest into position.
7. D o m e d o r b a l l - s h a p e d n e s t s of twigs, grass
or rootlets with a lateral entrance hole, e.g. munias, rufousbellied
babbler.
8. P e n d a n t n e s t s, e.g. weaver birds (woven) sunbirds,
flowerpeckers. The sunbird's nest is a vertical oblong pouch sus-
pended from the tip of a thin outhanging twig, usually not high above
the ground. It has an entrance hole at the side with a little projecting
porch over it. The exterior is draped untidily with pieces of bark,
caterpillar droppings, and spiders' egg-cases which give it an effective
camouflage. The flowerpecker's nest is a hanging pouch of the same
general pattern, but made entirely of seed and vegetable down
worked into a felt-like fabric.
9. W o v e n o b 1o n g p u r s e-loofah-like-attached to stems
of tall grass or low bushes, e.g. wren-warblers (alternative to the next
type).
10. N e s t i n l e a v e s s t i t c h e d t o g e t h e r i n t h e f o r m
of a funnel, e.g. tailor-bird (pl. 69), Franklin's wren-warbler, ashy wren-
warbler.
There are yet other nests of less conventional design. The edible-
nest swiftlets which breed in vast colonies, attach their half-saucer
shaped nests made entirely of the birds' saliva or with an admixture of
straw and feathers, to the sides of the rock in dark grottoes and caves
on islands in the sea. ,The palm swift makes a rather similar nest but
with more feathers reinforcing it, attached to the leaves of the Palmyra
palm and usually well concealed among the furrows. The rufous wood-
pecker makes its home in the carton-nests of certain tree ants, and
seems to live on terms of amity with the insects.
A distinction must be made between birds that nest in individual
pairs in usually well-recognised territories, like the black drongo for
example, and those that nest in colonies. Some familiar examples of
the latter are the weaver birds, cliff swallows, common and edible-nest
swifts, and water birds such as storks, cormorants and herons.
Whatever its pattern, the nest is always true to the type of the species
that builds it, and is primarily the outcome of instinct fixed and
132
Plioto: Christina Luke
Paradise Flycatcher (sut-adult male) at nest
.. -- - --
Malabar Pied Hambill (Anthracoccros & r a r a t ~ ~ ) - - -- -
- -. --
.-
--- -- --p
----
.--.
Male f d i n g young h --
-- - -. a&.-.-2
-
- - - -
-i.
diagnostic dl-whe oufi&&i@ 8 - - - --- ~L-

j :%.--.- L-2 :1 -~
-
.--Gzzzzz
--
~
-
--. --
pp
- ,-:-
--
..
-3&y-"-,..
-
' I . +*
Plate 68
inherited through countless generations of builders. That a young
baya in its first season builds a nest exactly like the one in which it was
born is neither the result of training by its parents nor of intelligence
as we understand it. The architecture may be improved and perfected
with practice, but the design will remain constant. Experiments have
shown that birds hatched in an incubator who can therefore have no
idea of the sort of nest built by their kind, will, at the appointed time,
build nests after their own specific pattern. A great deal of the other
seemingly intelligent behaviour of nesting birds, such as solicitude or
love for their offspring, and the 'broken wing' trick practised by many
different species to draw off an intruder from the nest or young, prove
upon analysis to be largely, if not wholly, the working of a blind and
unreasoning instinct.
This chapter would be incomplete without special mention of the
remarkable nesting habits and behaviour of four of our Indian birds.
The Hornbills
The first of these is the hornbill whose prodigious beak at once
makes him unmistakable. His nesting habits are in keeping with his
unusual get-up. All our hornbills, as far as is known, share this peculiar
behaviour. Their commonest representative, the Grey Hornbill (p. 58),
may be taken as the type.
At the appointed season, after the courtship and pairing ceremonials
have been duly performed, the female hornbill betakes herself to a
natural hollow in some tree-trunk, the same perhaps as has served for
nursery to numerous previous hornbill generations. She incarcerates
herself within this hollow, using her droppings as plaster and the flat
sides of her enormous bill as trowel to wall up the entrance, merely
leaving a narrow slit through which to receive the food brought in by
the male. This walling-up process occupies 2 or 3 days and it is doubt-
ful if the male assists her at all in the work, except presumably in
fetching the mud. For it is now ascertained that besides the female's
own excrement there is a considerable proportion of mud or clay
mixed in the cement. The plaster sets so hard that no ordinary pre-
datory animal can get at the occupant within. From this self-imposed.
confinement the female does not free herself until after the young-2
or 3 in number-hatch out and are about a fortnight old. All the time
she is within, the male assiduously brings her food-banyan and peepal
figs varied occasionally by a lizard or some other tit-bit. The heavy
labour of foraging for his spouse wears him down to a skeleton, while
she thrives exceedingly on this life of ease and plenty and is said to
grow enormously plump. In the case of the closely related Great
Indian Hornbill it is believed that during her incarceration the female
moults her flight quills, so that the imprisoning wall gives her protec-
tion from predators at a time when she is most helpless. This question
of moult, however, and the manner of its taking place needs further
investigation. When the young are about a fortnight old the female
breaks down the wall by hammering away patiently at it, and releases
herself. After her exit, the wall is usually built up once more and
thenceforth father and mother slave to fill the hungry maws of the
133
voracious squabs until such time as they are old enough to be let out to
fend for themselves.
The Baya
The Baya or Common Weaver Bird is a cunning polygamist with
a system of his own. At the onset of the rainy season, the males, now in
their handsome breeding dress, commence to build their wonderful
retort-shaped pendant nests, chiefly on babfil trees or date palms pre-
ferably standing in or overhanging water. The building parties
which may consist of from 10 to 50 birds or more are comprised
exclusively of cocks. A great deal of noisy, joyous, chirruping
choruses and fluttering of wings accompanies the work. After the
strands of the initial attachment are wound and twisted round and
round the selected twig till a firm support is secured, the bird
proceeds to work the loose strips dangling from it into a transverse
oblong loop. This is the skeleton of the structure. Porches are built
over the upper part on either side of this loop and continued down,
one bulging out lower into the egg chamber, the other less bulgy
being produced to form the entrance tube. When the nests have
reached the crucial "bell" or "helmet" stage, there is a sudden visitation
from a party of prospecting hen Bayas who have been completely
absent from the colony hitherto. They hop about from nest to nest
deliberately, entering to inspect the interior, seemingly indifferent
to the amorous prancing, strutting and chittering advances of the
cocks around them. If a hen is satisfied with a particular nest she
calmly 'adopts' it and moves into possession. Thenceforth she and
the builder are wife and husband. He works assiduously to complete
the nest while she busies herself mainly with tidying the egg chamber.
As soon as this nest is completed and the hen settled on eggs within,
the cock commences to build himself another nest on a nearby twig.
In course of time this too, if approved, is similarly appropriated by a
second prospecting female who then becomes Wife No. 2. The process
may be repeated until the cock finds himself the devoted husband of
3 or even 4 wives and the fond father of as many families, all at once!
The Bustard-Quail
The normal condition among birds is that where the sexes differ in
coloration, it is the male who is the brighter coloured and more showy.
He displays his splendour before the female, courts her and if need be
fights furiously with rival males for her possession. In the Bustard-
Quail, however, the role of the sexes is reversed. Here it is the female
who is the larger and more brightly coloured and who takes the
initiative in affairs of the heart. She decoys eligible males by a loud
drumming call, courts them sedulously, displaying all her charms before
them, and engages in desperate battles with rival Amazons for the
ownership of the favoured one. As soon as the husband is secured,
the preliminaries over and the full complement of eggs laid, she leaves
him to his own devices and wanders off in search of fresh conquests.
The unfortunate husband is saddled with the entire responsibility of
incubating the eggs and tending the young which, to his credit, he
134
Tailor Bird and nest
Plate 69
~~~~~
".
, '"a
I Photo:Loke Wan-Th
Pheasant-tailed Ja~anaand floating nest 8 I
Plate 70
discharges admirably and with great solicitude. By feminine artifice
the roving hen manages to inveigle another unattached cock who is
likewise landed with family cares. And she is once again in the
market, for a third husband! In this manner each hen may lay several
clutches of eggs during a single season which, accordingly, is much
prolonged. The Painted Snipe is another Indian species which is
similarly polyandrous, while the two ja~anasare yet others.
The Parasitic Cuckoos
A large section of the cuckoo family is known as the Parasitic
Cuckoos on account of their disreputable habit of building no nests of
their own but utilising those of other birds for laying in, and foisting
their parental responsibilities upon the dupes. Familiar examples of
our parasitic cuckoos are the Brainfever Bird and the Koel. The former
commonly lays in the nests of babblers, often removing one of the
rightful eggs to make room for its own. The Koel habitually parasi-
tizes the House and Jungle Crows and leaves to them the task of in-
cubating its eggs and rearing its young. The eggs of parasitic cuckoos
usually bear a remarkably close resemblance to those of their hosts
or fosterers. It is believed that this similarity has been brought about
gradually by the discrimination exercised by the fosterer, i.e. by its
rejecting, generation after generation, of such eggs as differed glaringly
in size or coloration from its own. There is good evidence that even
among parasitic cuckoos of the same species there are distinct strains
or 'gens' which are as a rule constant in their selection of fosterers.
Thus Plaintive Cuckoos in Hyderabad City (Deccan) habitually lay
in the nests of the Ashy Wren-Warbler while those in the surrounding
country favour nests of the Tailor Bird. Now, the eggs of the wren-
warbler and those of the tailor bird are markedly unlike, but those of
the respective strains of the plaintive cuckoos have evolved through
Natural Selection to match the eggs of their normal fosterers in either
area.
We have still a great deal to learn about the breeding biology of even
some of our commonest birds. Egg-collecting alone is not enough.
Some of the points on which detailed information is desirable are (1)
The share of the sexes in nest-building, incubation and care of the
young, (2) Periods of incubation, (3) Interval between the laying
of each egg in a clutch (this varies among species an.1 groups), (4)
Nature of food and quantity fed each day to the young, (5) Beha-
viour of parents and young.
