PHS 201

COURSE
GUIDE
PHS 201
ANATOMY
Course Team Prof. Afolabi Adebanjo &

Simeon Kayode Olubiyi (Course Writers)-
NOUN
Dr Esther O. Oluwole (Course Update)

Consultant Public Health Physician/Lecturer
Department of Community Health &
Primary Care (MCH Unit)
College of Medicine, University of Lagos
Idi-Araba, Lagos
Dr Gloria Anetor (Programme Leader)

HOD, Public Health Sciences
Dr Jane-Frances Agbu
Dean, Faculty of Health Sciences
NOUN
NATIONALOPENUNIVERSITYOFNIGERIA
National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
91, Cadastral Zone
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway,
Airport Road, Jabi, Abuja
Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
e-mail: [email protected]
URL:www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2017, 2019
ISBN: 978-058-486-2
All Rights Reserved

PHS 201 COURSE GUIDE
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction..…………………………………………… iv
What You Will Learn in this Course…………………… iv
Course Objectives………………………………………. iv
Working through this Course…………………………… v
Course Materials………………………………………… v
Study Units……………………………………………….. v
The Assignment File…………………………………… v
Assessment…………………………………………….. vi
Tutor-Marked Assignment……………………………… vi
Final Examination and Grading………………………… vi
Course Marking Scheme……………………………….. vi
Course Overview………………………………..……….. vii
How to Get the Most from this Course…………………. viii
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials………………………… ix
iii
INTRODUCTION
PHS 201: Anatomy is a first semester two-credit course. It will be

available to all students to take toward the course module of their B.Sc.
programme. This course will give you a better understanding of the
anatomy of the human body. The course guide tells you briefly what the
course is about, what course materials you will be using, and how you
can work your way through these materials. It suggests some general
guidelines for the amount of time you are likely to spend on each unit of
the course in order to complete it successfully. It also gives you some
guidance on your tutor-marked assignments. Detailed information on
tutor-marked assignments is similarly made available. There are regular
tutorial classes that are linked to the course. You are advised to attend
these sessions.
WHATYOU WILLLEARNINTHISCOURSE
The overall aim of PHS 201: Anatomy is to enable you to learn and
understand the basic structure and function of the human body, which
include: the human skin, the skeletal system, the nervous system, the
endocrine system, there productive system, and the circulatory system.
COURSEOBJECTIVES
In order to achieve the aims set out above, the course sets overall
objectives. In addition, each unit also has specific objectives. The unit
objectives are always included at the beginning of each unit and these
should be read before you start working through the unit. You may need
to refer to them during your study of the unit in order to check on your
progress. You should always look at the unit objectives again after
completing each unit. In this way, you can be sure that you have done
what was required of you by the unit. Set out below are the wider
objectives of the course as a whole. By meeting these objectives, you
should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole. On successful
completion of the course, you should be able to:
 define the concept of anatomy and physiology

 describe levels of organisation in the body
 describe the skin and skeletal system
 explain the digestive, respiratory and circulatory systems
 discuss the nervous and endocrine system
 explain the constituents and role of the immune system and
 describe the sexual organs.
WORKINGTHROUGHTHISCOURSE
To complete this course, you are required to read the study units and
books, and other materials provided by the National Open University of
Nigeria(NOUN). Each unit contains self-assessment exercises. At the
end of the course is a final examination. The course should take you
about 14 weeks to complete. Below you will find listed all the
components of the course, what you have to do, and how you should
allocate your time to each unit in order to complete the course
successfully and on time.
COURSEMATERIALS
Major components of the course are:
1. The Course Guide

2. Study Units
3. References
4. The Presentation Schedule
STUDYUNITS
Each study unit consists of some work, and includes introduction,

specific objectives, reading materials, conclusion, summary, tutor
marked assignments(TMAs), references and further readings. The units
direct you to work on exercises related to the required readings. In
general, these exercises are on the material you have just covered.
Together with tutor-marked assignments, these exercises will assist you
in achieving the stated learning objectives of the individual units and of
the course.
THEASSIGNMENTFILE
The course assignment will cover:
Basic anatomy of the human body; concept, meaning and the

relationship between these subspecialties of basic biology
Levels of organisation of the human body and basic organic chemistry
The organs and the regulatory roles of the nervous and endocrine
systems The skeletal, circulatory, digestive, nervous systems, etc. and
their functions.
v
ASSESSMENT
There are two aspects to the assessment of the course:
a. Tutor-marked assignments,
b. Written examination.
TUTOR-MARKEDASSIGNMENT
There are some tutor-marked assignments. You are encouraged,

however, to submit the assignments to be given to you at the Study
Centre for this course. In tackling the assignments, you are expected to
apply information, knowledge and strategies gathered from the relevant
study units. However, it is desirable to demonstrate that you have read
and researched more widely than the required minimum. Using other
references will give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper
understanding of the subject.
The assignments must be submitted together with a TMA (tutor-marked

assignment) form, to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance
with the deadlines stated in the Presentation Schedule and the
Assignment File. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your work on
time, contact your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the
possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due
date unless there are exceptional circumstances. The work you submit to
your tutor for assessment will countfor40%ofyour course mark.
FINALEXAMINATIONANDGRADING
The final examination for PHS201 will be for 2 hours and its result will
contribute 60% to the total course grade. The examination will consist
of questions which reflect the types of self-testing, practice exercises
and tutor-marked problems you have previously encountered. All are as
of the course will be similarly assessed.
Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting for the
examination to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to
review yourself-assessment questions, tutor-marked assignments and
comments on them before the examination.
COURSEMARKINGSCHEME
The following table lays out how the actual course marking is broken
down.
ASSESSMENTMARKS
Assignments:4TMAsof10markseach=40%of course marks

Final Examination =60%ofoverall course marks
Total course marks = 100%
COURSEOVERVIEW
This table brings together the units, the number of weeks you should
take to complete them, and the assignments that follow them. These
specially designed study materials should be used at your pace, and at a
time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to a lecturer. The study units tell you when to read
your course material. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class
exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate
points.
Each of the study units follows a common format:
1. Introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular

unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole.
2. A set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what
you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit.
You should use these objectives to guide your study. When you
have finished the unit you must go back and check whether you
have achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this,
you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course
3. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading
from other sources. This will usually be either from a reading
section or some other courses.
4. Self-tests are interspersed throughout the units, and answers are
given at the end of units. Working through these tests will help you
to achieve the objectives of the units and prepare you for the
assignments and the examination. You should do each self-test as
you encounter it in the study unit. There will also be numerous
examples given in the study units; work through these when you
come across them too.
If you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor. Remember that your
tutor’s job is to help you; so when you need help, don’t hesitate at all to
ask your tutor to provide it.
vii
HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course.
1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

2. Organise a study schedule: Refer to the “course overview” for
more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit
and how the assignments relate to the units. Important information,
e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date of the first day of the
semester, is available. You need to gather all this information in
one place, such as your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method
you choose to use, you should decide on and write in your own
dates for working on each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything
you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
they get behind with their course work. If you get in to difficulty
with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late
for help.
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
5. Assemble the study materials: Information about what you need
for a unit is given on the contents page at the beginning of each
unit. You will almost always need both the study unit you are
working on and one of the materials for further reading on your
desk at the same time.
6. Work through the unit: The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit you will be instructed to read sections from other
sources. Use the unit to guide your reading.
7. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your
assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you to
meet the objectives of the
Course and, therefore will help you pass the exam. Submit all
assignments not later than the due date.
8. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives,
review the study materials or consult your tutor.
9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives,
you may then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through
the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on
schedule.
10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for making
do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to
your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular
attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the Tutor-Marked

Assignment form and also on the written assignment. Consult your
tutor as soon as possible if you have any question or problems.
11. After completing the last unit, review the Course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives. (Listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
Course objectives (listed in the Course Guide).
FACILITATORS/TUTORSANDTUTORIALS
There are 8hours of tutorials provided in support of this Course. You

will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials,
together with the name and phone numbers of your tutor, as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on
your assignment, keep a close watch on your progress and on any
difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during
the course. You must mail your tutor marked assignments to your tutor
well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They
will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail for discussion.

