er a ee Red a CUT d ‘The Earthis arocky planet, compared with, for example Jupiter, whichis a gas giant. This means that the Earth ismade from rocks and metal ores. The Earth weighs '5873600000000000000000000 kg (5.97 10%*kg] and has ‘a density of 5.2 gem", which makesit the densest planet in the solar system, Thisis mainly because the core consists Cofiron surrounded by a mantle of rock. However, itis only the very outside part of the Earth, above the mant that humans can use. The material that makes up this region is what we call rocks and minerals. Although this represents a vast amount of material, the quantity oft ke everything else, is limited. Whet is more, extraction and use Can cause environmental and other problems. We are in danger of using up the available sources of many rocks, the most well known of which is probably coal Peak mineral is a concept that provides a date after which there will only be less extraction ofa mineral Peak coal, for exemple, isthe date at whichit s calculated that the most coal is being extracted, after which itwill decline. Because wwe do not know exactly how much coal exists, estimates ‘of peak coal vary. Some say/itis 200 years away, others say tcould be soon, maybe 2020. This unpredictability because of future urdnowns is illustrated by the situation 1.1 Formation of rocks The planet Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago he force of gravity pulled the heavier elements togethe first, forming the core. The lighter elements then formed the Earth’ ctust abo ion years ago. The mantle developed as a layer between the dense core and th This structure stil exists today (Figure 1.1) Figure 1.1 The structure of the Earth ‘with ol, In 1956, the originator of the peak mineral idea, M.K. Hubert, predicted that the peak oil date for the USA would be 1970. This did not happen, and in fact the production of ail in the USA is still 'sing today. Howeve! itis true that the resources ofall these commodities, such 2s coal, oil and phosphorus (current estimated peak date 2030), copper (current estimated peak date 2040) and. Uranium (current estimated peak date 2030s), are finite. Itis therefore important that we limit the use of these resources, and reuse and recycle them whenever we can, Figure 1.OA giant bucket wheel excavator in use in an open-pit mine. Igneous rocks When molten rock from th igneous rocks arc formed magma when ts sill below the surface and lava when reaches the surface he molten rackis. Magma is found in the outer ma that is under pressure from th tle itis hot, iquid rock 1cks above itcools ittums to solid rock, When liquid magma rises to the surface from volearoes the cooling occurs quickly and forms lava, Igneous rocks are made of material thet was once molten; they usually contain crystals that are formed as the molien material cools The crystals found in rocks are formed when solutions of minerals cannot absorb any more dissolved minerals, ‘Some of each mineral type precipitates out of solution to form the centre of crystal. This then provides a surface for more mineral ions to precioitate orto. The crystal becomes larger until the solution disappears, Ifthe rock cools quickly, only very small crystals can form before the rock becomes solid. Rapid cooling occurs when magma is released from volcanoes onto the surface of the Earth's crust. IF magma rises from the mantle into the crust without reaching the Earth’s surface, then the magma cools more slowly allowing the formation of larger crystals. Many of these crystals contain valuable minerals that are used for a wide range of industrial processes. Heat and pressure are the usual reason for minerals becoming dissolved; a reduction of heat and pressure usually leads to the formation of crystals, Examp\es of igneous rocks are granite and basalt (Figures 1.2 and 1.3) Figure 1.2 piece of granite. Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation Figure 1.3 piece of basalt Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks are formed by the weathering of ‘visting rocks at the Earth's surface, the accumulation and fosslisation of living material, or the precipitation of dissolved materials outof solution in water Weathering processes release small mineral particles that accumulate to form sediment, Overtime, layers of sediment bull up to form sedimentary rock ‘The sediments include different-sized mineral particles. The smallest particles are clays, followed by sits and then sands. These particles are important inthe formation of soils (see Section 3, Larger partcies of gravels and small boulders can also be found in sediments Rock: 2 combination of one ar more minerals Mineral a naturally occurring inorganic substance with 2 speciieeherical composition Igneous rock: rock made during avoleani process Magma: molten rock below the surface ofthe Earth Solution: formed when a solids cssolved ina liquid Precipitates: wien 2 substance comes outof solution ton: an atom in which the aumber of positively charged protons Isnotequa tothe numberof negatively charged electrons Sedimentary rock: a rack fred fram material derived ram the weathering of other rocks othe accumulation of dead plants and animalsCon eeu ei cur ‘The particles are transported by streams and rivers and then depos'ted as sediment. Eac’ layer of sediment becomes more compact and harder because of the pressure created by the newer deposits above them. Examples of sedimentary rack are limestone, sandstone ane shale (Figures 1.4, 15 and 1} Figure 1.5 Sandstone. Figure 1.6 