Those interested in the nesting habits of Indian birds should read
BIRDS AT THE NEST by Douglas Dewar which, though written over 30
years ago, contains some useful indications of what still remains to be
done in this country. For the serious student there is nothing more
complete or authoritative than the four volumes by Mr. E. C . Stuart
Baker-NIDIFICATIONOF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. His subsequent
CUCKOO PROBLEMS is a mine of information on questions relating to
Indian parasitic cuckoos.
FLIGHT
EVENpersons who may know nothing else about birds except that
some are good to eat, know this much that birds fly. Indeed so snugly
is this notion fixed in the popular mind that it is sometimes not easy to
convince people that everything that flies is not a bird. Witness the
widespread confusion that exists over the natural position of the bats.
Up to a point the criterion of flight is perhaps justifiable since this
type of locomotion is not enjoyed in the same degree of perfection by
any other class of animals. The only other backboned animal that
flies is the bat, but the structure of the bat's wing is comparatively
clumsy. An elastic membrane of skin stretches between its enormously
elongated fingers, and the whole organ lacks the perfection of the
bird's wing. While perfect flight is certainly the bird's most outstanding
qualification, it must not be forgotten that there exist a number of
birds-such as the ostrich and the penguin-that do not fly at all.
Recent anatomical research suggests controversially, that ostrich-like
birds never possessed the power of flight. But in the penguin this is
certainly the result of disuse of the wings as flying organs by count-
less generations through thousands of years. In lesser degree a similar
result of disuse can be observed in the case of our domestic poultry-
geese, ducks and fowls-whose wild ancestors are strong fliers even
today.
The wing of a flying bird combines strength with lightness and flexi-
bility in a manner that can scarcely be improved upon. The structure of
the bones of the hand and forearm, and the arrangement of the flight
feathers upon it-opening out when required, and folding up one
beneath its neighbour like the blades of a fan when not in use-is the
most efficient and economical that can be conceived. The bones of the
wing are kept in place by a ligament or elastic band running along
the front of both the upper and lower arms. This prevents the joints
being completely extended and the wing from turning inside out like
an old umbrella in a gale, when extra pressure of the air exerts along
the fore-edge. Details of the structure of the flight quills themselves
do not concern us here; they combine strength, elasticity and lightness
unequalled by any other similar device in nature. When extended in
flight they overlap in just the right proportions, with one broad and
one narrow vane, to attain the maximum efficiencyin supporting and
propelling a bird in the air with the minimum expenditure of its energy.
Equipped with these quill feathers-the Primaries chiefly for locomo-
tion, the Secondaries for lift-the bird's wing is so built and attached
to the body that as a unit it can be moved freely in every plane. The
primaries (better termed 'hand-quills' in the German) usually number
10-12 in each wing. The secondaries ('arm-quills') vary from 6 as in
humming-birds and swifts to 20 in pelicans and up to 40 in albatrosses,
depending upon the respective style of flight.
The motive power operating the wings is supplied by the strongly
developed pectoral muscles. The sternum or breast bone is provided
with a deep keel or ridge-the carina-to the edge of which most of
these muscles are attached. Among them are some that help to depress
Nukta duck at nest in tree trunk
Photo: E. H.N.Lowther I
Plate 71
Golden Oriole and hammock nest
Plate 72
D?oto: Aurhor
rr a
Colony of mud nests of Cliff Swallow
Plate 73
Photo: Author
'Flamingo City'-Great Rann of Kuteh

Plate 74
the wing and provide the propelling stroke, and others working by
means of a tendon, in rope-and-pulley fashion, to raise the wing in
preparation for the next power stroke. The position of these enor-
mous muscles-below the point at which the wing is inserted into the
body-is a noteworthy feature since it makes for stability in flight. Like
the engines of the modern aeroplane they form a considerable pro-
portion of the bird's total weight. For example, in the snipe, a bird
well known for its speed and dexterity on the wing, they weigh a s
much as a quarter of its entire weight.
To withstand the stresses and pulls exerted by the powerful breast
muscles a rigid framework is obviously essential, combining strength
with lightness. Such a framework is admirably provided by the various
adaptations in the bird's skeleton. The hard hollow bones ('tubular
construction') make for lightness, and the fusions in the vertebral
column ('welded joints') effect rigidity in sections of the back where the
strain is greatest. The pelican, a heavy-looking water bird weighing
about 25 lb., has a skeleton of rather under 14 lb.
The flying bird has excited Man's imagination and envy throughout
his long history, and many have been his unsuccessful attempts from
time to time to emulate it. I have already referred elsewhere to the esti-
mate that for a man, to be able to lift himself off the ground on wings
on the bird model, he would have to develop his pectoral muscles
till they projected at least 4 feet beyond his chest. The angels and
cherubim of holy portraiture must indeed be hard put to it to keep
themselves aloft without such monstrous outgrowths!
The wing actions of a bird in flight are actually less simple than the
up and down flapping they appear to be. They involve a number of
complex principles of aerodynamics which have been more intensively
studied and are better understood, since the invention and develop-
ment of the aeroplane and the glider. Modern aircraft design owes
a great debt to the careful analysis of the principles involved in the
flight of birds. The improvements continually being made in flying
machines keep pace with our knowledge of the mechanics of bird
flight. A remarkable and comparatively recent example of how flying
man has profited from the flying bird was the invention of the Handley-
Page 'slotted-wing' safety device now almost universally used in
aeroplanes. A well-known principle of aerodynamics is that the
heavier a plane the faster it must fly to keep itself in the air and pre-
vent 'stalling'. The use of the slotted-wing device enables heavy air-
craft to land safely at relatively slow speeds without crashing. It has
not only helped to avert innumerable accidents, but also made possible
the enormous increase in the size and weight of aeroplanes we see
today: the largest modern 'Convair YB 60' weighs over 160 tons.
Briefly, by regulating the pressure and angle of the air upon the wings of
an aeroplane this contrivance produces what may roughly be described
as a parachute or helicopter effect and enables the machine to fly com-
paratively slowly and land gently. The device is clearly an application
of the same feature as is seen in the splayed fingerlike wing-tips of
heavy flying birds with relatively broad wings, such as eagles, vultures
and storks. If one of the outer primary feathers of a vulture is exa-
mined it will be seen that there is a conspicuous narrowing, or 'emar,
gination' as it is known, on the outer portion of the vane, i.e. on the
outer web. The gaps or slots between the outspread primaries (or
'fingers') of a soaring vulture areformednot only by the normal spread-
ing of the primaries but they can be further considerably widened by
these emarginations. A clever friction surface on the web prevents
the feathers from splaying beyond a certain limit. By manipulating
the slots between the primaries, so as to offer varying and controlled
resistance to the air, rather in the manner of venetian blinds or shutters,
the heavy bird is enabled among other advantages to soar in com-
paratively still air. It also permits accurate landing at a speed which
would ordinarily be unable to withstand the pull of gravity, and bring
the bird crashing to earth, unless it steadied itself by flapping.
The bird's tail is an important accessory of flight and assumes a
variety of shapes and sizes, e.g. the short rounded tail of the eagle
and the vulture, the deeply forked tail of the swallow, the tern and the
kite, and the long graduated tail of the tree pie. Its primary function
is that of balancing and steering. If accidentally lost, the bird's move
ments in the air are considerably hampered; but it is not rendered
completely helpless since much of the steering, balancing and braking
is also done by the wings. The tail further helps in regulating height
in the air, and of course serves as a brake in checking momentum.
It is noticeable that the alighting or landing of a bird is invariably
preceded by an upward tilt of the long axis of its body accompanied
by a vigorous flapping of wings and a depressing and expanding of the
tail.
No better example can be given of the perfect muscular control over
wings and tail and the co-ordinated efficiency of the various special
adaptations of the flying bird (viz. streamlining, flexibility of neck,
sideways position and rapid focussing of eye, etc.) than the Alpine
Swift. Cruising at speeds which may be anything up to 200 m.p.h.,
this bird is capable of shooting directly and with effortless grace UP
into the narrow fissure of a rock cliff that holds its nest. The ease and
skill with which the parent Baya flies into the narrow entrance tube
of its swaying pendant nest with no hesitation or slackening of speed;
the stooping of a Pariah Kite upon a dead rat lying in the middle of
a congested city bazaar, and its dexterous turns and twists to avoid
the tra£Eis below and the tangle of telephone wires overhead-are
sights familiar to every bird watcher, and such as never cease to
thrill.
It is useful to be able to recognise the style of flight adopted by
various groups and species of birds and their sundry little mannerisms
on the wing since these are points that may assist materially in field
identification. A familiarity with the wing action and outline of a bird
high up in the heavens, or when silhouetted against the darkenpg
sky, is particularly helpful in observations relating to migrating
birds. The three main types of flight to be differentiated are:
1. The normal F 1 a p p i n g flight which may be roughly compared
to swimming breast-stroke. In this the wings move upward and for-
ward, downward and back (under the plane of the body) and then
upward again, in a sort of rotary motion. The upstroke is very rapid,
but owing to the curvature on the wing surface (the camber), the partial
Flying Silhouettes
4
1. Vulture 2. Eagle 3. Kite 4. Kestrel
Plate 75
Flying Silhouettes
1 . Gull 2. Pelican 3. Crane 4. Duck
Plate 76
folding of the wing and the set of the feathers, a minimum amount of
resistance is created. The free movement of the wing makes this up-
stroke resemble the 'feathering' of an oar when rowing. The wing
tips do not work simply up and down but they roughly describe a figure
of 8. The downstroke (or power stroke) is made with the wing fully
.outstretched exerting its maximum push on the air. It helps both to
Sift the bird and propel it forward. The crow and most of the Passerine
,or Perching birds may be cited as examples of flapping fliers. The
wing beats vary according to size of bird and speed of flight: while
the Sparrow has about 13 strokes per second, the pelican has only 1 to
I + ! A short, rounded wing (as, for example, in the Jungle Babbler
or Spotted Owlet) is the mark of a weak flier or a more or less seden-
tary bird. Long, pointed wings indicate strong sustained flight, often
against heavy head-wind, and are possessed by pigeons, falcons, swifts
.and all birds that undertake long migratory journeys, e.g. sandpipers,
.wagtails, etc.
