Lecture Notes Hybridization

Hybridization
Hybridization is the process of mixing two or more atomic orbitals to create new covalently
bonded orbitals in molecules. The new orbitals thus formed are known as hybrid orbitals.
1. An orbital is a three dimensional description of the most likely location of an electron

around an atom.
2. Orbitals are combined when bonds form between atoms in a molecule.
3. Valence electrons are the electrons that are located in the outermost shell of an atom. In
other words, these are the electrons that can be gained or lost during a chemical reaction.
Types of Hybridization
Based on the types of orbitals involved in mixing, the hybridization can be classified as sp, sp2,
sp3, sp3d, sp3d2, sp3d3. We now discuss the various types of hybridization, along with their
examples.
sp Hybridization
sp hybridization is observed when one s and one p orbital in the same main shell of an atom mix
to form two new equivalent orbitals. The new orbitals formed are called sp hybridized
orbitals. It forms linear molecules with an angle of 180° (see figure below).
 This type of hybridization involves the mixing of one ‘s’ orbital and one ‘p’ orbital of
equal energy to give a new hybrid orbital known as a sp hybridized orbital.
 sp hybridization is also called diagonal hybridization.
 Each sp hybridized orbital has an equal amount of s and p character, i.e., 50% s and p
character.
Examples of sp Hybridization:
 All compounds of beryllium like BeF2, BeH2, BeCl2

 All compounds of carbon-containing triple Bond like C2H2.
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sp2 Hybridization
sp2 hybridization is observed when one s and two p orbitals of the same shell of an atom mix to
form 3 equivalent orbital. The new orbitals formed are called sp2 hybrid orbitals.
 sp2 hybridization is also called trigonal hybridization.

 It involves mixing of one ‘s’ orbital and two ‘p’ orbital’s of equal energy to give a new
hybrid orbital known as sp2.
 A mixture of s and p orbital formed in trigonal symmetry and is maintained at 1200.
 All the three hybrid orbitals remain in one plane and make an angle of 120° with one
another. Each of the hybrid orbitals formed has 33.3% ‘s’ character and 66.7% ‘p’
character.
 The molecules in which the central atom is linked to 3 atoms and is sp2 hybridized have a
triangular planar shape (see figure below).
Examples of sp2 Hybridization
 All the compounds of Boron i.e. BF3, BH3

 All the compounds of carbon containing a carbon-carbon double bond, Ethylene (C2H4)
sp3 Hybridization
When one ‘s’ orbital and 3 ‘p’ orbitals belonging to the same shell of an atom mix together to
form four new equivalent orbital, the type of hybridization is called a tetrahedral hybridization
or sp3. The new orbitals formed are called sp3 hybrid orbitals.
 These are directed towards the four corners of a regular tetrahedron and make an angle
of 109°28’ with one another (see figure below).
 The angle between the sp3 hybrid orbitals is 109.280
 Each sp3 hybrid orbital has 25% ‘s’ character and 75% ‘p’ character.
 Example of sp3 hybridization: ethane (C2H6), methane.
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sp3d Hybridization
sp3d hybridization involves the mixing of 3p orbitals and 1d orbital to form 5 sp3d hybridized
orbitals of equal energy. They have trigonal bipyramidal geometry (see figure below).
 The mixture of s, p and d orbital forms trigonal bipyramidal symmetry.

 Three hybrid orbitals lie in the horizontal plane inclined at an angle of 120° to each other
known as the equatorial orbitals.
 The remaining two orbitals lie in the vertical plane at 90 degrees plane of the equatorial
orbitals known as axial orbitals.
 Example: Hybridization in Phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5)
sp3d2 Hybridization
 sp3d2 hybridization has 1s, 3p and 2d orbitals, that undergo intermixing to form 6
identical sp3d2 hybrid orbitals.
 These 6 orbitals are directed towards the corners of an octahedron.
 They are inclined at an angle of 90 degrees to one another.
Key Features of Hybridization
 Atomic orbitals with equal energies undergo hybridization.