Apiece of shale. Metamorphic rocks Metamorphic rocks are created from existing rocks when the heat (above 150°C) or pressure {above 15x 10*Pa or 1480 tr), or both nest and pressure, causes chenges in the rock crystals without melting the existing rack. Tae existing rock therefore changes in structure, becomming ‘2 metamorphic rock. The changes in structure can be chemical or physical o” both Sedimentary and igneous racks can become metamorphic rocks, and a metamorphic rack can become anather metamorphic rock, Metamorphic rocks are usually harder ‘than sedimentary rocks, Examoles of metamorphic rocks are marble and slate (Figures 17 and 1.8). When the Earth’s crust first formed, al the rocks were igneous. These racks were slowly eroded, releasing small particles that formed sediment, and these sediments built up over time to form sedimentary rocks, The racks that make up the Earth’s crust are always moving, which creates the heat and pressure needed to form metamorphic rack. all rock types are constantly eroded and formed in the reek eyele (Figure 1.9), Table 1.1 compares the characteristics of the different rock types. ‘Metamorphic rock: a rack formed irom existing rocks by a ‘combination ofheat and pressure Rock eyele: a representation ofthe changes between thethree rocktypes and the processes causing Made from liquid Made from other | Made from magma rockfragments __| existing rock Magma cools to |Rockfragments | The riginal form solid rock |becorne buried and | rockis changed Increased pressure | inform by heat forms arock and pressure Mineral crystals [Crystals absent | Mineral crystals sometimes. present present; the size ofthe crystals depends on the speed of cooling No fossils Fossils maybe No fossils present present present Table 1.1 Characteristics ofthe different rock types.Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation Figure 1.7 Apiece of marble, Figure 1.8 piece of slate, 1. Weathering and erosion break of ragments ot euace rock 2. The eroded rock is wansporte to ancther toeation — 3. The fragments of ek are deposed and bus Js J Lupin ayers. As the ayers Buk up, the lower ‘ weathering and erosion layers ave compacted ito secimentary rock 4, Sedimentary and igneous rocks subjected to heat and pressure underground frm metamorphic rocks. 5. Athigher temperatures rocks met to frm magma. 6, Magma coos to form igneous rock: 7, Moverenis inte Earthrise roca othe surace via a process call up. Figure 1.9 The rock cycle showing the relationship between the three rock types, sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous. The diagram also shows the interactions between these types, their origins and the processes by which they are interconverted,ea eked a CU ead LL Figure 1.10 shows the rock cycle. Copy and complete Figure 1.0 with processes on the arrows and intermediate stages inthe ovals. The processes should be chosen from the ist provided: one has been done for you ‘Add the names ofthe correct rock type to Table 1.2 heat ana weathering heat and pressure and erosion pressure meting meting cooling magma sediment Figure 1.10 The rock cycle. 2 Cooma Rocks and the rock cycle Materials For the first part you will need to be able to access the Interactives Rock Cycle website (www cambridge org/ links/scspenv4a0c + Farthe second part, which can be doneon a diferent day, Yyour teacher wil provide you with asclection ofrocks. Method For the first parto* the practical, go to the web page and lookat the interactive diagram. For the second part of the practical, choose ane of therocas, Observe and describe your chosen rock, thinking about things lke shape, colour, weight, sofiness orhardhness. 1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth of materials th Minerals provide us with a wide rang use in everyday life, Coal and oil provide energy and many chemicals used ining \cores provide us with the metals and alloys needed to mae products try. Met Description Rock Type Rocks formed in the sea from patticles of eroded rack Rocks changed by heat Rocks formed From the cooling of other molten rock Table 1.2 Rock types. + Return your rock to the table, and put.a letter by it Each rock should end up with a diferent letter by it. ‘Working on your own, select another rock but this time donot pickitup. + Spend about five minutes writing 2 description of your rock, without anyone else knowing which one itis. ‘swap your description with someone else and take itin ‘turns te work out which rock has been described Questions. 1 _Testyourself on what you have learnt about the rock cycle using another version of the interactive diagram lon the web page. 2. Answer the questions provided on the web page. such as computers, mobile phones, cars, wires and nails ‘The demand for minerals continues to increase, both ft developed end develoving countries Searching for minerals People have searched years. The simplest ay to find rm minerals for thousands of neral deposits istoChapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation look carefully at the surface of rocks. This process of Other satellites operate by sencing signals tothe surface of prospecting has found neariyal the surface deposits of _ the Earth and then collecting reflected signals. The system minerals worldwide ‘works in all weathers, through complete cloud cover and Deposits on the Earth's surface can also befoundusings — * MN range ofremete sensing methods For example, an area Valuable mineral ores in the rocks below the surface cfland car be photographed from the