2. G 1 i d i n g involves sailing on outstretched motionless wings
taking advantage of wind currents. It may be compared to 'free-
wheeling' or coasting downhill on a bicycle. Unless launched from
.a cliff or other elevated position the bird requires a certain amount
,of initial flapping to produce the required momentum. And if mo-
-mentum is not renewed from time to time by further wing-beats, loss
of height results. Gliding is best seen in gulls circling effortlessly
round a ship looking for scraps thrown overboard. Typical gliding
birds have rather narrow and long tapering wings without outspreading
"fingers' at the tip.
3. S o a r i n g is perhaps the most spectacular style of bird flight.
dt differs little from gliding except that ascending air currents play a
predominant part in it. By various manipulations of its outstretched
wings and tail, the soaring bird takes advantage of every current and
+eddy to gain height. The upward soaring of vultures and storks is
.achieved in loose, wide spirals like the coils of a spring. As the bird
glides downwind it gains in momentum but loses somewhat in height.
By a slight tilt of the body axis as it wheels round to face upwind, the
bird is lifted upward without effort, and gradually gains height,
spiral upon spiral, until it soon becomes a speck in the heavens. Since
soaring depends largely upon ascending currents it is seen at its best
i n warm regions of the globe such as ours, and here only between the
hours of sunrise and sunset when the heated air rushes up to higher
levels.
Birds that habitually soar, such as vultures, eagles, storks, pelicans,
betc., have relatively broad wings with rounded or squared wing-tips
terminating in a finger-like spread of the outer primaries-the 'slotted-
wing device'.
Besides these three main types of flight one must learn to recognise
their variations and combinations. For instance a woodpecker or
wagtail flies by a succession of rapid wing-beats followed by a short
pause in which the wings are pressed to the sides of the body. This
results in a forward dip and a slight loss of height, and produces the
well-known undulating effect so characteristic of these species. In
139
other birds, e.g. partridge, shikra, brainfever bird, rosy starling, etc.,
a succession of rapid wing-beats is followed by a short glide on out-
stretched motionless wings-free wheeling-in which the bird does
not lose height; its flight is direct and not undulating.
The hovering flight of certain birds needs special mention. Its fore-
most exponents among our Indian species are certainly the Kestrel and
the Pied Kingfisher, but harriers, the Blackwinged Kite, fishing eagles.
and some other birds also frequently indulge in it. Hovering enables
the bird to poise itself stationary in mid-air and survey the ground
or water below for its prey. It is really a variant of the normal flapping
flight but always attained head-to-wind and with an upward tilt of the
body axis so as to offer maximum resistance to the lateral current of
air. The wings or wing-tips are flapped rapidly to 'tread' the air as it
were, and the bird thus remains suspended for many seconds at a time.
Hovering flight on rapidly vibrating wings is also seen in the sunbirds
as they probe into flower tubes for nectar or search for insects poised
in front of a flower. It has reached its perfection among the humming-
birds of the New World. In some of these, scarcely larger than a bum-
ble-bee, the wing strokes have been ascertained to be between 20 and
50 per second (1200-3000 per minute!).
Whether it be the effortless, leisurely soaring of the vulture in the fir-
mament or the swishing lightning stoop of the falcon upon its quarry;
the loud whirring flush of the startled partridge in the corn-field or the
silent ghostly glide of the questing owl in the gloaming; it is all the
manifestation of the same remarkable process of evolution that has
culminated in the flying bird, raising it as if by a magic wand from the.
lowly cold-blooded reptile to this bundle of superabundant energy-
a graceful and buoyant creature with a mastery of the air that Man,
with all his ingenuity and cunning, is never likely seriously t o
challenge.
Speedflash: Loke Wan-Tho
Hoopoe leaving nest-hole
P h o t ~ .J. N. Unwalla
Brownheaded Gulls
(Note white 'mirrors' on black wing-tips)
BIRD MIGRATION
No resident in India who is even moderately observant can fail to
notice the great influx of birds that takes place annually between Sep-
tember and November, or to remark upon their abundance during
winter in places where none were to be seen a couple of months before.
The species eagerly sought after by the man with the gun-the snipe,
duck, geese, cranes and others-together with the hosts of smaller
fry that interest him less or not at all-the sandpipers, leaf warblers,
larks, wagtails and pipits-all seem to pop up suddenly from nowhere.
While this transformation is magical enough to be felt by all, it is
%doubtfulif five persons in a hundred ever stop to ask themselves what
brings it about, and how. To the man in the street the birds come at
this season simply because it is in the nature of things that they should.
Whence they come is not his concern, while why or how they do it is
clearly the birds' own affair!
Yet, the subject of Migration is one of the no st enthralling branches
.of the study of bird life. The magnitude of the movements and the
regularity and orderliness of their occurrence are no whit less than the
cycle of the seasons; they have aroused the wonderment of Man
through the ages. The Red Indians of the Fur Countries actually
named their calendar months after the arrival of migrant birds. A
realistic scientific approach is now helping to dispel some of the more
fanciful notions, but it must be admitted that many of the phenomena
involved continue to remain a mystery and are unlikely to emerge
from the realm of speculation.
Until not so long ago there was a widely prevalent belief that small
birds such as the swallow, nightingale and cuckoo hibernated like
mammals and reptiles to get over unfavourable weather conditions.
This notion had held ground since the days of Aristotle, and even that
excellent naturalist Gilbert White of Selborne was not immune from
the belief that swallows passed the winter buried in mud at the bottom
of ponds, whence they emerged with the first signs of returning spring.
What is bird migration?
Landsborough Thomson, an eminent authority, describes bird mig-
ration as "Changes of habitat periodically recurring and alternating in
direction, which tend to secure optimum environmental conditions at
all times". The italics are important since it is just this back and forth
movement that is the crucial feature of the migration of birds. The
periodic movements of locust swarms for example, loosely referred to
a s migrations are really overflow movements and do not entail a re-
turn to the starting point. Thus they differ markedly from the seasonal
return traffic of birds. The 'pendulum-swing' movement is noticeable
in some other groups of animals as well, but it has reached its rhyth-
mical climax among birds.
Its extent and advantages
On account of their special attributes-warm-bloodedness, feather
covering and unparalleled powers of flight-the phenomenon of mig-
ration finds its highe.$tdevelopment in birds. Although directly they are
141
the least affected of all animals by extremes of heat and cold, it is the
difficulties connected with food-getting under adverse winter conditions
that compel them to change their quarters or perish. Migration enables
birds to inhabit two different areas at the respective seasons most fa-
vourable in each. It involves a swing from a breeding or nesting place
-the bird's home-to a feeding or resting place-its winter quarters.
It is an axiom of nature that birds always nest in the colder portion of
their migratory range. Thus, in the Northern Hemisphere their breed-
ing grounds lie nearer the Arctic or Temperate Zone and their winter
quarters nearer the Equator. In the Southern Hemisphere the case is
reversed. Although some migration takes place from east to west,
its general direction as a whole may be considered as North and South.
The movement may vary from no more than a few miles-such as
from the north Indian plains to a couple of thousand feet up in the
Himalayan foothills-to several thousand miles either way as is the
case with many of our wintering wildfowl. The longest known migra-
tory journey is performed twice each year by the Arctic Tern (Sterna
paradisaea) which from the Arctic winter travels south, right across
the world to the Antarctic summer and back again-a distance of
over 1 1,000 miles each way !
A consideration of the various theories to explain the origin of this
'Racial Custom' of migration among birds would here be out of place.
But it is worth while to take stock of some of the more obvious as well
as the more bewildering facts concerning it. The resultant advantages
'of migration to birds are self-evident. Absence from high latitudes
during the winter enables: (a) avoidance of cold and stormy weather,
(b) avoidance of short daylight hours available for search of food, and
(c) avoidance of those conditions that bring about a scarcity of food
supply, such as freezing of water and snow enshrouding the ground.
The advantages of a return to high latitudes in summer are: (a) avail-
ability of suitable and uncongested nesting territories, (6) availability
of long hours of daylight for search of food when food is most
required for the young, and (c) availability of an abundant food
supply following on the luxuriant growth of spring vegetation.
What stimulates a bird to migrate?
The urge to migrate at the appropriate seasons is evoked by both ex-
ternal and internal stimuli. Experiments point to the assumption that
one of the primary external stimuli is the variations in day length..
The internal stimulus seems to be provided by the state of the repro-
ductive organs which, in the laboratory, can be brought to known
stages of maturity by artificial manipulation of day length. The non-
existence of the migratory instinct in sterile birds is consistent with this
view. Readers interested in the details of Prof. W. Rowan's ingenious
experiments on the causative aspects of bird migration are referred to
his remarkable book THE RIDDLE OF M r G R A n o N (1931). Subsequent
research has resulted in some modification of the original thesis.
What determines the goal of a migratory journey?
How do birds find the way to this goal?
These are two of the many problems to which satisfactory answers
142
P;loto: Author
Swallo~scollecting on migration
9Author Pl~oto:
A migratory swarm of Rosy Pastors
Plate 80
are difficult to find. And the great mass of experimental and obser-
vational data that has accumulated within recent years does not
advance our knowledge much beyond the stage of conjecture.
In the spring the adult males are the first to arrive on their breeding
grounds. They are followed by the adult females, while immature
birds that will not breed till the following year bring up the rear. In
autumn the order of departure is reversed; the southward journey is
performed more leisurely with many stop-overs on the way. The young
birds, in many cases not more than a couple of months old, form the
vanguard, the adults following later. Now comes the mystery. The
young birds have had no previous experience either of the route or the
destination, often thousands of miles away, yet they accomplish the
journey without undue mortality through accidents and misadventure,
and with amazing accuracy. Of the various hypothetical explanations
suggested the most convenient seems to be that this prescience of the
goal and route is the expression of an inborn racial custom inherited
through countless generations of migrants journeying back and forth
year after year, between their breeding grounds and their winter
quarters. It is on a par with other vital urges such as building at the
appointed season, without previous experience or training, of nests in
accordance with the traditional pattern of the species, howsoever
complicated their architecture.
Many speculations have been put forward from time to time as to
how migratory birds orientate themselves. But it is only within the
last few years that ingenious experiments have indicated that day-
flying migrants maintain their course from the angle the sun makes
with the earth at the appropriate season, while nocturnal migrants
are guided by the major constellations of stars. Probability is lent
to these findings by the commonly observed fact that in cloudy weather
when the sky remains obscured for prolonged periods migrating
birds often lose their way.