 The number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals
mixing.
 It is not necessary that all the half-filled orbitals must participate in hybridization. Even
completely filled orbitals with slightly different energies can also participate.
 Hybridization happens only during the bond formation and not in an isolated gaseous
atom.
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 The shape of the molecule can be predicted if the hybridization of the molecule is
known.
 The bigger lobe of the hybrid orbital always has a positive sign, while the smaller lobe on
the opposite side has a negative sign.
Exercise: Give the hybridization states of each of the carbon atoms in the given molecule.
 H2C = CH – CN
 HC ≡ C − C ≡ CH
 H2C = C = C = CH2
What are the different types of hybridization?
Based on the nature of the mixing orbitals, the hybridization can be classified as,
 sp hybridization (beryllium chloride, acetylene)

 sp2 hybridization (boron trichloride, ethylene)
 sp3 hybridization (methane, ethane)
 sp3d hybridization (phosphorus pentachloride)
 sp3d2 hybridization (sulphur hexafluoride)
Among sp, sp2 and sp3, which hybrid orbital is more electronegative?
Due to the spherical shape of s orbital, it is attracted evenly by the nucleus from all
directions. Therefore, a hybrid orbital with more s-character will be closer to the nucleus and
thus more electronegative. Hence, the sp hybridized carbon is more electronegative than sp2
and sp3.
Explain the five basic shapes of Hybridization?
The five basic shapes of hybridization are linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal
bipyramidal, and octahedral.
The geometry of the orbital arrangement:
 Linear: Two electron groups involved resulting in sp hybridization, the angle between
the orbitals is 180°.
 Trigonal planar: Three electron groups involved resulting in sp2 hybridization, the angle
between the orbitals is 120°.
 Tetrahedral: Four electron groups involved resulting in sp3 hybridization, the angle
between the orbitals is 109.5°.
 Trigonal bipyramidal: Five electron groups involved resulting in sp3d hybridization, the
angle between the orbitals is 90°, 120°.
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 Octahedral: Six electron groups involved resulting in sp3d2 hybridization, the angle
between the orbitals is 90°.
Explain the difference between molecular and hybrid orbitals.
The interactions between the atomic orbitals of two different atoms result in molecular orbitals,
whereas when the atomic orbitals of the same atom interact they form hybrid orbitals.
Orbitals and Electron Capacity of the First Four Principle Energy Levels
Number of Maximum
Principle energy Number of
Type of sublevel orbitals per level number of
level (n) orbitals per type
(n2) electrons (2n2)
1 s 1 1 2
s 1
2 4 8
p 3
s 1
3 p 3 9 18
d 5
s 1
p 3
4 16 32
d 5
f 7
Steric Number
An easier way to determine the hybridization of a central atom in a molecule is the use of a
steric number. The steric number is the number of atoms and lone pairs around the central
atom in a molecular compound. It is computed by summing the number of atoms bonded to the
center atom and the number of lone pairs on the center atom. A linear molecule is characterized
by a steric number of 2. A trigonal planar molecule is characterized by a steric number of 3.
A tetrahedral molecule is characterized by a steric number of 4. A trigonal bipyramidal
molecule is characterized by a steric number of 5. Lastly, an octahedral molecule is
characterized by a steric number of 6.
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Examples:
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Hybridization

1. An orbital is a three dimensional description of the most likely location of an electron

 All compounds of beryllium like BeF2, BeH2, BeCl2

 sp2 hybridization is also called trigonal hybridization.

Examples of sp2 Hybridization

 All the compounds of Boron i.e. BF3, BH3

 The mixture of s, p and d orbital forms trigonal bipyramidal symmetry.

Key Features of Hybridization

 Atomic orbitals with equal energies undergo hybridization.

What are the different types of hybridization?

 sp hybridization (beryllium chloride, acetylene)

Explain the five basic shapes of Hybridization?

The geometry of the orbital arrangement:

Explain the difference between molecular and hybrid orbitals.

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