ai and theimages can be located from the satellite images. Computers carefully analysed for signs of minerals, Aerial photography are used to process the data from a region of interest to can cover much mare ground than a person walkingover see whether any minerals are present in the area, The the surface of rocks (Figure 1.13). Images and otrer data satellite's positioning system records the exact location, from satelites can also be used to analyse very large areas. _and the geologists then vist the location to confirm the minerals have been identified correctly. Once in an area identified from satellite data, the geologists can check further locations to see whether the minerals of inerest ‘Ore: 2 rock with enough ofan important element ta make are present nearby as well. Using satell tes means large worth mining areas can be geologically mapped quickly ard at low cost Prospecting: » process of searching for minerals Field surveys onthe ground are used to take samoles. These ate sent to @ laboratory for geochemical anaiysis, so that the chemicals in the samples can be identified. The samples can be taken fram stream sediments, soil orrocks {using shallow cling). The paints where the samples are ‘emote sensing: 2 proces in which informations gathered about the Earth's surface om above Geochemical: the chemical properties of rocks Mineral ceoosits are weathered at the Earth’s surface, taken are usually selected by overlaying a grid on a map of producing mineral oxides, These can be detected by their _the survey area, The location of the sammole points in the Unique radiation pattern, whichis recorded by a satelite field can be found accurately using the Global Positioring and cownloaded to 2 computer for analysis. System {GPS} forward overlap 70 > 7 7 — | — inter overtap Figure 1.11 Aerial photography used for mineral prospecting. Photographs are taken with an overlap both front to back and side to side. I the overlap is sufficient, three-dimensional views can be generated, which makes the prospecting easier,ea ee ke a Cue d +r method used to identify the mineral ores presentin rocks is geophysics. A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent the s different distances from the source of vibrations are aid on the ground, The vibrations create shock waves that travel down into the rock layers anc are reflected back to the nsorson the surface. The shock waves record different patterns depending on what minerals are present in the ck layers. jprations bu this is potentially more dangerous (Figure 1.12). Mining rocks and minerals To make sure that the deposits of mineral oes are large ced, 3 im of the evaluation isto estimate the grade and the mineral of interest presentin a deposit Dring ‘rock samples must be done to carry outa resource ree evaluationis cari nly a few samples are y eposits, more crilingis required, following ground. The ainis to identify the size of sent well as the mixture of mineral ores p From the information collected, the deposit may be assified as a mineral ore reser deposit akes into account the amo al to extract. Final ‘out to evaluate all the financial and technical risks of any proposed mining project (see below]. The final decisio develop a mine straight away or wait unt conditions change in the future. Methods of extraction There are two main types of mining Surface mining includes open-cast, open-pit, open-cut and strip mining. Sub-surface mining includes deep and shaft mining, Geophysieal: he physical properties of rocks ‘Surface mining: » ype of mining used when the mineral ‘either exposed onthe surface of overiain by only smal amounts of Overburden ‘overburden: the rock and soll averying an economically viable mineral deposit Open-pit mining: ype ofsurace mining ‘Strip mining: a typeof surface mining Sub-surface mining: 2iypo cf mining used wher the deposi ‘covered by a deep ayers) of unwanted rock Deep mining: 2 ‘ype of sub-su Shaft mining: 2 y200! sensors plek up rellecied wave yo \ 1 \ recoring tuck collects information from sensors = viva ck _ < ———— rock A * rock ° ~ i Figure Seismic shock waves being used to locate rack or mineral deposits.Surface mining Open-pit mining is also called pen-east or open-cut mining. This type of miningis used when a valuable depositis located near the surface, often buried below 2 thick layer of worthless material, The material above the deoositis called overburden, The overburden has to be removed first to expose the deposit, ands stored nearby to be used later for mine restoration (Figure 1.13), Open-pit mines are carefully dug in sections called benches. The walls ofthe benches are kept at an angle to reduce the risk of rock alls. The safe angle ofthese walls degends on the type of deposit and overburden, Roads have to be made as the digging progresses to allow the removal ofthe mineral deposit and overburden. Bulding materials such as sand, gravel and stone are removed from ‘open pits called quarries. The process of extraction from pits always uses simiiar methods. There are two main reasons why openpitrrines eventually stop being worked. In some cases, as much valuable deposit as possible has been removed. In other cases, the amount of overburden that needs to be removed has increased to an extent that the mine is no longer profitable. Strip mining is used to mine sear of mineral. Firstof all the overourden, which consists ofthe overlying rock and sol is removed, Strip mining’s mainly used to mine coal near the surface, Figure 1.0 shows avery large bucket wheel