Contact your tutor if:
 You do not understand any part of the study units or the

assignment
 You have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises
 You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your
tutor’s
Comments on an assignment, or with the grading of an assignment.
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance
for face to face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem you encounter in the
course of your study. To gain maximum benefit from course tutorials,
prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from
participating and discussing actively. Best wishes.
ix
MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY………. 1
Unit 1 Basic concepts of anatomy and physiology….. 1

Unit 2 Structure of the cell………………………….. 7
Unit 3 Levels of organization of the human system… 23
Unit 4 Anatomical structure of skin, ear and eyes….. 30
MODULE 2 INTRODUCTION TO BODY SYSTEMS… 45
Unit 1 Overview of the Skeletal System…………….. 45

Unit 2 Composition and types of Bone……………… 52
Unit 3 Axial Skeleton and Appendicular Skeleton….. 56
Unit 4 Muscles as associated organs of the Skeletal
System……………………………………….. 69
MODULE 3 NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM………………………………… 75
Unit 1 Overview of the Nervous System………….. 75

Unit 2 Structure of the Brain and Blood supply…… 85
Unit 3 Spinal Cord and Associated Nerves……….. 99
Unit 4 Integration of Central Nervous with
other systems………………………………. 109
Unit 5 The Endocrine glands and other
secretory organs……………………………. 114
MODULE 4 THE RESPIRATORY AND

DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS………………… 124
Unit 1 Overview of the Respiratory System……… 124

Unit 2 The structure of the Respiratory System….. 129
Unit 3 Overview of the Digestive System………… 140
Unit 4 The structure and function of the
Digestive System………………………….. 144
Unit 5 Pelvic organs…………………………….... 152
MODULE 5 THE CIRCULATORY AND
URINARY SYSTEMS………………………. 165
Unit 1 Overview of the Circulatory System…………. 165

Unit 2 The Heart, Blood formation and
Blood vessels…………………………………. 182
Unit 3 Introduction to Urinary System………………. 187
Unit 4 The structure of the Kidney…………………… 192
Unit 5 The Immune System…………………… …….. 198
PHS 201 MODULE 1
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY
Unit 1 Basic concepts of Anatomy and Physiology

Unit 2 Structure of the Cell
Unit 3 Levels of organization of the Human Body Systems
Unit 4 Anatomy of the Skin, Ear and Eyes
UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Anatomy and Physiology
3.2 Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology
3.3 Divisions of Anatomy
3.4 Divisions of Physiology
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
You have gone through the basic biology course where you learnt that
all living things share basic characteristics, some of which include the
following: Movement, Reproduction, Nutrition, Irritability, Growth,
Excretion and Respiration. The basic Biology includes Anatomy and
Physiology as sub-specialties. These are biological subjects with slightly
different perspectives, which we shall study in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Define Anatomy
 Define Physiology
 Describe the various specialties of each discipline
 Explain the relationship between Anatomy & Physiology.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy is the science that deals with the structure of the body. It is
derived from a Greek word meaning “cutting up” or “taking apart.”
Anatomy is the oldest basic medical science. “The nature of the body is
the beginning of medical science.” (Keith L. Moore) A literal translation
would be “a cutting open” (of the body) for the purpose of studying the
internal and external structure of the body. Anatomy is, therefore, the study
of internal and external structures of the body and the physical
relationships of one part to the other for example how a particular muscle
attaches to the skeleton. Physiology, which also has Greek origin, on the
other hand, is the study of how organisms make use of different parts of the
body to perform their vital functions, which are for the overall benefit of
the body. An example is the study of how a muscle uses the fact of its
leverage on the skeleton to contract and move that part of the body.
Physiology also examines the kind of forces that contracting muscles
exert on the skeleton.
3.2 Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy and physiology are closely integrated both theoretically and

practically. Anatomical information provides clues about probable
functions, and physiological mechanisms can be explained only in terms
of the underlying anatomy. This observation leads to a very important
concept: All specific functions are performed by specific structures.
Anatomists and physiologists approach the relationship between structure
and function from different perspectives.
Carefully read through this simple non-biological analogy.
Assume that this class is made up of anatomists and physiologists, and we

are asked to consider an electric bulb. The anatomists may begin by
describing and measuring the shape of the bulb and, if possible, take it
apart (“dissect it”) and put it back together. The physiologist could then
explain its key structural relationships.
3.3 Divisions of Anatomy
Anatomy can be divided into different specialties based on:
 Degree of structural detail under consideration

 Specific processes
 Medical application
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
On the basis of structural detail we have:
 Microscopic Anatomy
 Gross (Macroscopic) Anatomy
Microscopic Anatomy
Microscopic anatomy deals with structures that cannot be seen without

magnification. The limits of the equipment used determine the boundaries
of microscopic anatomy. For example, with a light microscope, you can
see basic details of cell structure; with an electron microscope, you can
see individual molecules that are only a few nanometres across.
Microscopic Anatomy includes cytology and histology. As we go through
the course, we will consider details at all levels, from macroscopic to
microscopic.
Cytology is the analysis of the structure of individual cells, the simplest

units of life. Cells are composed of chemical substances in various
combinations, and our lives depend on the chemical processes occurring
in the trillion cells in the body.
Histology is the examination of tissues, which are groups of specialized

cells and cell products, that work together to perform specific functions.
Tissues combine to form organs, such as the heart, kidney, liver or brain.
Many organs are easily examined without microscopic anatomy, by using
gross anatomy.
Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic Anatomy) is the examination of

relatively large structures and features usually visible with the unaided
eye. There are many ways to approach gross anatomy:
Surface anatomy: Study of general form and superficial markings.

Surface Anatomy begins when the physician, dentist, or other health
professionals first examine a patient. It is the basis for the physical
examination of the body that forms a part of physical diagnosis.
Regional anatomy: Focuses on anatomical organization of specific areas

of the body, such as the head, neck or trunk
Systemic anatomy: Study of the structure of organ systems, such as the

skeletal system or the muscular system. Organ systems are groups of
organs that function together in a co-ordinated manner. For example the
heart, blood and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system, which
distributes oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. The human body
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
has 11 organ systems, and they will be introduced later in this course.
Developmental anatomy: This deals with the changes in forms that occur
during the period between conception and physical maturity. The study
of these early developmental processes is called Embryology.
Developmental Anatomy, which includes embryology, is the study of
human growth and development. Much can be learned about the structure
and function of adults by studying changes that occur during development
(Moore, 1988).
Other anatomical specialties with focus on clinical settings include:
Mechanical anatomy (anatomical features that change during illness).
Radiographic anatomy (anatomical structures as seen by using

specialised imaging techniques. Radiological Anatomy is the study of the
structure and function of the body using radiographic techniques.
Surgical anatomy (anatomical landmarks important in surgery).
3.4 Divisions of Physiology
As earlier stated, physiology is the study of the function of anatomical

structures. Human physiology is the study of the functions of the human
body. These functions are complex and much more difficult to examine
than most anatomical structures. As a result, there are even more
specialties in Physiology than in Anatomy, which include the following:
Cell physiology: This is the cornerstone of human physiology; it is the

study of the functions of cells. It deals with events at the chemical and
molecular levels.
Special physiology: This is the study of the physiology of special organs.

For example, renal physiology is the study of kidney function.
Systemic physiology: This includes all aspects of the functions of specific

organ systems. Cardiovascular physiology, respiratory physiology and
reproductive physiology are examples of systemic physiology.
Patho-physiology: This is the study of the effects of diseases on organ or

system functions (pathos is the Greek word for “disease”). It may also
be defined as the derangement in normal function that leads to
development of disease. Modern medicine depends on an understanding
of both normal physiology and pathophysiology.
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
4.0 CONCLUSION
Physicians normally use a combination of anatomical and psychological

information when they evaluate patients. Full details in relation to
physiology shall be discussed in Physiology lectures.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit teaches that:
 Human beings share basic characteristics of living things.