Accuracy and regularity of returns
Birds not only return to the same general locality for breeding year
after year, but often also to the identical nesting site. Once the goal
is roughly reached there seems every likelihood that landmarks,
imprinted on the senses in some way as the result of previous experi-
ence and association, may play their part in guiding old birds to their
former haunts with such astonishing precision. The ringing or banding
method has now established that in Europe swallows often return
not only to the same locality but even to the same building for nesting
purposes year after year, covering distances of 6000 miles or more
each way during the interval. This is the case with many other true
migrants as well. And not only do individuals return to the same
nesting sites, but they often also come back to the same restricted
locality in their winter quarters, year after year.
The great regularity and punctuality, almost to the day, with which
migrant birds arrive in a given locality is seen even from the few
published records kept over several years by observers residing in
different parts of this country. This is all the more amazing, when
the enormous distances over which many of the species have to travel
are taken into account. A ringed Grey Wagtail (Motacilla caspica) was
found to return, presumably from its Himalayan breeding grounds
a t least 2000 km. distant, to a particular lawn in Greater Bombay-no
bigger than a badminton court-on almost the exact date in September
for five years running. Incoming Orphean warblers (Sylvia horterwis)
ringed in Saurashtra in September one year were retaken in nets on
the self-same acre or two in the same month, almost to the date, in the
following year; in one case even in each of three successive years!
Varying status of winter visitors
The status of every migrant to India varies in the different portions
of its winter habitat. Take any locality-say Bhopal in central India.
A large number of species coming in from across our northern and NW.
frontiers in autumn touch Bhopal on the south-bound journey to their
winter quarters in peninsular India and Ceylon. Some of these stay
behind and may be seen in that neighbourhood throughout the cold
weather. These will be classed here as true winter visitors. Other
species make their appearance for a few days at the commencement
of the season and then perhaps are not seen again till they are returning
northwards at the beginning of the hot weather. These are the passage
migrants. Others again may be seen on their southward journey in
autumn but not on the return, since some species habitually travel
to and from their winter quarters by different routes. Thus, while
these are autumn passage migrants in Bhopal, they are spring passage
migrants in another part of the country. Similarly some species may
pass over Bhopal only on their northward journey in spring and may
have the status of autumn passage migrants elsewhere. Again
there are birds who though true winter visitors may yet have their
numbers vastly augmented by waves of passage migrants from the
north or south at the appropriate seasons. The status of these species
will therefore be a combination of winter visitor and passage migrant.
Local migration
In addition to these very extensive movements of migrant birds
from beyond our frontiers, there are movements of a similar but
perhaps less spectacular kind ceaselessly going on amongst our resident
bird population. The periodical appearances and disappearances
of the Paradise Flycatcher, Golden Oriole, and Pitta must be obvious
to any one with an eye for birds. In northern India and along the base
of the Himalayan foothills where the changes of the seasons are more
pronounced than nearer the Equator, these local migratory movements
are especially noticeable. The seasonal arrivals and departures of
local migrants are no less regular in their cycle than those of the true
migratory birds. In some portions of the country one species may be
a summer visitor, in another a rains visitor while in a third locality
it may be found only during the winter months. Apart from these
regular seasonal shiftings other movements of an even more parochial
character are constantly taking place. They are governed by local
conditions of heat, drought, or floods, and by their resultant effect
upon the available food supply: the flowering season of certain
plants, the ripening of certain fruits, and the fluctuation of insect
populations.
144
Under stress of abnormal natural conditions birds are frequently
driven out of their accustomed habitats in search of a living and are
then met with as stragglers far out of their normal range.
Thus, practically no square mile of the Indian sub-continent is static
for any length of time as regards its bird population, and there is an
unending chain of comings and goings of species and individuals.
Altitudinal migration
Lastly, mention must be made of altitudinal migration which is
particularly marked among species living in the Himalayas. In winter,
high elevation birds are forced to descend to lower levels by exigencies
of the weather and the descending snow line. With the return of spring,
when the snow melts and the snow line recedes upwards they reascend
to breed in the higher hills. These altitudinal movements are not
confined to high-elevation birds only, but are indulged in also by
species resident at lower altitudes.
Velocity and altitude of migratory flight
Modern divices such as Radar, the aeroplane, speed indicators,
altimeters and other instruments used in aviation and anti-aircraft
gunnery have made it possible to discard the almost fabulous notions
formerly held and to arrive at fairly accurate estimates of the speed
and height at which migrating birds fly. Velocities naturally vary with
species of bird and prevailing meteorological conditions. The average
cruising speed of ducks and geese, for instance, has been found to be
between 40 and 50 miles per hour. Under favourable weather condi-
tions it may reach 55-60 m.p.h. or slightly more. A bird's flying day
(or night) ranges from 6 to 11 hours, and the following figures are of
interest as showing the average mileage known to be covered in a
'hop': Coot 160 miles; Stork 125 miles (6 hours); Woodcock 250-300;
Plover 550 (1 1 hrs.).
Nan-stop flights of at least 2000 miles across open sea are under-
taken by the Eastern Golden Plover (Pluvialis dominica fulva)
which is a winter visitor to India also. This bird breeds in western
Alaska and NE. Siberia, and is a regular visitor to the Hawaiian
Islands. Also the Snipe Capella hardwickii, which breeds only In
Japan and spends the winter in E. Australia and Tasmania, must
habitually fly 3000 miles non-stop over the sea since it has never
been met anywhere in between. There are others, especially among
the shore birds or waders, that cover enormous stretches without
halting for rest or food. A probable example of such a long
distance flier in India is the Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) whose
nearest breeding place is in the Himalayas. It winters in some nUm-
$rs in the Nilgiri and other hills of S. India, but is found nowhere
I? between except as the rarest accidental straggler. The least
distance it must normally cover in a single hop, therefore, 1s about
1500 miles. The Pied Ground Thrush (Zoothera wardii) travelling
by the Eastern Ghats route from the Himalayas to the Nilgiris and
on to Ceylon probably covers equally long distances non-stoP.
It has been believed in the past that migrating birds flew at stupen-
dous heights and that in fact it was of some particular advantage for
them to do so-for locating landmarks, minimising air resistance and
145
in other ways. In actual practice, however, except where lofty mountain
barriers have to be crossed, they fly chiefly under 400 m. and only
rarely over 900 m. above the ground. Some species indeed habitually
fly much lower, especially over the surface of the sea where they have
no trees and similar obstacles to avoid. Nevertheless, that a consider-
able amount of migration does take place at unsuspected heights has
recently been revealed by radar which has registered flocks of migrating
birds at over 7500 metres without there being any apparent physical
compulsion for them to fly at that height.
Considering the gigantic scale on which bird migration takes place
in India, the scantiness of our factual knowledge of every aspect
of it is deplorable. Only the broad pattern is known, and that largely
from rather disconnected observational records aided by reasonable
conjecture. The major traffic from and to northern lands (E. Europe,
northern and central Asia) in autumn and spring each year seems to
take place at both ends of the Himalayan chain mainly through the
valleys of the Indus and Brahmaputra rivers. The migrational streams
of land birds converge down the two sides of the Peninsula weakening
in species as well as numbers as they advance southward, and trickle
over into Ceylon, which virtually forms the terminal. But evidence
procured by individual mountaineers and successive Himalayan
expeditions indicates that many species, particularly of ducks and
geese, also fly directly across the mountain barrier often at heights
of 3000 to 5200 m., and even to 6000 m., thereby shortening their
journeys very considerably.
That birds can fly at immense heights if necessary with little incon-
venience from the rarified air is evident from the fact that one of the
Everest Expeditions met crows and mountain finches about their
camp at 7000 m. and Griffon Vultures and Lammergeier between
6 and 7 thousand metres, while choughs followed the climbers, quite
effortlessly and with capacity for flight undiminished, even up to
8200 m., an altitude at which the atmosphere is reduced to only
one third its supporting power! On his successful Everest climb in
1953 Sir Edmund Hillary saw a chough following him at 8500 m.-
presumably one of the several birds that scavenged daily round their
camp at 7900 m.
Bird ringing
Apart from the purely observational method of bird migration study,
which to be of real scientific value entails an unbroken continuity of
careful records over prolonged periods, the method of 'ringing' birds
has in recent years been very extensively and profitably employed
in Europe and America for collecting factual data. Bird ringing-or
'banding' as it is called in the U.S.-consists of fastening a light alumi-
nium ring of appropriate size, stamped with a number and address,
to the instep region or tarsus of a trapped or netted bird, or of a young
bird before it leaves the nest. A detailed record is kept in a special
register, and the bird is then released. A small percentage of these
ringed birds are subsequently shot or recaptured in distant places,
and the rings returned or their inscription communicated to the
marking station with data as to the exact locality where recovered,
146
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Ringed Sparrow-Hawk ready to be released
Plate 81
Photo: Loke Wan- Tho
Vultures at a carcase
Plate 82
date, and other particulars. When a large number of such recovery
records have been obtained, it is possible gradually to build up accu-
rate knowledge of the routes followed on migration by different
species, and a number of other important facts impossible to ascertain
in any other way. Thus, the ringing of White Storks in West
Germany and East Prussia has established that the East Prussian
birds migrate to Africa by a south-eastern route through the Balkans,
whereas the West German storks travel by a south-western route
through Spain. It was by means of a German-ringed stork accidentally
recovered in Bikaner that we now know that some at least of the White
Storks that visit us in winter are 'Made in Germany'.Very little bird
ringing had been done in India prior to 1958, and mainly of migratory
ducks. The recoveries, meagre as they were, nevertheless furnished
our only positive evidence for the central Asian and Siberian prove-
nance of our winter visitors. Since 1959 the Bombay Natural History
Society has conducted an organized field project for ringing other birds
besides wildfowl, mostly small passerines. Its rings bear the legend
"Inform Bombay Nat. Hist. Society". Apart from determining the
geographical origins and routes of the various species, the object is to
investigate whether, and to what extent, migratory birds are respons-
ible for the dissemination of virus deseases of man and animals through
the agency of ticks and other blood-sucking parasites. The few ring
recoveries so far reported are of the greatest interest and significance
since they indicate the routes followed by the birds to and from their
breeding grounds. For example Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava
heema and M. f. thunbergi) ringed in Kerala during winter were re-
covered on passage in Kabul, Afghanistan, the following spring, and
a t Bannu, NW. Pakistan, in the succeeding autumn. A Forest Wagtail
(M. indica) ringed in Kerala in February was killed in the Chin Hills
of Burma in April. Spanish and Turkestan Sparrows (Passer hispanio-
lensis transcaspicus and P. domesticus bactrianus) ringed in Bharatpur,
Rajasthan, in early spring were recovered on their nesting grounds in
Kazakhstan, Russian Turkestan, in summer. The end-paper map
shows some of the more important recent recoveries.