excavator, which is often used in strip mines. These machines can mave thousands of tannes of material every hour. Figure 1.13 An open-pit mine, Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation Sub-surface mining ‘Sub-surface mining (Figure 1.14) involves digging tunnels into the ground to reach mineral deposits thet are toa deep to be rernoved by surface mining, Sometimes horizontal tunnels are dug directly nto the coal sean in the side ofa hill or mountain: this is @ drift mine entered by an adit. These tunnels produce waste rock as well as the mineral ore, {sloping tunnel is dug to reach deeper deposits. Mining machinery can be lowered down the sloping tunnels while waste rock and mineral ore are hauled up to the surface. The deepest deposits are reached by digging a vertical shat. Horizontal galleries are then duginto the mineral deposits. ‘This type of mining is mare expensive and technically challenging than either horizontal or slope tunnelling, Only large deposits of valuable minerals are mined in this way Most ofthe material is removed from mines by machine. The miners job isto make sure ll the machinery is ‘working correctly and safely. Compared with open-pit mining, any form of shaft miningis more dificult because a supply of fresh airand water drainage has tobe provided There are also the dangers of collapsing tunnels as well as, the risks of poisonous ges, explosion and underground fre CP eevrens Open-cast mining: type of surface mining Open-eut mining: 9 typeof surface mning ‘Adit: the entrance to» horizontal det mineea ee ed Cue Ct baeos a } ns. oo) : . Figure 1.14 drift mine with a horizontal entrance, called ‘an adit. B Sloping tunnel, 1.3. Whet factors need to be considered before starting up a new mine? 1.4 Suggest reasons why developing surface mines is easie’ than developing rnines underground, Factors affecting the viability of extraction of minerals ‘Once 2 mineral deposit has been located, 2 mining company has to decide whether it should mine the deposit or not. Mining companies need te consider a range of hen planning to open a mine, including exploration and extraction the environmental impact + supply ane demand. Greenfield sites are areas that have never been mined minerals. The chances of finding a deposit there are iow. For some metal ores, the strike rate ranges from 1:5) 1:100, New gold deposits a rate may be as low as 1: 1000, very hard to find: the strike Brownfield sites are areas that have already been mined. They usually have a higher strike rate than greenfield sites. Even low-grade deposits that were not extracted in the past may have enough value that they can now be mined for proft, The probable cost of extracting one tonne of ore has to be calculated. Deposits near the surface can be extracted by open-pit mining, There are usually fewer technical dificuties to mining on @ ‘arge scale using this method ‘which leads to a low extraction cost per tonne. beeper deposits can only be extracted by shaft mining, This is more costly to set up and maintain, s0 the cost per tonne willbe higher than open-pit mining. Only deposits of high value can be mined economically his way The quality of the mineral deposit is another important factor in deciding to open amine. High-grade ores will yield more of the required chemical element: low-grade ores ‘The size of deposit that can be extracted is also important, ‘Small deposits of high-grade ore and high-value ores may be worth mining, Small deposits of low-grade ore and annot be mined ata profit are known reserves. Inthe future they may be mined, either because technical advances make it less coslly to do so 0 because ofa sustained increase in world price. Itis possible to estimate the working life of mine, but many factors have ta be taken factors are the size of the deposit and the planned rate of extraction. Ifa mine is projected to have @ short working life, then other factors, such as ore value, will be very important in daciding whether work should be started, Mines that are projected to have a long working life are less likely to prevented by other factors, account. The main Transporting the ore from a rine to processing plants may be difficult and expensive. This factor alone could orevent 2 deposit being mined. The cost of building road or ral links to the processing plants orto the nearest suitable Port for exports a start-up cost that has to be consider ‘These transport links have to be kept in working order, also be maintenance costs. The cost of tonne of ore over 1km can be calculateFor large tonnages, such asiron ore, rail transports the only practical end cost-effective method af moving she ore. I the ore is going to be exported, large ships, called bulk carriers, can be used to keep the transport costs low. ‘Another way of keeping the transport costs low isto carry ‘out some processing of the ore atthe mine. The process. used depends on the chemical nature and grade of the ore, The aim of processing is to concentrate the mineral ore and separate it from the waste material. The waste material is storec at the mine. This type of processing, produces a higher grade of ore so ithas a higher value per tonne, Some ores are high grade when they come out of the ground, For example, some iron ores are called direct shipping ores (0S0) because they have enough iron content that they do not need processing at the mine. Mining companies can only start work afer they have been givena licence to extract a depos, The government of any country will want to earn