 Human anatomy is the study of body structures and the physical
relationship among body parts of human beings.
 Human physiology is the study of the normal functions of the
human body.
 Anatomy and physiology are closely integrated, both theoretically
and practically.
 Modern medicine depends on an understanding of physiology and
anatomy.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
1. Recap the basic functions of all living things.

2. Define anatomy.
3. Define physiology.
ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Basic functions of living things include Movement, Respiration,

Nutrition, Irritability, Growth, and Reproduction.
Name the factors that determine the divisions of anatomy.
Factors that determine divisions in anatomy are:
 Degree of structural detail under consideration

 Specific processes
 Medical application
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Briefly describe the following:
a. Microscopic anatomy.
b. Macroscopic anatomy.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Martini, F.C; Ober, W.C; Garrison, C.W; Welch, K & Hutchings, R.T.
(2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (5th ed.), New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Oxford Concise Medical Dictionary.
Thibodeau, G.A. & Patton, K.T. (1996). Anatomy and Physiology (3rd
ed.), Mosby.
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
UNIT 2 STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cell structure and function
3.2 Cell structure (Animacules and the first microscope)
3.3 Organelles and cell structure (Eukaryotics and
Prokaryotics)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
All living things are composed of cells. Cells are the basic units of life
and all tissues and organs are composed of cells. They are so small that
they must be viewed with a microscope. There are different types of cells.
Cells can either be eukaryotic or prokaryotic. Eukaryotic cells have a
nucleus and membrane bound organelles. Plant and animal cells are
eukaryotes. Plant cells are generally a square shape while animal cells are
usually circular. Plant cells and animal cells have evolved different
organelles to perform specific functions. Plant cells have chloroplasts, a
cell wall and a central vacuole. Animal cells lack these three organelles.
Plant cells have chloroplasts because they make their own food. Plant
cells have a cell wall so that they do not burst when the central vacuole
fills up with water. Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, and lack membrane
bound organelles. They are the oldest cells on earth. Bacteria are
prokaryotes. Prokaryotes often move using special structures such as
flagella or cilia.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Describe cell structure

 State the functions of the cell
 State the parts of a cell and their functions
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cell Structure and Function
Cells were first described by Robert Hooke in his book Micrographia,

published in 1665. Using a microscope, he described the structure of cork
as closely resembling prison chambers or monks’ quarters (there is some
debate about this). He used the term “cell” to describe these hollow
chambers. The Cell Theory was first described in 1839. While the Cell
Theory has been altered and revised, most biologists today list three or
four general characteristics shared by all cells:
1. The cell is the basic unit of life. By definition, anything that is

smaller than a cell is not alive.
2. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
4. All cells, at some point in their life cycle, contain the genetic
material for the entire organism.
The first two characteristics are definitions. The third characteristic was
demonstrated in part by Louis Pasteur’s work through 1862. The fourth
point is subject to controversy; advocates point to the fact that organisms
begin as a single cell with all of the genetic information for the organism
and most divide by mitosis. Opponents point to the loss of genetic
material that occurs during meiosis, although the loss is of copies of
genes. The cells still have all of the genetic information.
3.1.1 Different Types of Cells
While cells do share many traits in common, there are differences. The
cells that make up a tree are not the same as the ones that make up a dog.
Even within the same organism, there are different types of cells. Your
skin cells are different from muscle cells, or bone cells, or blood cells.
Like organisms, cells can be characterized by their traits. Two common
methods of distinguishing cells are by their feeding mechanisms and
internal structure.
3.1.2 Cell Feeding Mechanisms
Cells must acquire nutrients and eliminate waste products. This can be
done in different ways. Some cells are capable of producing food from
the raw materials in the cell. This type of cell is called an autotrophic cell.
The word Autotroph literally translates as “self-feeding”. Most
autotrophic cells on earth are photosynthetic, although in areas where
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
light is not available (ocean bottoms, deep caves underground, etc.)

autotrophs carry out chemosynthesis. Some examples of autotrophic cells
are plants, algae, and some bacteria. Other cells must acquire their
nutrients from other cells. This type of cell is called a heterotrophic cell.
Heterotroph literally means “other feeding”. These cells must be able to
capture and take in other food stuffs. Some examples of heterotrophic
cells include animals, fungi, and some bacteria. There are a few groups of
organisms which are mixotrophs. These organisms, such as protists like
Euglena, have the capability to photosynthesize when light is available
and switch to predation when light is not available.
3.2 Cell Structure
Cells also vary based on complexity and structure. The first cells were
relatively simple in structure and complexity. They are still present and
actually outnumber the more complex cells you may be more familiar
with. The first cells are termed prokaryotic (literally “before kernel”,
meaning before the nucleus). These cells are generally smaller and less
active. Usually, prokaryotic cells utilize some form of anaerobic
respiration. They have no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Their
single loop of DNA is termed a nucleoid, but is not isolated from the
cytoplasm by a membrane. Prokaryotic cells do have cytoplasm,
ribosomes, cell walls, cell membranes and their associated materials.
Today, two of the three domains of life are prokaryotic: Archaea and
Bacteria (some scientists term this group Eubacter or Eubacteria). The
second type of cell is termed eukaryotic (literally “true kernel” or having
a true nucleus). These cells are larger and more complex. Membrane-
bound organelles “compartmentalize” parts of the cell for specific
functions. These cells can carry out anaerobic respiration, but most also
carry out aerobic respiration due to the greater energy yield per molecule
of glucose. Eukaryotic cells are found in the domain Eukarya. Remember
though, while eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex, they are not
“better” than prokaryotic, just different. Today, there is more prokaryotic
biomass on earth than eukaryotic biomass.
These are two different ways to distinguish cell types. They are not related
to each other. So do not fall into the trap some students succumb to by
linking autotroph/heterotroph with prokaryotic/eukaryotic cells. There
are cells that are prokaryotic and autotrophic (some primitive algae),
prokaryotic and heterotrophic (bacteria), eukaryotic and autotrophic
(most plants), eukaryotic and heterotrophic (animals). Additionally, there
are other ways to distinguish cell types that your instructor may discuss.
Current theory is that eukaryotic cells arose from prokaryotic ancestors.
Lynn Margulis worked on this concept. Her Endosymbiotic Theory is one
9
PHS 201 ANATOMY
of the mainstays of cell biology. The Endosymbiotic Theory is an attempt

to explain how a prokaryotic cell could have evolved into a eukaryotic
cell. Most textbooks have a discussion on this; look in your index for
“Lynn Margulis” or “endosymbiosis”. Basically, a prokaryotic
heterotroph ingests a prokaryotic autotroph and does not immediately
digest it (there is a lag time between ingestion and digestion, which is why
you may feel uncomfortable for a short time after a large meal). During
this time, the autotroph will continue to function close to normal. Food
poisoning works in a similar manner: the bacteria keep producing toxins
until they are destroyed by the digestive system. If the autotroph produced
nutrients that leaked into the heterotrophic host, the digestive processes
could have been delayed further and further, until a symbiotic relationship
developed. The predator (heterotroph) is provided with nutrients, while
the prey (autotroph) is provided with shelter and raw materials. There is
some support for Margulis’ theory. Organelles such as chloroplasts and
mitochondria are about the same size as modern day prokaryotes, have
their own DNA, and are capable of dividing separately from the nucleus
and rest of the cell.
3.2.1 Animalcules and the First Microscopes
A. Early Microscopists
1. Galileo saw details of insect eyes with two crude lenses.