The use of plastic rings of different colours by which individuals may
be recognised at a distance without the necessity of recapture, has, in
recent years, yielded valuable information concerning the life history
and local movements of more or less resident or sedentary birds.
Those who would like to pursue the study of bird migration literature
further, will find the following books in English useful and interesting:
1. BIRD MIGRATION. By A. Landsborough Thomson (H. F. & G.
Witherby, London, 1936, 51-).
2. PROBLEMS OF BIRD MIGRATION. By A. Landsborough Thomson
(H. F. & G. Witherby, London, 1926, 181-).
3. THE MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS. By Jean Dorst (Heineman, London,
1962, 50s.). The latest authoritative work collating and summarizing
the most important European and American literature to date.
Two excellent periodicals, the first devoted chiefly to international
ringing techniques, important recoveries, and general information, the
second to research in bird migration, are:
THE RING,published quarterly by the Polish Zoological Society,
Warsaw;
BIRD MIGRATION, published twice a year by The British Trust for
Ornithology, Oxford.
147
THE USEFULNESS OF BIRDS
IT has been said that birds could exist without man but that man
would perish without birds. This observation has been further ampli-
&d by the remark that 'But for the trees the insects would perish,
but for the insects the birds would perish, but for the birds the trees
would perish, and to follow the inexorable laws of Nature to the
conclusion of their awful vengeance, but for the trees the world would
perish'. An impartial scrutiny of the facts, shows that there is indeed
little extravagance in either of these speculations.
As destroyers of insect pests

The variety, fecundity and voracity of insects are unbelievable. Over
30,000 forms have been described from the Indian Region alone-
about fifteen times the number of bird species and races-and pro-
bably many still remain to be added to the list. Practically all living
animals as well as plants furnish food for these incomputable hordes.
Many estimates have been made of what a single pair of insects would
increase to if allowed unchecked multiplication, and astounding figures
have been reached rivalling in their stupendousness those which we
associate with astronomical calculations. A Canadian entomologist
has estimated that a single pair of Colorado Beetles or Potato Bugs
(Leptinotarsa decemlineata-belonging to the prolific family Chryso-
melidae of which over 20,000 species are known throughout the world,
and which is well represented in India), would, without check, increase
in one season to sixty millions. Riley computed that the Hop Aphis
or Chinch Bug (Blissus leucopterus) very destructive to grasses and
cereals in America, which develops 13 generations in a single year
would, if unchecked, reach ten sextillion individuals at the end of the
12th generation. If this brood were marshalled in line end to end at
the rate of 10 per inch, the procession would be so long that light,
travelling at the rate of 184,000 miles per second, would take 2500
years to reach from one end to the other!
A caterpillar is said to eat twice its own weight in leaves per day.
Certain flesh-feeding larvae will consume within 24 hours 200 times
their original weight. It is reckoned that the food taken by a single
silkworm in 56 days equals 86,000 times its original weight at hatching.
Locusts are as notorious for their prolific reproduction as for their
prodigious appetites. Their swarms are sometimes so thick as to
obscure the sun, and such a visitation will, in the course of a few short
hours, convert green and smiling areas into a desolate tract with
nothing but bare stems. The female locust lays its eggs in capsules
underground, each capsule containing about 100 eggs, and several
of these capsules are laid by each individual. On a farm in South
Africa measuring 3300 acres no less than 14 tons of eggs have been
dug up at one time, estimated to have produced 1250 million locusts.
It is evident from their rate of increase that unless insect numbers were
kept under constant and rigid check, it would not be long before all
vegetation vanished completely from the face of the earth.
A large proportion of the normal food of birds consists of insects in-
cluding many that are in the highest degree injurious to Man and his
concerns. Birds of many species not only take heavy toll of the ma-
rauding locust hordes all along their flight lines, but also scratch up
and devour their eggs in vast quantities, as well as the different stages
of the young locust after hatching. The White Stork is a well-known
locust destroyer, and the enormous nesting colonies of the Rosy
Pastor live and feed their young exclusively upon these insects on their
common breeding grounds in central Asia. An idea of the extent
of good birds do in destroying insect pests may be had from the fact
that many young birds in the first few days of their lives consume
more than their own weight of food in 24 hours. A pair of star-
lings have been observed to bring food (caterpillars, grasshoppers,
locusts, etc.) to their nest-young 370 times in a day, and according
to Dr. W. E. Collinge, the well-known British authority, House
Sparrows bring food (caterpillars, soft-bodied insects, etc.) from 220
to 260 times per day. A German ornithologist has estimated that a
single pair of tits with their progeny destroy annually at least 120
million insect eggs or 150,000 caterpillars and pupae. This warfare
is waged not only when the insects are at the peak of their periodical
abundance, but incessantly, relentlessly, and in all stages of the in-
sects' lives. Therefore, where birds have not been unwisely interfered
with, they constitute one of the most effective natural checks upon
insect numbers.
As destroyers of other vermin

Owls, kestrels, hawks and the birds of prey generally-so often accu-
sed of destructiveness to poultry and game and slaughtered out of
hand-are amongst the most important of Nature's checks upon rats
and mice, some of the most fecund and destructive pests from which
Man and his works suffer. These vermin do enormous damage to
crops and agricultural produce, and are, besides, the carriers directly
or indirectly, of diseases often fatal to Man. The ravages of the Sind
Mole-Rat in the rice-growing tracts of the Indus Delta in Lower Sind
have been estimated by a competent investigator as between 10 and 50
per cent of the entire paddy crop. This MoleRat breeds throughout
the year. The number of young born in a litter is 5 to 10, but in
October and November the litters are very large varying from 14 to
18 young each. Mice are equally fecund and destructive.
It has been computed that one pair of house rats having 6 litters of
8 young annually and breeding when 33 months old, with equal sexes
and no deaths, would increase at the end of the year to 880 rats.
At this rate the unchecked increase of a pair in 5 years would be
940,369,969,152 rats. Such calculations, of course, are purely theore-
tical and their results will never be approached in Nature, but they
are not extravagant considering the capacity to reproduce, and
are based on moderate and conservative estimates.
It will thus be seen that every pair of rats destroyed by birds means
the annual suppression of a potential increase of 880 rats. Many of
our owls and diurnal birds of prey feed largely on rats and mice;
some of the former, indeed, live more or less exclusively on them.
Two or three rats or mice apiece, or their remains, may frequently be
found in the stomachs of Horned Owls, for example, and as digestion
in birds is a continuous and rapid process it is conceivable that a larger
number may be taken in the course of 24 hours. Since these birds are
engaged in the good work from year's end to year's end, some estimate
of their beneficial activities can be made.
As scavengers
Vultures, kites and crows are invaluable scavengers. They speedily
and effectively dispose of carcases of cattle and other refuse dumped in
the precincts of our villages-notoriously lacking in any organised
system of sanitation-that would otherwise putrefy and befoul the
air and produce veritable culture beds of disease. The services of the
birds are of special importance during famines and cattle epidemics
when large humbers of domestic animals perish and at best are left
by the wayside covered with a flimsy layer of earth to be exhumed by
the first prowling jackal that happens on the spot. The speed and
thoroughness with which a party of vultures will dispose of carrion
is astounding.
As f lower-pollination agents
While the importance of bees, butterflies and other insects in the
cross-fertilisation of flowers is well known, the large part played by
birds in the same capacity has not been adequately appreciated. A
large number of birds of divers families and species are responsible
for the cross-fertilisation of flowers, many of them possessing special
adaptations in the structure and mechanism of their tongue and bill
for the purpose of extracting honey from the base of the flower tubes.
Flower-nectar is rich in carbohydrates and provides excellent nutri-
ment, so much so that many of the most highly organised flower-birds
subsist more or less exclusively on this diet. In trying to reach the
nectar, the forehead or throat of the bird comes into contact with the
anthers. The ripe golden pollen dust adheres to the feathers and is
transported to the mature stigma of the next flower visited, which it
thus fertilises. It is little realised how largely responsible birds are for
the success of the present-day safety match industry in India. Of all the
indigenous woods that have been tried in the manufacture of matches,
that of the Silk Cotton tree has been found to be the most satisfactory
as regards quality, abundance and accessibility. The large showy
crimson flowers of this tree serve as a sign-post to invite the attention of
the passing bird. They contain a plentiful supply of sugary nectar,
which is eagerly sought after by birds of many kinds-over 60 different
species have been noted in one small area alone-and are mainly cross-
pollinated through their agency. Birds thus contribute to the produc-
tion of fertile seed and the continuance of healthy generations of the
tree, and incidentally to the supply of raw material for your box of
matches. A careful scrutiny would reveal that we are ultimately
dependent upon birds in this House-that-Jack-built sort of way for
many more of our every day requirements. The Coral tree (Erythrina).
150
Photo: Aethsr
ngle rvlyna sipping m a r rrom Coral blossoms
Photo: Author
Thickbilled Flowerpecker eating Loranthus berries
Plate 84
which is largely grown for shade in the tea and coffee plantations of
South India, is also one whose flowers are fertilised chiefly, if not
exclusively, by birds of many species.
As seed dispersers
In the dissemination of seed and the distribution of plant life, birds
play a predominant part. Their activities, unfortunately, are not
always of a beneficial character from the economic point of view. No
better instance of the extent of their seed-dispersing activities can be
cited than that of the lantana weed. This pernicious plant of Mexican
domicile was first introduced into Ceylon for ornamental purposes just
over a century ago. It has since overrun thousands of square miles of
the Indian sub-continent, and become the despair alike of agriculturist
and forester. Its phenomenal spread within this comparatively short
period would have been impossible without the agency of birds,
numerous species of which greedily devour the berries which the plant
everywhere produces in such overwhelming profusion. A Blackheaded
Oriole has been observed swallowing 77 berries in the course of 3
minutes. The seeds pass through the birds' intestines unaffected by
the digestive juices, and out with the waste matter in due course.