some money from the mining activity. This means there will be 2 tax to be paid to the government for every tonne of mineral ore extracted. From the point of view of the mining company, itis important ‘hata long-cerm agreements reached to avoid rapid rises intax that could make the mining operation unprofitable. From the paint of view of the government, the tax needs to generate enough money to be invested in developments. for the benefit ofthe country, Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will drive the price up, Changes in supply and demand can increase 5 er Opa ocr D Cee Uae eta) ‘or decrease proits from working ines. Ifthe world price remains high, then deposits that could not previously be mined at a proft may become worth mining. Tne amount ‘of money that needs to be invested in staring up anew mine's considerable, This means that ifthe world price falls because ofa drop in demand, a new mine ray not start ‘working at a profit. Only when the world price rises again can anew mine become profitable. The global recession of 22008 stopped some known mineral reserves being mined because of reduced world prices, Recently, the world price of ron ore has dropped because supply is greater then demand, ‘An exemple of changes in world price are shown in Figure 1.15; Mining comganies try to predict future demand very carefully so that periods of selling ore at less than the cost of production are kept to @ minimum. The profits from periods of high world prices are used to make up forperiods of low profitability, as well as to pay forthe development of newly discovered deposits Strike rate: he recuency wth which attempts to find 2 sired mineral are successful ‘Supply and demand: therelavionship between how much of commodity is avaliable ang how muchisneeded o- wanted by consumers ofthe product 45 as a avai v 25 2 Copper price/USS I 15 1 IM en os. rr] ° 3Jan 1989 ‘dan 1904 Tan ese Figure 1.15 Changes in world price of copper, 1989 to 2012. tan 1 dan 2008 27 Aer 2012Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management 1.3 Impact of rock and mineral extraction Environmental impacts Impacts on the environment from the extraction of rocks and minerals range from large-scale habitat, destruction to pollution ofthe atmosphere, land and water. Hhose lving near the site are also affected by noise and visual pollution. Any mining activity will Involve the loss of nabitat for some species of plants and animals. Even small-scale surface mineral extraction requires the vegetation to be cleared from an area of land, The plants remioved have lost a place to grow, and so have the animals that depend on the plants for fooe and shelter. Deep mining means that shafts have to be dug down to the seams of valuable minerals. At the beginning of deep mining operations, only a small ares of and is cleared cof vegetation. After ths type of mine has been working for several years, more habitats willbe destroyed as the amount of mine waste stored aboveground increases ‘Any form of large-scale surface mining causes the greatest loss of habitat. Large areas of vegetation have to be removed and then large volumes of removed overburden have to be stored. After the seams of valuable mineral have been removed, the overburden is spread over the mined aree to restore the lanc. The new land surface will slowly become covered in some plant species. However, this vegetation will have less biosiversity compared with the original vegetation, This means that some plant and animal habitats will stil be lost from an aree for many years, even though the land surface has been restored. When a company applies fora licence to start working, an environmental impact assessment is carried out. The licence application s usually approved ifthe company has a plan to keep the loss of habitat as small as possible ‘anc then to restore the land after mining has fir'shed. An environmental impact assessment tres to identify al the possibie types of damage to the environment. To have the licence application approvec, any mining company must have detailed plans to control the amount of damage to the environment. Enviranmental impact assessment: 2 process by which the probable efect on the environment ofa development are assessed ane measured magnification: the process nwhich tne concentration of ‘2 substance in ving things becomes higher at progressively higher evelsin a food chain or web The working life of any ype of mine will result in some pollution ofthe environment (Figure 1.16). This can take the form of noise, water, land, air and visual pollution, Noise pollution is a problem when large-scale surface mining takes place. The overburden is loosened by explosive charges anc then removed by large machines. The noise can distur® the behaviour of many animal species near the mine and cause health problems for people. Deep mining usvally produces less noise than surface mining, Mining licences set limits on the levels of noise and working hours of a mine. ‘Water aollution from any type of mine can be a major problem that can continue for many years after a mine has stopped working, The water that drains through mine waste, for comes directly from mine shafts, can cause dramatic changes to the populations of lving organismsin streams and rivers. Drinking water supplies may also be polluted by drainage from mines, making it unsafe for people to drink ‘This pollution is caused by chemical reactions between water and exposed rocks and rine waste. The water may become acidic and then