2. Robert Hooke used simple lenses to observe cork in which he saw
tiny compartments he called cells (cellulae).
3. van Leeuwenhoek saw protistans, sperm, and bacteria with his
lenses and microscopes.
B. The Cell Theory
1. Schleiden (a botanist) and Schwann (a zoologist): believed that all

plants and animals consist of cells.
2. Virchow: cells come from pre-existing cells.
C. The Cell Theory: three generalizations:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the smallest unit having the properties of life.
3. The continuity of life arises directly from the growth and division
of single cells.
3.2.2 Structural Organization of Cells
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
1. The cell is the smallest entity that still retains the characteristics
of life.
2. All cells have three basic parts:
a. A plasma membrane separates each cell from the
environment, permits the flow of molecules across the
membrane, and contains receptors that can affect the
cell’s activities.
b. A DNA-containing region occupies a portion of the
interior.
c. The cytoplasm contains membrane-bound compartments
(except bacteria), particles, and filaments & end ash; all
bathed in a semifluid substance.
3. Eukaryotic cells are defined by their possession of a membrane-

bound nucleus.
4. Prokaryotic cells have no defined nucleus; the only
representatives are bacteria.
Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membranes
1. The "fluid" portion of the cell membrane is made of

phospholipids.
a. A phospholipid molecule is composed of a hydrophilic head and
two hydrophobic tails.
b. If phospholipid molecules are surrounded by water, their
hydrophobic fatty acid tails cluster and a bilayer results;
hydrophilic heads are at the outer faces of a two-layer sheet.
c. Bilayers of phospholipids are the structural foundation for all cell
membranes.
2. Within a bilayer, phospholipids show quite a bit of movement; they
diffuse sideways, spin, and flex their tails to prevent close packing
and promote fluidity, which also results from short-tailed lipids
and unsaturated tails (kink at double bonds).
Overview of Membrane Proteins
1. A variety of different proteins are embedded in the bilayer or

positioned at its two surfaces.
2. Membrane proteins serve as transport proteins, receptor proteins,
recognition proteins, and adhesion proteins.
Cell Size and Cell Shape
Because of their small size, most cells can only be seen by using light
and electron microscopes. Cell size must be small; remember surface-to-
11
PHS 201 ANATOMY
volume ratio! A cell that is too large will not be able to move materials
into and out of the cell.
3.3 Organelles and Cell Structures
Cells, especially eukaryotic ones, are complex structures made of smaller

parts called organelles (literally – “little organ”). Most textbooks have a
summary table or diagram at the end of the cell chapter covering these
organelles. What follows is a brief overview of most of the major
organelles and other structures found in cells as well as a brief description
for each. This is not meant to be totally comprehensive (here all ribosomes
treated together) or exclusive (there are a variety of different structures in
the cell membrane)
Figure 1: Organelles and Cell Structures
Cell Wall: Technically is not part of the living cell since it is outside the
membrane. It provides rigid structural support in plant, fungi, some algae,
and prokaryotic cells. The thickness and chemical composition of cell
walls can vary between organisms.
Cell membrane: This is the barrier between the living part of the cell and
the nonliving environment. It is a selective barrier, allowing some
materials but not others to pass. Water and small particles can slip through
the phospholipid bilayer while larger and more complex materials must
pass through one of the protein channels embedded in the membrane. All
cells have membranes.
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
Cytoplasm: The fluid matrix of the cell. The cytoplasm contains

dissolved ions and other materials, allows for the movement of materials
within the cell, and allow for movement of organelles during cyclosis. All
living cells have cytoplasm.
Nucleus: The nucleus is the “control center” of the cell. The DNA is
stored in the nucleus. The DNA is the set of instructions for the cell to
function, not only for reproduction, but enzymes and other functions.
Only eukaryotic cells have a nucleus.
Plastids: These are structures related to photosynthesis. Different

pigments trigger different functions. Chloroplasts are the site of
photosynthesis, chromoplasts may be photosynthetic and/or related to
seed dispersal, leucoplasts store starch. All plastids begin as protoplasts
before differentiation. Only autotrophs have plastids.
Mitochondrion: The powerhouse of the cell, the site of aerobic

respiration. Pyruvate is broken down in the Krebs cycle and
chemiosmosis then produces ATP from ADP and phosphate in the
presence of oxygen. All eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria.
Vacuole: These membranous sacs have many functions. Material can be

transported within the cell, from one organelle to another. Vacuoles can
take materials to the membrane for expulsion, or can be formed at the
membrane to bring materials into the cell. Plants and eukaryotic algae
have a large central vacuole to store metabolic waste and water.
Heterotrophs produce vacuoles containing digestive enzymes to break
down food particles (called lysosomes). All cells can have vacuoles, but
number and types can vary.
Endoplasmic reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle that

extends throughout the cell. It may be smooth (no ribosomes) or rough
(with ribosomes) and is associated with packaging, synthesis, and
transport of materials in the cell. These are found in eukaryotic cells.
Golgi Bodies: Stacks of membranes within the cell. They package

materials and form vesicles for transport out of the cell. Eukaryotic cells
have Golgi Bodies.
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are not organelles, but structures of the cell. They
are in the cytoplasm, on rough endoplasmic reticulum and in the nucleus.
One of the primary roles of ribosomes is the location of protein synthesis.
All cells possess ribosomes.
Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton is made of three different structures:

microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. They are
13
PHS 201 ANATOMY
responsible for maintaining the internal shape of the cell, acting as a

framework for all the other parts. The cytoskeleton also assists in the
movement of organelles and materials in cyclosis and they form the
spindle structure during cell division. The cytoskeleton is present in all
cells.
The largest cells are nerve cells. The giant squid has nerve cells over 12
meters in length while in humans the longest nerve cell is 1.5 meters. The
smallest cell is a bacterium measuring 0.1 microns. The smallest human
cells are sperm cells (40 microns). The most massive cell is the ostrich
egg, weighing up to 1.4 kg.
Figure 2: Cell Structure
3.3. 1 Cell Membrane
Cells have many structures inside of them called organelles. These

organelles are like the organs in a human and they help the cell stay alive.
Each organelle has its own specific function to help the cell survive. The
nucleus of a eukaryotic cell directs the cell’s activities and stores DNA.
Eukaryotes also have a Golgi apparatus that packages and distributes
proteins. Mitochondria are the power house of the cell and provide the
cell with energy. Both plant and animal cells have mitochondria.
Lysosomes are like the stomach of the cell. They contain enzymes that
14
PHS 201 MODULE 1
digest the cell’s used parts. All of the cell’s organelles must work together
to keep the cell healthy.
The cell membrane is the protective barrier that surrounds the cell and
prevents unwanted material from getting into it. The cell membrane has
many functions, but one main function that it has is to transport materials
(salts, electrolytes, glucose and other necessary molecules) into the cell to
support necessary life functions. Not only does the membrane let
molecules into the cell, but it also lets wastes such as carbon dioxide out
of the cell. The cell membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer. Each
phospholipid contains a hydrophilic, or water-loving head and a
hydrophobic, or water-fearing tail. These properties that the
phospholipids have and their specific orientation provide the cell with a
selectively permeable barrier.
Table 1: Cell Structure and Function
Experiences Pattern Explanations

-a structure holds -some cell -The cell and its
all of the parts of structures are constituent parts are very
the factory in place responsible for small and difficult to grasp
(cytoplasm) support of the cell the concept of. A model of
-an outside wall (the physical a factory is used to
gives a concrete building of the simulate the functions of
area to the factory factory) the cell structures.
(cell wall) -cell structures that
-metal beams keep are responsible for
the factory strong transport, disposal,
(cytoskeleton) and production (the
-something takes workers of the
out the trash and factory)
cleans up -allow movement in
(lysosome) and out (the loading
-a trash can docks of the
collects the stuff factory)
until garbage day -contain
(vacuole) information vital to
-assembly workers the cell (the
make a product foremen, or bosses
(ribosomes) in the factory
-other workers
check the work and
move it on (E.R.)
-packagers box
everything up and
15
PHS 201 ANATOMY
send it out (Golgi

Body)
-information goes
to the workers
from the bosses
through the offices
(nuclear
membrane)
-materials come in
and products go
out (cell
membrane)
-info. on how to
make stuff is
issued out
(mitochondrion,
chloroplast,
nucleus)
3.3.2 The Defining Features of Eukaryotic Cells
A. Major Cellular Components
1. Organelles form compartmentalized portions of the cytoplasm.