They germinate rapidly under favourable conditions and establish
themselves.
Another noxious plant that is entirely bird-propagated is the Loran-
thus tree-parasite. It belongs to the Mistletoe family, well represented
in this country, almost all of whose Indian members are more or less
wholly symbiotic with sunbirds, flowerpeckers and other bird species,
which both fertilise its flowers and disperse its seeds. Bulbuls and
barbets are largely responsible for the dissemination of the seeds of
the Sandalwood tree in South India and are welcome in sandalwood
plantations. In the newly colonised canal areas of the Punjab, the
Mulberry owes its abundance mainly to propagation by birds. Experi-
ments have shown that the seeds of such plants as grow on richly
manured soil, after passing uninjured through a bird's intestine,
actually produced stronger seedlings than those which were cultivated
without such advantage.
As food for man
A feature of the larger dhands or jheels in W. Pakistan and northern
India during the cold weather is the magnitude of the netting operations
that go on throughout that season for supplying the markets of the
larger towns, both near and distant, with wildfowl of every description
for the table. The population of the neighbourhood of those jheels
subsists during those months more or less exclusively on the flesh of
water birds or on the traffic in them. Round every village near a dhand
of any size in Sind may be seen little mounds of coot feathers which
furnish an indication of the esteem which the bird enjoys as an article
of diet. The wildfowl netting operations on the Manchar Lake alone
involved in pre-partition days a turnover of several thousand rupees
annually, besides providing the inhabitants of the neighbourhood
with free or almost free sustenance for several months in the year.
15 1
Quails, partridges and other game birds are also netted or shot
for eating purposes, and innumerable other species of every descrip-
tion are captured and sold in the bazars to fanciers, yielding substan-
tial returns to those engaged in the trade.
Egret feathers
Until a few years ago egret-farming for the sake of the valuable
plumes was a profitable cottage industry and largely practised on
the various jheels in Sind. The dainty 'decomposed' breeding plumes
of the white.egrets-'aigrettes' as they are known to the trade--were
largely exported to Europe for ladies' head-dresses, tippets, muffs
and for other ornamental purposes. They were almost worth their
weight in gold, and brought in handsome profit to the farmers. With
the change in ladies' fashions, the demand has happily dwindled
considerably, and with it the prices. The working of the Wild Birds
and Animals Protection Act of 1912 imposed a further check upon
exports, and most of the egret farms have now disappeared.
Birds' nests
There are other minor products of birds which, if properly l~usbanded
could be made to yield sizeable revenue in India. The saliva nests of
the so-called Edible-nest Switflets (Collocalia), which breed in vast
colonies in grottoes on rocky islands off the S. Burma coast were a
source of considerable income to those engaged in the trade, and of
royalty to government before that country was separated from India-
and doubtless still are. These swiftlets also breed on certain islets
off the Konkan coast (W. India), but the nests here are of poor quality;
the trade in them, which was small even in former years, is now non-
existent. The nests were exported to China as an epicurean delicacy,
the better qualities fetching from Rs. 7 to 14 per lb. The value of
nests imported into China during 1923,1924 and 1925 exceeded Rs. 25
lakhs; a fair proportion of these came from the then Indian Empire.
Guano
Guano which is really the excrement of sea birds such as gannets,
cormorants and pelicans is another product of great commercial
value. The fertilising properties of the phosphatic acid and nitrogen
contained in fish were not recognised until guano became a stimulus
to intensive agriculture. The real guano is found in vast stratified
accretions on rainless islands off the coast of Peru, and although
no deposits of like magnitude or value exist within our limits, yet the
possibilities of the 'liquid guano' of colonial-nesting water birds have
not been seriously exploited in Lndia.
From all that has been said it must not be assumed that birds are a
wholly unmixed blessing. They are injurious to Man's interests in
a number of ways. They destroy his crops, and damage his orchards,
flower beds and vegetable gardens; they devour certain beneficial
insects and prey upon fish and other animals useful to Man as food;
they act as intermediate hosts of parasites and viruses that spread
152
diseases among his livestock, and disperse them far and wide in the
course of their migrations; they fertilize the flowers and disseminate
the seeds of noxious plants and weeds. Yet, considering everything,
there can be no doubt that the good they do far outweighs the harm,
which must therefore be looked upon as no more than the labourer's
hire.
The case for the protectioil and conservation of birds in a country
like ours-so largely agricultural and forested and therefore at their
mercy-is clear, and needs no eloquent advocacy. Quite apart from
the purely materialistic aspect, however, it must not be forgotten
that Man cannot live by bread alone. By the gorgeousness of their
plumages and the loveliness of their forms, by the vivaciousness of
their movements and the sweetness of their songs, birds typify Life
and Eeauty. They rank beyond a doubt among those important
trifles that supplement bread in the sustenance of Man and make
living worthwhile.
BIRD WATCHING
NEARLY
every one enjoys birds: the beauty of their forms and colour-
ing, the vivacity of their movements, the buoyancy of their flight and
the sweetness of their songs. It is precisely on this account that as a
pursuit for the out-of-doors, bird watching stands in a class by itself.
Its srrong point is that it can be indulged in with pleasure and profit
not only by the man who studies birds scientifically, but also by one
possessing no specialised knowledge. The latter, moreover, is enabled
to share his profit with the scientist who for certain aspects of bird
study has to depend entirely upon data collected by the intelligent
watcher.
The appreciation of the beautiful and the novel is a characteristic
latent in the human species. There is none in whom the seed of th:s
faculty is entirely wanting. Environment may nurture and develop
it in some, smother it in others. The fact of its existence is proved by
the enquiries an ornithologist frequently receives concerning the
identity of this bird with a green head or that with a red tail from
persons of the most prosaic 'butcher, baker and candlestick-maker'
type who in the course of their day to day lives would never dream of
going a step out of their way merely to look at a bird. It shows that
even such a person, in spite of himself, cannot at one time or another
help being struck by some peculiarity in the sight or sound of a bird
which had not forced itself on his notice before.
It is amazingwhat tricks the imagination can play with undisciplined
observation. A person who, for example, notices a male Paradise
Flycatcher for the first time and is struck by its exquisite tail-ribbons
fluttering in the breeze, will, as likely as not, and in all good faith,
clothe his bird in multi-coloured hues of green and blue and
yellow and red when describing it to you. The only real clue he
furnishes is tne ribbon tail. Some days later you have an opportunity
of pointin out a Paradise Flycatcher to your enquirer with the suitable
suggestion, whereupon you promptly learn that this indeed was the
object of his ecstasy! Yet it is equally amazing what small effort is
needed to discipline onzself to observe accurately. After a compara-
tively short period of intelligent bird watching one can often become
so proficient that the mere glimpse of a bird as it flits across from one
bush to another-some distinctive flash of colour, a peculiar twitch
of the tail-is enough to suggest its identity fairly reliably. If it is an
unfamiliar species this fleeting impression will often suffice to puzzle
it out with the aid of a bird book afterwards.
Apart from the joy and exhilaration it affords, careful and intelligent
bird watching-considering that it can be indulged in by the many
without special scientific training-widens the scope immensely for
procuring data relating to the lives and behaviour of birds. Observa-
tions by people who habitually watch birds even merely for pleasure,
are often of great value to the scientist trying to unravel soine particular
phase of bird life. Indeed, such observations-made as they are
without knowledge of, or being swayed by this pet theory or that-
frequently carry the added advantage of being completely unbiased. As
mentioned in a previous chapter the bulk of the work that now remains
154
to be done on the birds of India concerns ihe living bird in its natural
surroundings; How does the bird live and behave? In what way
is it fitted or is fitting itself to its habitat? How is it influenced by or is
influencing its environment? It is only satisfactory answers to ques-
tions like these-and their number is legion-that can lead us to a
better understanding of that very real but strangely elusive thing
called life.
One often hears it asserted that there are no birds in this locality o r
that. Such statements merely suggest that the observer may not know
exactly where and how to look for them. For indeed it is difficult
to imagine a single square mile of the Indian sub-continent entirely
devoid of birds. Even in the midst of the scorching Rajasthan desert
o r amongst the high Himalayan snows, birds there are for those who
know how to find them. They may be scarce and local, simply
because their food happens to be scarce and local, but they are never
entirely absent over areas of any size.
For the new arrival in this country and for the novice, some sugges-
tions as to when and where to look for birds with success might prove
helpful. First and foremost, although birds are on the move all day
long, their activity is greatest in the early mornings; therefore early
rising is a most important pre-requisite for successful watching. Most
song is also heard during the early morning hours. Discovering the
identity of a songster often entails patient watching, and the chances
of tracking him down are naturally greatest in the earlymorning when
the bird is most vocal.
Contrary to the popular notion, a forest, to the inexperienced, is
usually a very disappointing place for bird watching. You may tramp
miles without seeming to meet or hear a bird, and then just as you
begin to despair you may round a bend in the path and suddenly
find yourself confronted by a gathering that includes well nigh every
species of the neighbourhood. There are birds on every hand : on the
ground, among the bushes, on the trunks of the lofty trees and in the
canopy of leaves high overhead. There are tits, babblers and tree
pies, woodpeckers, nuthatches and drongos, flycatchers, minivets,
and leaf warblers, and numerous other species besides. The scene is
suddenly transformed into one of bustling activity. You have in fact
struck what the books call a 'Mixed Hunting Party', or 'Localised
Forest Association'. These mixed assemblages are a characteristic
feature of our forests, both hill and plain. Here birds do not as a
rule spread themselves out uniformly, but rove about in co-operative
bands of mixed species in more or less regular daily circuits. All the
members of the association profit through the co-ordinated efforts
of the lot. Babblers rummaging amongst the fallen leaves for insect
food disturb a moth which is presently swooped upon and captured
in mid-air by a drongo on the look-out hard by. A woodpecker
scuttling up a tree-trunk in search of beetle galleries stampedes numer-
ous winged insects resting upon the protectingly coloured bark o r
lurking within its crevices. These are promptly set upon by a vigilant
flycatcher or warbler-and so on.