dissolve toxic metal ions. The combination of acidic water with a high cancentration of ‘oxic metal ions kills many aquatic organisms, Some of the etal ions exist only in low concentrations in bodies of water. However, organisms absorb these fons and retain them in their body, reaching concentrations much higher ‘than that in the water. This is called bioaccumulation, ‘The concentrations increase further in o-ganisms that are higher up the food chain, This pracessis called biomagnification, anc can cause the death of top. consumers. There are other metal ions that are toxic in high concentrations that do not bioaccumulate. The land surrounding a mine will become polluted by rine waste, In some cases the area will be quite small but the toxic nature of the waste means that only e few plants can grow, even many years after mining has stopped,Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation Figure 1.16 Pollution and land degradation around a copper mine. When mine waste is stored above natural water courses, the weste pile may collapse and cover more land. The choice of site for mine waste is an important factor to consider in plans to limit the effects of pollution Many mining activities release dust particles, which will settle on the vegetation near the mine, Dust recuces plent growth: the leaves of plants need to absoré light energy to perform photosyrthesis. light cannot penetrate a layer of dust on a leaf surface, then the rate of photosynthesis is reduced. Dust from mining activities may also have toxic effects egending on the chemical components presentin the dust. This can also reduce or stop plant growth, and the particles can be dangerous te human health. The biggest risks breathing.in dust that then remains in the lungs. Long-term exposure can lead to serious lung diseases that can cause death. The lungs of children are very easly damaged by breathing dust particles. Some harmful substances can also be absorbed through human skin. Mining companies provide safety clothing and breathing masks to protect the health of mine workers. However, many people make a living from small-scale mining without a licence, This is often called informal mining and itisillegal. Health problems as a result of tox’c substances are common among these miners. Evidence of mining activity can often be seen because the landscapes damaged. Thisis visual pollution. Large- scale surface mining wll -eate the most obvious visual pollution during the working life of @ mine. This type ‘of pllution may only be temporary because careful restoration of the lanescape is possible. 1.5 Give reasons why illegal mining without a licence is bad for people and the environment Explain how reduced plant growth can affect an ecosystem 16eos ea ce kel a CUT d The Antamina Mine in Peru ‘The Antamina mine isa large open: pit mine located +igh in the Andes Mountains of Peru at an altitude above 400m (Figure 117). The estimated reserve is LSbillion tonnes of ore. Extraction of copper and zinc ores began in 2001, Ihe mine employs more than 5000 people, Before mining could begin, more than 100 million tonnes of surface rock had to be removed and placed in waste piles. The ores were then removed and crushed in the processing plant to produce concentrate, Wastes from this process are called lailings. These are stored in a compound to prevent water pollution, The concentrate ie then mixed with water and moved in a 300km pipeline to the coast ‘After the water is removed from the concentrate it is loaded into ships, Figure 1.17 The Antamina Copper mine, Peru, showing benches and the sheer size of the mine. ‘The mine was expected to stop production in 2022, However, more reserves have been found and increased Investment in efficient processing machinery has extended the expected life ofthe mine to 2029. Questions 1 Suggest why the mine was developed in such a remote location, 2. Water pollution is serious risk at this open-pit mine. Give three reasons why there isa igh risk of ‘water pollution, 3a Suggest how the production from this mine been, made more sustainable than originally planned. bb Explain why itis unlikely that the land will be fully restored when this mine stops production,Economic impacts Extracting valuable minerals provides emoloyment for people and provides taxes lor the government. Modern mining is carried out using machines so only a smal number of people will be directly employed to extract minerals, However, ifthe minerals then refned and pracessed in the same country, further jobs are created. In many cases minerals are exported from one country to bbe used in manufacturing processes in another country. This can create jobs in the country importing the mineral Overall, mineral extraction does provide employment, even if modesn methods mean thet the total number of mining jobs may only be few hundred. Mineral extraction usually benefits both local and national economies. Jobs are created crect\y:0 extract minerals and further jobs ‘0 supply transport and mining equipment. More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to make products. lal these activ ties occur in the same country, his will generate the most income for buying goods and services as well as investing in infrastructure projects. Sore improvements to transport and services, such as healthcare and education, will be required to supply any rminingindustry aswell as support the mineworkers ard their families. Some improvements will be paid fr by the mining companies as a condition of theirrining licence, Taxes paid by mining companies and individual workers can provide a country with enough revenue to invest in infrastructure projects to benefit the whole population ofthe country. 