2. All eukaryotic cells contain organelles.
a. The nucleus controls access to DNA and permits easier

packing of DNA during cell division.
b. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) modifies newly formed
polypeptide chains and is also involved with lipid synthesis.
c. The Golgi body modifies, sorts, and ships proteins; they
also play a role in the synthesis of lipids for secretion or
internal use.
d. Vesicles transport material between organelles and function
in intracellular digestion.
e. Mitochondria are efficient factories of ATP production.
3. Cells also contain non-membranous structures:
a. Ribosomes, "free" or attached to membranes, participate in

assembly of polypeptide chains.
b. The cytoskeleton helps to determine cell shape, internal
organization, and movements.
16
PHS 201 MODULE 1
4. Organelles separate reactions with respect to time (allowing proper

sequencing) and space (allowing incompatible reactions to occur
in close proximity).
The Nucleus
A. Nucleus isolates DNA, which contains the code for protein

assembly, from the sites (ribosomes in cytoplasm) where proteins
will be assembled.
1. Localization of the DNA makes it easier to sort out hereditary

instructions when the time comes for a cell to divide.
2. The membranous boundary of the nucleus helps control the
exchange of signals and substances between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.
B. Nuclear Envelope
1. The nuclear envelope consists of two lipid bilayers with pores.

2. It surrounds the nucleoplasm within.
3. On the inner surface are attachment sites for protein filaments that
anchor the DNA molecules and keep them organized.
C. Nucleolus
1. Located within the nucleus, the nucleolus appears as a darker

globular mass.
2. It is a region where subunits of ribosomes are prefabricated before
shipment out of the nucleus.
D. Chromosomes
1. Chromatin refers to the cell’s total collection of DNA and

associated proteins.
2. A chromosome is an individual DNA molecule and its associated
proteins.
3. DNA is duplicated and condensed before cell division occurs.
E. What Happens to the Proteins Specified by DNA?
1. Some of the polypeptide chains assembled on the ribosomes are

stockpiled in the cytoplasm.
17
PHS 201 ANATOMY
2. Others pass through the cytomembrane system, where they take on

their final form and become packaged in vesicles for use within the
cell or for export.
The Cytomembrane System
A. Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. The endoplasmic reticulum is a collection of interconnected tubes

and flattened sacs that begin at the nucleus and ramble through the
cytoplasm.
2. There are two types distinguished by the presence or absence of
ribosomes:
a. Rough ER consists of stacked, flattened sacs with many

ribosomes attached; oligosaccharide groups are attached to
polypeptides as they pass through on their way to other
organelles or to secretory vesicles.
b. Smooth ER has no ribosomes; it is the area from which
vesicles carrying proteins and lipids are budded; it also
inactivates harmful chemicals.
B. Golgi Bodies
1. In the Golgi bodies, proteins and lipids undergo final processing,

sorting, and packaging.
2. The membranes of the Golgi are arranged in stacks of flattened
sacs whose edges break away as vesicles.
C. Variety of Vesicles
1. Lysosomes are vesicles that bud from Golgi bodies; they carry
powerful enzymes that can digest the contents of other vesicles,
worn-out cell parts, or bacteria and foreign particles.
2. Peroxisomes are vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids and amino acids; the hydrogen peroxide released is
degraded by another enzyme.
Mitochondria
A. Mitochondria are the primary organelles for transferring the

energy in carbohydrates to ATP under oxygen-plentiful
conditions.
B. Hundreds of thousands of mitochondria occur in cells.

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PHS 201 MODULE 1
1. It has two membranes, an inner folded membrane (cristae)

surrounded by a smooth outer membrane.
2. Inner and outer compartments formed by the membranes are
important in energy transformations.
3. Mitochondria have their own DNA and some ribosomes, a fact
which points to the possibility that they were once independent
entities.
Specialized Plant Organelles
A. Chloroplasts and Other Plastids
1. Chloroplasts are oval or disk shaped, bounded by a double

membrane and critical to the process of photosynthesis.
a. In the stacked disks (grana), pigments and enzymes trap

sunlight energy to form ATP.
b. Sugars are formed in the fluid substance (stroma)
surrounding the stacks.
c. Pigments such as chlorophyll (green) confer distinctive
colors to the chloroplasts.
2. Chromoplasts have carotenoids, which impart red-to-yellow

colors to plant parts, but no chlorophyll.
3. Amyloplasts have no pigments; they store starch grains in plant
parts such as potato tubers.
B. Central Vacuole
1. In the mature plant, the central vacuole may occupy 50 to 90% of

the cell interior!
a. Stores amino acids, sugars, ions, and wastes.

b. Enlarges during growth and greatly increases the cell’s outer
surface area.
2. The cytoplasm is forced into a very narrow zone between the

central vacuole and the plasma membrane.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
The Cytoskeleton
A. Main Components
1. The cytoskeleton is an interconnected system of fibers, threads,

and lattices that extends between the nucleus and the plasma
membrane.
2. It gives cells their internal organization, overall shape, and
capacity to move.
3. The main components are microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments: all assembled from protein subunits.
4. Some portions are transient, such as the "spindle" microtubules

used in chromosome movement during cell division; others are
permanent, such as filaments operational in muscle contraction.
B. The Structural Basis of Cell Movements
1. Through the controlled assembly and disassembly of their

subunits, microtubules and microfilaments grow or shrink in
length (example: movement of chromosomes).
2. Microfilaments or microtubules actively slide past one another
(example: muscle movement).
3. Microtubules or microfilaments shunt organelles from one location
to another (example: cytoplasmic streaming).
C. Flagella and Cilia
1. Flagella are quite long, are usually not numerous, and are found
on one-celled protistans and animal sperm cells.
2. Cilia are shorter and more numerous and can provide locomotion
for free-living cells or may move surrounding water and particles
if the ciliated cell is anchored.
3. Both of these extensions of the plasma membrane have a 9 + 2
cross-sectional array (arising from centrioles) and are useful in
propulsion.
Cell Surface Specializations
A. Eukaryotic Cell Walls
1. Many single-celled eukaryotes have a cell wall, a supportive and

protective structure outside the plasma membrane
2. Microscopic pores allow water and solute passage to and from
underlying plasma membrane.
20
PHS 201 MODULE 1
3. In plants, bundles of cellulose strands form the primary cell wall,

which is more pliable than the more rigid secondary wall that is
laid down inside it later.
4. Plasmodesmata are the channels that cross the adjacent walls to

connect the cytoplasm of neighboring cells.
B. Matrices between Animal Cells
1. This is a meshwork that holds animal cells and tissues together

and influences how the cells will divide and metabolize.
2. Cartilage consists of cells and proteins (collagen and elastin)
scattered in a ground substance (modified polysaccharides).
C. Cell-to-Cell Junctions
1. At tissue surfaces, cells link together to form a barrier between the

interior and exterior.
2. Three cell-to-cell junctions are common.
a. Tight junctions link cells of epithelial tissues to form seals.
b. Adhering junctions are like spot welds in tissues subject to
stretching.
c. Gap junctions link the cytoplasm of adjacent cells; they form
communication channels.
3.3.3 Prokaryotic Cells: The Bacteria
A. The term prokaryotic (literally, "before the nucleus") indicates