Banyan and peepal trees, when in ripe fig, attract a multitude of birds
of many species from far and wide and offer excellent opportunities to
the bird watcher. A lively scene presents itself as party after party
arrives, all eager to gorge themselves on the abundance spread around.
There is a great deal of noise and chatter as the visitors hop from
branch to branch in their quest. Bickering and bullying are incessant,
but no serious encounters develop since every individual is much too
preoccupied with the main business in hand. Such gatherings are ideal
for studying the natural dispositions and 'table manners' of the various
species.
Some of the most charming and enjoyable venues for bird watching
are certainly afforded by the Silk Cotton, Coral Flower, or Flame-of-
the-Forest(Bu1ea) trees in bloom. Their particular attractiveness lies in
the fact that the trees, or the branches bearing the gorgeous flowers,
are bare and leafless at this season, allowing a clear and unobstructed
view of the visitors. Almost every small bird of the surrounding count-
ryside flocks to the blossoms for the sake of the sugary nectar which
they produce in such abundance. Riot and revelry prevails throughout
the day, but especially in the mornings, and there is constant bullying,
hustling and mock fighting amongst the roysterers. A pair of good
binoculars multiplies the pleasures of bird watching many-fold, and is
indeed an indispensable item of the watcher's equipment.
Another favourable occasion is after the first few showers of rain
have fallen and the winged termites-the potential queens and their
numerous suitors-are emerging from their underground retreats
for their momentous nuptial flight. A termite swarm acts like a magnet
upon the bird population of its neighbourhood. Caste and creed are
forgotten and every species hastens to the repast; no quarter is given,
the insects being chased and captured on the ground as well as in the
air. The agile and graceful gliding swoops of the swallows and swifts
contrast strangely with the ponderous, ungainly effortsof crows making
unaccustomed aerial sallies in the pursuit. Kites, kestrels, crows,
owlets, mynas and bulbuls, sparrows, bayas and munias, tree pies,
drongos and orioles, tailor birds and wren-warblers all join in the
massacre, while even woodpeckers and barbets can seldom resist the
temptation.
Nesting birds provide much important material for the study of ani-
mal behaviour. These can best be studied from a 'hide' erected in the
proximity of their nests. Aportable 'hide' is easily made with a few iron
rods or bamboo poles and some canvas, or one of straw and leafy
branches can usually be rigged up on the spot without difficulty. The
birds soon get inured to its presence and can be watched from within
in comparative comfort and at close quarters. Bird photography
adds enormously to the zest of bird watching. Many facts of far-
reaching significance concerning nesting habits and sexual behaviour
have been brought to light by the careful observations and pictorial
evidence of bird photographers. There is no pleasanter way of pro-
longed and intensive watching than in pursuit of bird photography,
and there can be no success in bird photography without patient and
intensive watching. Camera studies of birds in their natural surround-
ings and busy at their normal occupations are a joy not only to their
maker, but also to others who have not been fortunate enough to share
in his watching. The several attractive photographs reproduced in
156
Photo: R.S. P.Bates
Camouflaged Ground 'Hide'
Plate 86
these pages will bear this out. No one interested in this fascinating
pastime should miss the late Lieut.-Col. R. S. P. Bates's inform-
ative article on 'Bird Photography in India' published in Volume 40
of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (May, 1939).
Useful suggestions for various types of hides and their construction,
and other hints for bird photographers will also be found in Book 2 of
the BIRDS OF CEYLON by W. W. A. Phillips (1952). Entirely new ground
in the photography of birds in India has recently been broken by Mr.
Loke Wan-Tho. By the use of high speed flash equipment he has
obtained remarkable action pictures at 1/3000 to 1/5000 of a second.
The technique is described by him in the Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society, Vol. 50(4)-August 1952. The photograph of the
hoopoe (Plate 77) is an example of his high speed flash work.
A north Indian jheel in winter is a veritable paradise for the bird
watcher. Every species of water bird, as well as those that live about
the margins and in the marshy reed-beds, may be met here, and an
unique opportunity is afforded of getting acquainted with them. It is an
exhilarating experience, even for one who is not a shikgri to drift along
in a punt over the placid water on a cold morning with the din of hon-
king, quacking and trumpeting on every hand, and the fluttering and
swishing of wings of countless wildfowl overhead. The multitudes of
the birds, apart from their great variety, leave a picture on the mind
that is not easily lost.
It must not be supposed that this list exhausts the possibilities for
bird watching in India. Indeed pleasure can be derived from the most
everyday birds in the most humdrum surroundings, and even the jaded
city dweller can regale his leisure hours without the necessity of going
far afield in search of special opportunities. Birds can be attracted
to our homes and gardens without any great dficulty by the provision
of suitable feeding trays, baths, and nesting boxes. These simple and
inexpensive appliances not only add charm and ornament to the garden
but they soon engender that friendliness and confidence in the bird
visitors which is so essential for their enjoyment at close quarters.
An excellent pamphlet-Field Guide No. 3 : Nestboxes-has recently
been published by the British Trust for Ornithology, Oxford. It gives
particulars and diagrams of many types of next boxes, and all relevant
information concerning their use. (Price 2sh. 6d.)
Everyone who watches birds intelligently enough to enjoy them, and
who carries with him a note book and pencil, should be in a position to
contribute in some measure to our store of knowledge. The essentials
are Patience, plus the ability to observe accurately and to record faith-
fully, even though the observations may sometimes disagree with the
books or the observer himself may sometimes wish things to happen
differently !
Above all it is important that sentimentality be kept in check and to
remember at all times that the behaviour of birds cannot be interpreted
entirely by human analogy. Birds do not possess the power of reason-
ing; therefore their actions, however intelligent they may seem, are
essentially little more than instinctive reflexes.
All unusual or original field observations are worthy of permanent
record since they are the bricks of which ornithological structures are
built. To test the value of your notes they should be offered for publica-
tion to the Nelvsletter for Birdwatchers, the monthly bulletin of the
recently formed Birdwatchers' Field Club of India (address: Juhu
Lane, Andheri, Bombay 58) or-if of a more technical character-
to the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Amateur
birdwatchers as well as seasoned ornithologists will find it profitable
in many practical ways to belong to either or both these separate
organizations. Membership terms can be obtained from the respective
honorary secretaries.
Books to read:
(1) A GUIDE TO BIRD WATCHING. By Joseph J. Hickey. (Oxford
University Press, 1943)
(2) HOW TO STUDY BIRDS. By Stuart Smith. (Collins, 1945)
(3) WATCHING BIRDS. By James Fisher. (Pelican Books, 1946)
(4) BIRD WATCHING AS A HOBBY. By W. D. Campbell. (Stanley Paul,
London, 1959)
(5) ABOUT INDIAN BIRDS. By Laeeq Futehally and SBlim Ali. (Blackie,
Bombay, 1959).
INDEX OF SPECIES
(Italics indicate that the species is only partially described)
Page Page
A Bustard, Great Indian 88
Bustard-Quail, Common or
Adjutant Stork lo1 Bluelegged 82
-Smaller 101 Button Quail, Indian or
Avocet 93 Yellowlegged 83
B Buzzard, Crested Horley 68
Whi te-eyed 70
Babbler, Common 5
-Jungle 4 C
-Large Grey 114 Chat, Brown Rock 16
-Quaker 7 Chloropsis, Goldfronted, or
-Rufousbellied 6 'Green Bulbul' 8
-Slatyheaded Scimitar 5 -Goldmantled 9
-Spotted 7 Coot 85
-Yelloweyed 6 Coppersmith, or Crimson-
Barbet, Bluethroated 49 breasted Barbet 49
Crimson b r e a s t e d , Cormorant, Large 97
or Coppersmith 49 -Little 97
-Crimsonthroated 49 CottonTeal, 108
Large Green 49 Coucal or Crow-Pheasant 51
Bee-eater, Bluechreked 55 Courser, Creamcoloured 89
Bluetailed 55 -Indian 89
-Chestnutheaded 55 -Jerdon's, or Double-
-Common Green 54 banded 128