1.4 Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction Management of a mining operation should start with plans for safe waste disposal and end with plans to return the land to its original state when mining is over. Safe disposal of mining waste Inthe past, mining waste was usually been putin piles near the point of extraction. In some cases, stable waste piles were placed on top of water courses, which then become polluted with toxic chemicals. n other eases, waste piles were unstable and collapsed. Apart from the possible loss of life caused by a colapse, collapsed waste piles increase land and water pollution Today, safe storage and disposal of mine wasteis, ne of the most important aspects of any mining licence appiication, Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation Ina well-regulated system, applications must provide a detailed plan to snow how mine waste will be stored to prevent collapse. The site of the mine waste must also prevent the possibilty of water pollution. The plan must include details of how the waste will be monitored to detect any movement or water pollution, Land restoration and bioremediation When mining has finished, the land needs to be restored Sometimes mine waste can be reshaped to blend in with the surrounding landforms, The waste can then be covered bya layer of sol, which may be enriched with fertiliser. ‘Such an area can then be planted with trees. This will help ‘other plants and animals to colonise the area. As time passes, the soil will be improved by the addition of organic matter from piant and animal wastes. This method of land restoration is often used to manage the waste from coal mining, Planting trees creates habitats ferly quickly even though the tees are only able to grow slowly. Some mine waste does not alow the growth of tree roots, so other methods of restoration have to be used Contaminated waste can be treated where it was lft (in situ ‘veatment) by bioremediation. Alternatively, waste can be removed from a site to a treatment plant (ex sty treatment), aa Bioremediation: oracessinwhich ivng things are used to remave tonic chemicals ram a natura site Bioremediation is the process of removing pollutants from waste using living organisms. Many organisms are able to break down toxic substances into less hazardous substances. This often happens slowly in natural environments. Some microorganisms, such as bacteria found in soils, are able to absorb pollutants and process them via metabolic pathways into less harmful substances. When bacteria take in pollutants they usually gain either energy or nutrients. Microorganisms can remove and process pollutants at 2 faster rate if their environment provides a source of ‘oxygen and nitrogen. Some plants are also naturally able to bioaccumulate toxic metals, and this process can be speeded up with the addition of fertilisers. These plants ‘are grown on contaminated waste. The plants absorb toxic metals, and later the parts ofthe plant aboveground are removed so the waste leftin the ground becomes less toxicCambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management Figure 1.18 Former granite quarry on Bornholm, Denmark, the steep sides now a paradise for sea gulls, ‘fer this treatment, the land is often turned into anature reserve as, even though the ground surfaceis ess toxic, itmay stl net be possible to use it for farming or to build houses on. Several tree and herb species are intraduced anc as the plant populations grow they create habitats for many animal saecies, These nature reserves become valuable green spaces for human recreation, as well as, helping to maintain biodiversity Figure 1.18) Mineral extraction often creates large holes in the landscape. I the rocklining the hole impervious to weter and none toxic then itcan be allowed to fill with water to form 3 reservoir, This water could be used for irrigating farmland or processed to provide clean safe drinking water for humans. Sometimes, these holes are filed with household waste until they are fll. Tre wasteis then covered with soil and planted with trees. This refered to as land How successful are these strategies? The Society for Ecological Restoration International SERN) proposed a number of ecosystem-related variables to measure t success ofa land restoration progracnmme. In summary, a successful scheme will return the site toas close as possible to the native ecosystem that existed before the mining began. In this respect, although all strategies have a value, some scientists believe that allowing. site to undergo a natural process of recolonisation and slow change to the enviroament (a process called succession) may actually be the most beneficial methoe. Active reclamation is important to reduce the incidence of such events as landslides and erosion. However, once this has bee done, the natural process of succession can probably be relied on to achieved the ecosystem recovery SERI and others think we should aim for. 1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals ‘The supply of rocks and minerals that are used as oullding materials and for industrial sroduction is int. Itis hard +0 see, therefore, how the use of these materials can meat the definition of sustainability, Sustainable use means use that meets the needs of tre present without affecting the ably of