existence of bacteria before evolution of cells with a nucleus;
bacterial DNA is clustered in a distinct region of the cytoplasm.
B. Bacteria are some of the smallest and simplest cells.
1. A somewhat rigid cell wall supports the cell and surrounds the
plasma membrane, which regulates transport into and out of the
cell.
2. Ribosomes, protein assembly sites, are dispersed throughout the
cytoplasm.
3. Bacterial flagella (without a 9+2 array) provide movement; pili on
the cell surface help bacteria attach to surfaces and one another.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Cells also vary based on complexity and structure. The first cells were
relatively simple in structure and complexity. They are still present and
21
PHS 201 ANATOMY
actually outnumber the more complex cells you may be more familiar
with. The first cells are termed prokaryotic (literally “before kernel”,
meaning before the nucleus). These cells are generally smaller and less
active. Usually, prokaryotic cells utilize some form of anaerobic
respiration. They have no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Their
single loop of DNA is termed a nucleoid, but is not isolated from the
cytoplasm by a membrane. Prokaryotic cells do have cytoplasm,
ribosomes, cell walls, cell membranes and their associated materials.
Today, two of the three domains of life are prokaryotic: Archaea and
Bacteria (some scientists term this group Eubacter or Eubacteria). The
second type of cell is termed eukaryotic (literally “true kernel” or having
a true nucleus). These cells are larger and more complex. Membrane-
bound organelles “compartmentalize” parts of the cell for specific
functions. These cells can carry out anaerobic respiration, but most also
carry out aerobic respiration due to the greater energy yield per molecule
of glucose.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have described cell structure and functions in details. We

learnt about the organelles, their functions, as well as the features of
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
1. Define a cell with examples

2. Describe the functions of a cell
3. Compare and contrast Eukaryotics and Prokaryotics
4. Relate cell parts/organelles to their function.
(2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (5th ed), New
Oxford Concise Medical Dictionary. E. A. Martins Ed.
ed.), Mosby
22
UNIT 3 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN
BODY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Different Levels of Human Body Organization
3.2 Interrelationships of Levels of Human Body Organization
3.3 Organ Systems in the Body
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
To study the chemical level of organization, scientists consider the

simplest building blocks of matter: subatomic particles, atoms and
molecules. All matter in the universe is composed of one or more unique
pure substances called elements, familiar examples of which are
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron. The smallest
stable unit of any of these pure substances (elements) is an atom. Atoms
are made up of subatomic particles such as the proton, electron and
neutron. Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, such as the
water molecules, proteins, and sugars found in living things. Molecules
are the chemical building blocks of all body structures.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Give an overview of the microscopic anatomy of the human body

 Describe the basic gross anatomy of each organ system in the body
 Describe the several independent levels of organization in the
body
 Identify the six levels of organization of the body.
PHS 201 ANATOMY
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Different Levels of Organization
1. The Chemical or Molecular Level:
Atoms, the smallest stable units of matter, can combine to form

molecules with complex shapes. Even at this simplest level, the
specialized shape of a molecule determines its function.
Figure 3: Typical Mammalian cell (Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica

Inc. 1999)
2. The Cellular Level: Molecules can interact to form organelles such as

the protein filaments found in muscle cells. Each type of organelle has
specific functions. For example, interactions among protein filaments
produce the contractions of muscle cells in the heart. Cells are the
smallest living units in the body, and organelles are their structural and
functional components.
3. The Tissue Level: A tissue is a group of cells working together to

perform one or more specific functions. Heart muscle cells, or cardiac
muscle cells, interact with other cell types and with extracellular
materials to form muscle tissues.
4. The Organ Level: Organs consist of two or more tissues working in

combination to perform several functions. Layers of cardiac muscle
24
PHS 201 MODULE 1
tissue, in combination with connective tissue, another tissue type, form

the bulk of the wall of the heart, a hollow three-dimensional organ.
5. The Organ System Level: Organs interact in organ systems. Each

time the heart contracts, it pushes blood into a network of blood vessels.
Together the heart, blood and blood vessels form the cardiovascular
system, one of 11 organ systems of the body.
6. The Organism Level: All organ systems of the body work together to
maintain life and health. This brings us to the highest level of
organization, that of the organism – in this case, the human being.
3.2 Interrelationships of the Levels of Organization
The organization at each level determines the characteristics and

functions of higher levels. For example, the arrangement of atoms and
molecules at the chemical level creates the protein filaments that, at the
cellular level, give cardiac muscle cells the ability to contract powerfully.
At the tissue level, these cells are linked, forming the cardiac muscle
tissue. The structure of the tissue ensures that the contractions are
coordinated, producing a heart-beat. When that beat occurs, the internal
anatomy of the heart, an organ, enables it to function as a pump. The heart
is filled with blood and connected to the blood vessels and the pumping
action circulates to the blood vessels, of the cardiovascular system. By
interacting with the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and other systems, the
cardiovascular system performs a variety of functions essential to the
survival of the organism. Something that affects a system will ultimately
affect each component. For example, the heart cannot pump blood
effectively after a massive blood loss. If the heart cannot pump and blood
cannot flow, oxygen and nutrients cannot be distributed. Very soon, the
cardiac muscle tissue begins to break down as individual muscle tissue
cells die from oxygen and nutrient starvation. All cells, tissues, and
organs in the body will be damaged.
3.3 Organs/Systems in the Body
This is an introduction to the organ systems in the human body. These

organ systems are interdependent, interconnected, and packaged together
in a relatively small space. The cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems
of the body live together in a shared environment, like the inhabitants of
a large city. Just as city dwellers breathe the city air and drink the water
provided by the local water company, cells in the human body absorb
oxygen and nutrients from the fluids that surround them. If a city is
blanketed in smog or its water supply is contaminated, the inhabitants will
become ill. Similarly, if body fluid composition becomes abnormal, cells
25
PHS 201 ANATOMY
will be injured or destroyed. Suppose the temperature or salt content of

the blood changes, the effect on the heart could range from a minor
adjustment (heart muscle tissue contracts more often, so the heart rate
goes up) to a total disaster (the heart stops beating, so the individual dies).
Various physiological mechanisms act to prevent potentially damaging
changes in the composition of body fluid and the environment inside our
cells.
Homeostasis
(homeo, unchanging + stasis, standing) refers to the existence of a stable

internal environment. To survive, every organism must maintain
homeostasis.
Table 2: Organ/System and functions
Organs/Systems Functions
Integumentary System Protects against environmental hazards
Epidermis Covers surfaces and protects deeper structures
Dermis Nourishes epidermis; provides strength for skin
Produce hair, innervation and sensation; protection

Hair follicles
for head
Secretes lipid coating that lubricates hair shaft and

Sebaceous glands
epidermis
Sweat glands Provides perspiration for evaporative cooling
Nails Protect and stiffen distal tips of digits
Provide sensation of touch, pressure, temperature,

Sensory receptors
pain. Store lipid; attach skin to deeper structures
Protects tissues, stores minerals, forms blood,

Skeletal System
provides support for the body
Bones and cartilages

Support and protect soft tissues and store minerals
and joints
Axial skeleton (Skull, Protects brain, spinal cord, sense organs and soft
Vertebrae, Sacrum, tissues of thoracic cavity; supports weight.
Ribs, Sternum,
26
PHS 201 MODULE 1
sacrum, cartilages
and ligaments)
Appendicular
skeleton (Limbs and Provides internal support and positioning of the
supporting bones and limbs; support and move axial skeleton
ligaments)
Acts as primary site of blood cell production (red

Bone marrow
and white cells)
Produces skeletal movement; control entrances and

Skeletal muscles exits of digestive tract; produce heat; supports
skeletal positioning; protects soft tissues
Acts as control centre for the nervous system;

Central nervous system processes information; provides short-term control
over activities of other systems
Perform complex integrative functions; controls

Brain both voluntary and involuntary (autonomic)
activities
Relays information to and from the brain; performs

Spinal cord less complex integrative functions and directs
man’s simple involuntary activities
Takes impulses from peripheral parts of the body