Bittern, Chestnut 106 Crane, Common 87
-Little Green 105 -Demoiselle 87
-Yellow lo6 -Sarus 87
Blackbird 14 Crow, House 1
Blue Jay, or Roller 54 -Jungle 1
Bluethroat 114 Crow-Pheasant or Coucal 51
Brainfever Bird or Hawk- Cuckoo, Common Hawk-,
Cuckoo 50 or Brainfever Bird 50
'Bulbul, Green', or Gold- -Indian 50
fronted Chloropsis 8 -Pied Crested 50
-Redvented 9 -Plaintive 119
-Redwhiskered 10 -Sirkeer 119
Whitebrowed 11 Cuckoo-Shrike, Blackheaded 22
-Whitecheeked 10 -Large 22
Bunting, Blackheaded 36 Curlew 94
- Crested
-Redheaded
36 -Stone
36
89
-Striolated 36 D
Bushchat, Collared 12 Dabchick, or Little Grebe 112
-Pied 11 Darter, or Snake-bird 98
Bush Quail, Jungle 80 Dove, Emerald or Bronze-
Rock 80 winged 74
xlvii
INDEX OF SPECIES-(continued)
Page 1 Page
Dove, Little Brown 76 G
-Red Turtle 75
-Ring 76 Gadwall 126
-Spotted 75 Garganey or Bluewinged
Drongo, Black or King Teal 110
Crow 23 Godwit, Blacktailed 121
-Racket-tailed 24 -Bar tailed 121
-Whitebellied 24 Goose, Barheaded 108
Duck, Brahminy, or Ruddy Grey Lag 108
Sheldrake 109 Grackle or Hill Myna 28
-Comb, or Nukta 107 Grebe, Little, or Dabchick 112
-Grey, or Spotbill 111 Greenshank 95
-Pinkheaded 127 Gull, Blackheaded 90
Brownheaded 90
E
H
Eagle, Crested Hawk 69
-- Crested Serpent 69 Harrier, Marsh 72
-- Pallas's, or Ringtailed, -- Pale 72
Fishing 70 Hawk-Cuckoo, Common, or
-Short-toed 68 Brainfever Bird 50
-- Tawny 68 Hawk-Eagle, Crested 69
-Whitebellied Sea 123 Heron, Grey 103
Egret, Cattle 104 -Indian Reef 104
-- Large 103 -- Eastern Reef 104
-Little 103 -Night 106
-Median 103 -Pond, or Paddy Bird 105
-Purple 103
I? Hoopoe 59
Hornbill, Common Grey 58
Falcon, Laggar 66 -Great Indian 120
Shahin 124 -Large Pied 120
Finch-Lark, Blackbellied 43 -- Malabar Grey 58
-- Rufoustailed 43 -Malabar Pied 120
Flamingo 107
Florican, Lesser 88 I
Flowerpecker, Thickbilled 118
-Tickell's 46 Ibis, Black 99
-Firebreasted 46 -Glossy 99
Flycatcher, Blacknaped Blue 115 -White 99
-Grey headed
Nilgiri Verditer
113
17
Iora, Common 8
Paradise 18 J
-Redbreasted 113
-Tickell's Blue 17 J a ~ a n aBronzewinged
, 85
-Verditer 17 -Pheasan t-tailed 86
- Whitebrowed Fantail 18 Junglefowl, Grey 78
Flycatcher, Whitespotted -- Red 78
Fantail 18 -Ceylon Red 78
xlviii
INDEX OF SPECIES--(continued)
Page Page
K Myna, Bank 30
Kestrel 67 -Brahminy or Black-
King Crow, or Black Drongo 23 headed 29
Kingfisher, Blackcapped 57 -Common 30
Common 56 -Greyheaded 29
-- Pied 56 -Hill, or Grackle 28
Hintalayan Pied 56 -Jungle 116
-Whitebreasted 57 -Pied 117
-- Brownheaded Stork-
billed 58
N
Kite, Blackwinged 72 Night Heron 106
Brahminy 71 Nightjar, Common Indian 61
-- Common Pariah 71 Nukta or Comb Duck 107
Koel 51 Nuthatch, Chestnutbellied 3
L
-Velvetfronted 4
Laggar Falcon
Lapwing, Redwattled
-- Yellow-wattled Openbilled Stork
Lark, Crested Oriole, Blackheaded
-- Finch-, Blackbellied -Golden
Finch-, Rufoustailed Osprey
--Malabar Crested Owl, Barn or Screech
Bush, Redwinged -Brown Fish
Bush, Singing -Collared Scops
-- Sykes's Crested Indian Great Horned
Lorikeet Owlet, Barred Jungle
Ceylon -Spotted
Oystercatcher
M
P
Magpie-Robin
Mallard Paddy Bird or Pond Heron 105
Martin, Crag Parakeet, Blossomheaded 53
Dusky Crag Large Indian, or
Merlin, Redheaded Alexandrine 52
Minivet, Scarlet Roseringed 52
Shortbilled Partridge, Black 81
Small Grey 82
Whitebellied -Painted 81
Moorhen, Indian Peafowl, Common 77
Purple Pelican Spottedbilled or
Munia, Blackheaded Grey 97
-- Green Pharaoh's Chicken, or Sca-
-- Red, or Waxbill venger Vulture 66
Spotted Pigeon, Blue Rock 74
Whi tebacked -Common Green 73
-- Whitethroated Pintail (duck) 110
xlix
Page Page
Pipit, Indian 41 Shoveller 111
Pitta, Indian 47 Shrike, Baybacked 19
Plover, Golden 122 -Common Wood 20
-Grey 122 -Cuckoo-, Blackheaded 22
-Kent ish 91 -Cuckoo-, Large 22
-Little Ringed 91 -Grey 19
Pochard, Baer's 112 -Rufousbacked 20
-Redcrested 127 -Swallow-, Ashy 23
-Tufted 125 Skylark, Small Indian 41
-White-eyed 112 Snake-bird or Darter 98
Pond Heron or Paddy Bird 105 Snipe, Common or Fantail 96
-Painted 86
Q Pintail 96
Sparrow, House 35
Quail, Blackbreasted or Rain 80 -Yellowthroated 33
-Bush, Jungle 80 Spoonbill 98
-Bush, Rock
- Bustard-, Common or 80 Spotbill, or Grey Duck
Spurfowl, Red
111
79
Bluelegged 82 -Painted
-Button, Yellowlegged 82 Starling, Rosecoloured, or 79
-Common or Grey 79 Rosy Pastor 28
-Mountain 128 Stilt, Blackwinged 93
Stint, Little 96
R Teinminck's 96
Redshank Stone Curlew
95 Stork, Adjutant 89
Redstart 101
Robin, Indian 13 - Stork, Blacknecked 101
-Magpie- 13 Smaller
Open
Ad~utnnt
billed
101
102
Roller or Blue Jay 54 -Painted
Kashmir 54 102
Rosefinch, Common Indian White 100
or Hodgson's 34 Sunbird,Whitenecked loo
Rosy Pastor 28 -Purple Loten's 44
44
Ruff and Reeve 121
Purplerumped 45
S Y ellowbacked 45
I Swallow, Common 37
Sandgrouse, Common 77 -Indian Cliff 38
Painted 124 -Redrumped or Striated 38
Sandpiper, Common 95 -Wiretailed 38
-Green 94 Swallow-Shrike, Ashy 23
Wood or Spotted 94 Swift, Alpine 60
Sams Crane 87 -Crested Tree 120
Shag, Indian 97 -House 59
Shama 14 -Palm 60
Sheldrake, Ruddy, or Brah- T
miny Duck
Shikra lo91
73 , Tailor Bird 25
1
Page Page
Teal, Bluewinged, or Gar- Wagtail, Blueheaded 39
ganeY 110 -Grey 39
Common 109 -Greyheaded 39
-- Cotton 108 -Hodgson's Pied 40
Lesser Whistling 109 -Large Pied 40
Tern, Black bellied 90 -White 40
GullbiIled 90 -Yellowheaded 39
River 90 Warbler, Orphean 116
-Indian Whiskered 91 -Wren-, Ashy 26
Thrush, Blue Rock 16 - Wren-, Franklin's 26
-Blueheaded Rock 15 -Wren-, Indian 26
-Himalayan Whistling 16 - Wren-, Rufousfronted 26
-Malabar Whistling 16 -Streaked Fan tail 25
Whitethroated Ground 15 Waterhen, Whitebreasted 83
Tit, Grey 2 Waxbill, or Red Munia 33
Yellowcheeked 3 Weaver Bird, Blackbreasted 118
Tree Pie 2 -Common 31
v -Striated 31
Vulture, Black, or King Whimbrel 94
-Longbilled 65 White-eye 44
-Whitebacked or Bengal 65 Whitethroat, Lesser
Wigeon
115
125
White Scavenger 66 Woodpecker, Goldenbacked 48
W - Mahratta or Yellow-
Wagtail, Blackheaded 39 fronted Pied 47

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--

2- IN,<ltL'lA,N >., ,>- --:,

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

WitJz 64 plates in colour (depicting 256 species)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

@ Bombay Natural History Society 1964

All rights reserved. This book, any parts thereof,

PILUTED IN INDLA A T THE LEADERS PRESS PRIVATE LTD., BOMBAY. ~ 9 4 4 9

THE publication by the Bombay Natural History Societyby inS. 1961

From the sequence of the Orders and Families of birds represented

A Sparrow 6" G Crow 17"

1 inch = 2.54 centinletres

DEALT WITH IN THIS BOOK

Lit of Black & White Plates

Redwattled Lapwing and nest

Illustration of a bird's plumage & parts xxiv

Europe-Asia showing some significant recoveries of

( d )T h e H i m a 1 a y a s including the whole area of the moun-

The Punjab, Sind and Rajasthan, however, have a fauna differing

7 . A sieve for straining mud -g '. 8. Tootkdgcd #&

I . Jungle Crow 2. Pariah Kite 3. House Sparrow 4. Purple Sunbird

'Whitebreasted Straight. pointed, B l u e, chocolate-

Shape, colour Predominant

H grey Hornbill (1. i Curved, heavy. Slaty grey ..! 58

I I (Spoonbill (6b). S p a t u l a t e, 1 White .. . 98

* F=Partridge; H =Kite; I =Duck ; J =Village hen.

1 Little Green Bit- Dagger-like, Glisetning greenish

K White Stork (6c, Straight heavy,

* J=Village hen; K =Vulture.

high) brown, 7"

* A =Sparrow; C=Bulbul; D =Myna; H =Kite; K =Vulture.

B+ Painted snipe (2) . Olive-green . . Metallic olive-: Buff, black . . I Greenish b r o w n ; ,

Bronzewinged Jaqana Dull green . . M e t a 1 1 i c 1Black, chest- Greenish yellow and/

bronze- nut-red. red .. . . I 85

E1 Spoonbill (2, 6b)

Purplish blue White

K+ Adjutant Stork (2)

Blackish grey. j Dirty white . . Yellowish; h e a v y ;

(2,k) white , black .. .., 101

Flamingo (4, 6b) .. Red . . Rosy white . . ' ..

Common Green Pigeon . . ; French grey, yello~.ish,/

, Small Minivet '

a . Genernl effect more or less wholly BLACK

, snipe-like, orange-red bill) .. .. .. .. 1 120

A 1 Grey Tit Black, white .. 2

I Chestnutbellied thatch Chestnut . . . . ..

Rufoustailed Finch-Lark Rufous .. .. .. 1 43

Redwhiskered Bulbul(3) ' White, black, crimson

Whitecheeked Bulbul (3) . . White, black , yellow

*B=Quail; C=Bulbul; D=Myna; E-Pigeon; T=Duck. +=bigger;

Species Associated colours Page

Common Teal, fer~iulr . .

Size: Pigeon?; (17 inches). Field Characters: Grey neck and

2. The Jungle Crow-Corvus rnacrorhynchos Wagler

Size: Myna? ; tail 12 inches long. Field Characters: A long-tailed

Size: Sparrow. Field Characters: Glossy uncrested black head,

1. House Crow 2. Jungle Crow

Size: Sparrow-. Field Characters: A short-tailed bird with relatively

5. Yellowcheeked Tit 6. Chestnutbellied Nu thatch