future generations to meet their needs. Afully sustainable resource will never tun out, and this can be achieved in fisheries, agriculture and forestry where the resource is biological and can be regrown. Unlike these biological systems, such things as rocks and minerals will not last indefinitely. Human societies need to use any resource with care so ‘hat its use is at least more sustainable than ithas been in the past. The sustainable development of the reserves of any rock or mineral must take into account environmental, economic and social factors. The aim isa planned and controlled use of any reserve to provide the most benefit ‘to people, maintain economic growth and stability andprevent widespread environmental damage. National laws and international agreements encourage sustainable development of resources. The term sustainability is now widely used. However, 2s the world population continues to increase, it's dificult to see how the challenge of complete sustainability can bbe met. Perhaps the best that can be achieved isthe prolonged use of resources with limited environmental damage and the most benefit for human societies. On the other hang, it may be possible to find substitutes for the use of relatively scarce materials. For example, coppers cuite rare ands used for, among other things, the conduction of electricity, When the purpose's to \rarsmit information, copper wire can be replaced by fibre optic cables, which are made from the much more common element silica Several strategies can be used to make the exploitation of rocks and minerals more sustainable Efficiency of extraction Increasing the efficiency of extraction seems an obvious starting point. For example, underground coalrines only remove between $5 and 70% of the coal present in the reserve, Ths s because of the technical dificulties of extracting the remaining coal in a safe and cost effective manner. Open-pit mining is more efficient at extraction than underground mining but some wastage stil occurs. Figure 1.18 Scrap metalina scrapyard, arpa ocr i CEU Ruri Leta) To improve the efficiency of extraction, many mine wastes are now being processed for a second time, This allows valuable materials to be recovered and reduces the risk cf pollution from stored mine waste. New extraction methods include chemical treatment of the waste, which extracts much of the valuable mineral still within it Biological treatment with microorganisms can also be used to extract more product from the waste. Improvements in the performance of the machines used in mining and processing also increase the efficiency of excraction, Greater use of date analysis by computers is likely to lead to improverients as well, However, surface mining has more potential for an increase inefficiency of ‘exrraction than underground mining, This is becouse itis more difficult to predict geological concitions underground Efficiency of use and recycling Recycing materials makes an important contribution to the sustainable use of rocks and minerals. Many manufactured 200d, from cars to steal cans ae ecycled in most countries, Mast metals can be recovered and refined back toclean metalsto be used byindustres again, This uses less energy than processing the ores or concentrates to make metals. Many countries still have she potential 0 recycle fat more materials in the future (Figure 1.23) [Attempts to use minerals such as metals more efficiently include engineering solutions. For example, itis possibleea eked uC CUT ed to design steel beams used in buildings to have the same strength but use less steel. In the 1980s titanium became very expensive and there was an incentive to design products that used less of this metal. Many countries may in the future require car manufacturers by law to take back the'r products wren they are finished with. Itis hoped this vill encourage them to make more durable products that use less minerals end last longer. he major way in whicn governments are trying to encourage a more sustainable use of minerals and racks 's to pass laws that requires manufacturers to become responsible for recycling and reuse. For exam \Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WE! ‘After completing this chapter, you should know: the characteristics of named igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks how these rocks are formed in the rock cycle the features of surface and subsurface mining how we decide to extract rocks and minerals the environmental, economic and socialimpacts of rockand mineral extraction Directive ofthe European Union, was passed in 2002 Although some ofthe tems covered are not mineral rich {for example televisions are only 6% metal) others are: a ‘typical cooker is 899% metal 1.7 Suggest one advantage of in situ waste treatment and one advantage of exsitu waste treatment, 1.8 Describe three ways in which recycling materials isimportant for the sustainable use of resources. how landscapes damaged by rock and mineral ‘extraction can be restored and how successful these strategies canbe = the meaning of sustainable resource and sustainable development ‘= how rocks and minerals can be used sustainably. End-of-chapter questions 1 Animportant local fishery exists in Lake Titicaca, Peru, The lakeis 100km from a mercury mine. A study was carried out or the levels of mercuryin fish caughtin the lake, Some of the data are shown in Table 1.3. 104 0.20 124 0.32, 2 0.30) 28 0.20 236 030 M0 032, Me 035) 159 028) 360 035) ae 055) 236 0.85) Table 1.3 Fish and mercury levels