Peripheral nervous system to the spinal cord and takes responses back to other
parts of the body
May control timing of reproduction and set day-

Pineal gland
night rhythms
Controls other endocrine glands; regulates growth

Pituitary gland
and fluid balance
Thyroid gland Controls tissue metabolic rate
Parathyroid glands Regulates calcium metabolism and levels
Adjusts water balance, tissue metabolism,

Thymus gland
cardiovascular and respiratory activities
27
PHS 201 ANATOMY
Control red blood cell production and elevates

Adrenal glands
blood pressure
Transport cells and dissolved materials including

Kidneys
nutrients, wastes and gases
Pancreas Regulates blood glucose levels
Support male sexual characteristics and

Testes
reproductive functions
Support female sexual characteristics and

Ovaries
reproductive functions
Responsible for circulation of blood throughout the

Cardiovascular System
body
Heart Propels blood and maintains blood pressure
Blood vessels Distribute blood around the body
Arteries Carry blood from the heart to the capillaries
Permit diffusion between blood and interstitial

Capillaries
fluids
Veins Returns blood from capillaries to the heart
Transport oxygen, carbon dioxide and blood cells;

delivers nutrients and hormones to tissues; removes
Blood
waste products; assists in temperature regulation
and defence against disease.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The relationship at each level determines the characteristics and functions

of different organs in the human body.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit shows that there are six (6) levels of organization of the body,
with certain levels of relationships among these various levels of
28
PHS 201 MODULE 1
organization. It also shows the structure and functions of the systems in

the body as well as homeostasis.
List the six levels of organization in the human body.
The six levels are:
1. Chemical or molecular level

2. Cellular level
3. Tissue level
4. Organ level
5. Organ system level
6. Organism level
1. Define homeostasis.
2. Mention three characteristics of the organ system.
1. Homeostasis refers to the existence of a stable internal

environment. To survive, every organism must maintain
homeostasis.
2. Three characteristics of organ systems
i. Interdependent
ii. Interconnected
iii. Packaged together

Enumerate the levels of human body organization.

(2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (5th ed.), New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Oxford Concise Medical Dictionary, E.
A. Martins ed.
ed.), Mosby.
29
PHS 201 ANATOMY
UNIT 4 ANATOMY OF SKIN, EAR AND EYES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Anatomy of the skin
3.2 Anatomy of the ear
3.3 Anatomy of the eye
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The integumentary system consists of the skin, which is the largest organ
of the body. Alterations in the skin will affect the overall wellbeing of an
individual. The skin is a highly underestimated organ. It performs
many vital functions, and has a complex structure. The ear is the organ
of hearing and balance. The parts of the ear include the external or outer
ear, consisting of the pinna or auricle and the external auditory canal or
tube. This is the tube that connects the outer ear to the inside or middle
ear. Hearing starts with the outer ear. The human eye is a specialised sense
organ that is capable of receiving visual images, which are then carried to
the brain.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Describe the anatomical structure and functions of

human skin
human ear
human eyes
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Anatomical structures of the skin
The skin is an organ because it consists of different tissues that are joined
to perform specific activities. It is one of the largest organs of the body in
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
surface area and weight. In adults, the skin covers an area of about 2
square meters, and weighs 4.5 to 5 kg. It ranges in thickness from 0.5 to
4.0 mm, depending on the location. The skin is not just a simple, thin coat
that keeps the body together and provides protection, it performs several
essential functions. Dermatology is the medical specialty that deals with
diagnosing and treating skin disorders. Structurally, the skin consists of
two principal parts. The outer thinner portion, which is composed of
epithelium, is called the epidermis. The epidermis is attached to the inner,
thicker, connective tissue part called the dermis. Beneath the dermis is a
subcutaneous (subcut) layer. This layer, also called the superficial fascia
or hypodermis, consists of areola and adipose tissues. Fibres from
the dermis extend deep into the subcutaneous layer and anchor the skin
to it. The subcutaneous layer, in turn, attaches to underlying tissues and
organs.
3.2 Functions of the Skin
1. Regulation of body temperature
In response to high environmental temperature or strenuous exercise, the

evaporation of sweat from the skin surface helps to lower an elevated
body temperature to normal. In response to low environmental
temperature, production of sweat is decreased, which helps to conserve
heat. Changes in the flow of blood to the skin also help to regulate body
temperature.
Temperature Homeostasis
Being the body’s outermost organ, the skin is able to regulate the body’s
temperature by controlling how the body interacts with its environment.
In the case of the body entering a state of hyperthermia, the skin is able to
reduce body temperature through sweating and vasodilation. Sweat
produced by sudoriferous glands delivers water to the surface of the body
where it begins to evaporate. The sweat that is being evaporated absorbs
heat from the body and so cools the body’s surface. Vasodilation is the
process through which smooth muscle lining the blood vessels in the
dermis relax and allow more blood to enter the skin. Blood transports heat
through the body, pulling heat away from the body’s core and depositing
it in the skin where it can radiate out of the body into the external
environment.
2. Protection
The skin covers the body and provides a physical barrier that protects
underlying tissues from shocks, physical abrasion, bacterial invasion,
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dehydration, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Hair and nails also have
protective functions.
Keratinization
Keratinization, also known as cornification, is the process of keratin

accumulating within keratinocytes. Keratinocytes begin their life as
offspring of the stem cells of the stratum basale. Young keratinocytes
have a cuboidal shape and contain almost no keratin protein at all. As the
stem cells multiply, they push older keratinocytes towards the surface of
the skin and into the superficial layers of the epidermis. By the time
keratinocytes reach the stratum spinosum, they have begun to accumulate
a significant amount of keratin and have become harder, flatter, and more
water resistant. As the keratinocytes reach the stratum granulosum, they
have become much flatter and are almost completely filled with keratin.
At this point the cells are so far removed from the nutrients that diffuse
from the blood vessels in the dermis that the cells go through the process
of apoptosis. Apoptosis is programmed cell death where the cell digests
its own nucleus and organelles, leaving only a tough, keratin-filled shell
behind. Dead keratinocytes moving into the stratum lucidum and stratum
corneum are very flat, hard, and tightly packed so as to form a keratin
barrier to protect the underlying tissues.
Protection
The skin provides protection to its underlying tissues from pathogens,

mechanical damage, and UV light. Pathogens, such as viruses and
bacteria, are unable to enter the body through unbroken skin due to the
outermost layers of epidermis containing an unending supply of tough,
dead keratinocytes. This protection explains the necessity of cleaning and
covering cuts and scrapes with bandages to prevent infection. Minor
mechanical damage from rough or sharp objects is mostly absorbed by
the skin before it can damage the underlying tissues. Epidermal cells
reproduce constantly to quickly repair any damage to the skin.
Melanocytes in the epidermis produce the pigment melanin, which
absorbs UV light before it can pass through the skin. UV light can cause
cells to become cancerous if not blocked from entering the body.
1. Skin Colour
Human skin colour is controlled by the interaction of 3 pigments:

melanin, carotene, and haemoglobin. Melanin is a brown or black pigment
produced by melanocytes to protect the skin from UV radiation. Melanin
gives skin its tan or brown coloration and provides the colour of brown or
black hair. Melanin production increases as the skin is exposed to higher
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levels of UV light resulting in tanning of the skin. Carotene is another

pigment present in the skin that produces a yellow or orange cast to the
skin and is most noticeable in people with low levels of melanin.
Haemoglobin is another pigment most noticeable in people with little
melanin. Haemoglobin is the red pigment found in red blood cells, but
can be seen through the layers of the skin as a light red or pink colour.
Haemoglobin is most noticeable in skin coloration during times of
vasodilation when the capillaries of the dermis are open to carry more
blood to the skin’s surface.
2. Sensation
The skin contains abundant nerve endings and receptors that detect
stimuli related to temperature, touch, pressure, and pain and relate the
information to the nervous system.
3. Cutaneous Sensation
The skin allows the body to sense its external environment by picking up
signals for touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain. Merkel disks
in the epidermis connect to nerve cells in the dermis to detect shapes and
textures of objects contacting the skin. Corpuscles of touch are structures
found in the dermal papillae of the dermis that also detect touch by objects
contacting the skin. Lamellar corpuscles found deep in the dermis sense
pressure and vibration of the skin. Throughout the dermis there are many
free nerve endings that are simply neurons with their dendrites spread
throughout the dermis. Free nerve endings may be sensitive to pain,
warmth, or cold. The density of these sensory receptors in the skin varies
throughout the body, resulting in some regions of the body being more
sensitive to touch, temperature, or pain than other regions.
4. Excretion
Besides removing heat and some water from the body, sweat also is the
vehicle for excretion of a small amount of salts and several organic
compounds by integumentary glands.
In addition to secreting sweat to cool the body, eccrine sudoriferous

glands of the skin also excrete waste products out of the body. Sweat
produced by eccrine sudoriferous glands normally contains mostly water
with many electrolytes and a few other trace chemicals. The most
common electrolytes found in sweat are sodium and chloride, but
potassium, calcium, and magnesium ions may be excreted as well. When
these electrolytes reach high levels in the blood, their presence in sweat
also increases, helping to reduce their presence within the body. In
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
addition to electrolytes, sweat contains and helps to excrete small amounts

of metabolic waste products such as lactic acid, urea, uric acid, and
ammonia. Finally, eccrine sudoriferous glands can help to excrete alcohol
from the body of someone who has been drinking alcoholic beverages.
Alcohol causes vasodilation in the dermis, leading to increased
perspiration as more blood reaches sweat glands. The alcohol in the blood
is absorbed by the cells of the sweat glands, causing it to be excreted along
with the other components of sweat.
5. Storage of nutrients
Lipids are stored in adipose tissues of the dermis and subcutaneous layer
of the body. These are made available to the body when there is depletion
which may be due to starvation.
6. Blood reservoir
The dermis of the skin houses extensive networks of blood vessels that
carry 8 to 10% of the total blood flow in a resting adult. In moderate
exercise, skin blood flow may increase, which helps to dissipate heat from
the body. During strenuous exercise, however, skin blood vessels
constrict (narrow) somewhat, and more blood is able to circulate to
contracting muscles.
7. Synthesis of Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a group of closely related compounds. Synthesis of vitamin

D begins with activation of a precursor molecule in the skin by ultraviolet
(UV) rays in sunlight. The stratum basale and stratum spinosum layers of
the epidermis contain a sterol molecule known as 7-dehydrocholesterol.
Enzymes in the liver and kidneys then modify the molecule, first into
vitamin D3 which is finally converted to calcitriol, the most active form of
vitamin D. Calcitriol contributes to the homeostasis of body fluids by
aiding absorption of calcium in foods. According to the synthesis
sequence just described, vitamin D is a hormone, since it is produced in
one location in the body, transported by the blood, and then exerts its
effect in another location. In this respect, the skin may be considered an
endocrine organ.
3.3 The Epidermis
The epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelium. It contains

four principal types of cells:
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
i. Keratinocytes: About 90% of the epidermal cells are

keratinocytes. They produce the protein keratin that helps
waterproof and protect the skin and underlying tissues.
ii. Melanocytes: They produce the pigment melanin, which comprise
about 8% of the epidermal cells. Their long, slender projections
extend between and transfer granules of melanin to keratinocytes.
Melanin (melan = black) is a brown-black pigment that contributes
to skin colour and absorbs ultraviolet (UV) light.
iii. Langerhans: These are the third type of cell in the epidermis. These
cells arise from bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis. They
interact with white blood cells called helper T cells in immune
responses and are easily damaged by UV radiation.
iv. A fourth type of cell found in the epidermis is called Merkel cells.
These cells are located in the deepest layer (stratum basale) of the
epidermis of hairless skin, where they are attached to keratinocytes
by desmosomes. Merkel cells make contact with the flattened
portion of the ending of a sensory neuron (nerve cell), called a
tactile (Merkel) disc, and are thought to function in the sensation
of touch.
Four or five distinct layers of cells form the epidermis. In most regions of
the body the epidermis is about 0.1 mm thick and has four layers. Where
exposure to friction is greatest, such as in the palms of the hand and soles
of the foot, the epidermis is thicker (l to 2 mm) and has five layers.
Constant exposure of thin or thick skin to friction or pressure stimulates
formation of a callus, an abnormal thickening of the epidermis.
Fig. 4: Structure of Epidermis and Dermis

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/commons/a/a5
The names of the five layers (strata), from the deepest to the most
superficial are:
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
1. Stratum Basale: This single layer of cuboidal to columnar cells

contains stem cells, which are capable of continued cell
division, and Melanocytes. The stratum basale also contains
tactile (Merkel) discs that are sensitive to touch.
2. Stratum Spinosum: This layer of the epidermis contains 8 to
10 rows (sheets) of polyhedral (many sided) cells that fit closely
together. The cells here appear to be covered with prickly spines
(spinosum = prickly) because the cells shrink and pull apart
when the tissue is prepared for microscopic examination.
3. Stratum Granulosum: The third layer of the epidermis

consists of three to five rows of flattened cells that develop
darkly staining granules of a substance called keratohyalin. This
compound is the precursor of keratin, a protein found in the
outer layer of the epidermis. Keratin forms a barrier that
protects deeper layers from injury and microbial invasion and
makes the skin waterproof.
4. Stratum Lucidum: Normally, only the thick skin of the palms

and soles has this layer. It consists of three to five rows of clear,
flat, dead cells that contain droplets of an intermediate
substance that is formed from keratohyalin and is eventually
transformed to keratin.
5. Stratum Corneum: This layer consists of 25 to 30 rows of flat,

dead cells completely filled with keratin. These cells are
continuously shed and replaced by cells from deeper strata. The
stratum corneum serves as an effective barrier against light and
heat waves, bacteria, and many chemicals.
In the process of keratinisation, cells newly formed in the basal layers

undergo a developmental process as they are pushed to the surface. As
the cells relocate, they accumulate keratin. At the same time the
cytoplasm, nucleus, and other organelles disappear, and the cells die.
Eventually, the keratinised cells slough off and are replaced by
underlying cells that, in turn, become keratinised. The whole process
by which a cell forms in the basal layer, rises to the surface, becomes
keratinised, and sloughs off takes two to four weeks. Epidermal growth
factor (EGF) is a protein hormone that stimulates growth of epithelial
and epidermal cells during tissue development, repair, and renewal.
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3.4 The Dermis
The second principal part of the skin, the dermis, is composed of

connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibres. The few cells
in the dermis include fibroblasts, macrophages, and adipocytes. The
dermis is very thick in the palms and soles and very thin in the eyelids,
penis, and scrotum. It also tends to be thicker on the dorsal than the
ventral aspects of the body and thicker on the lateral than the medial
aspects of the extremities. Blood vessels, nerves, glands, and hair
follicles are embedded in the dermis.
The outer portion of the dermis, about one-fifth of the thickness of the
total layer, is named the papillary region (layer). It consists of areola
connective tissue containing fine elastic fibres. Its surface area is
greatly increased by small, finger like projections called dermal
papillae.
The deeper portion of the dermis is called the reticular region (layer).
It consists of dense, irregular connective tissue containing interlacing
bundles of collagen and coarse elastic fibres. Within the reticular
region, bundles of collagen fibres interlace in a netlike manner. Spaces
between the fibres are occupied by a small quantity of adipose tissue,
hair follicles, nerves, oil glands, and the ducts of sweat glands. Varying
thicknesses of the reticular region contribute to differences in the
thickness of skin.
The combination of collagen and elastic fibres in the reticular region

provides the skin with strength, extensibility, and elasticity.
(Extensibility is the ability to stretch; elasticity is the ability to return
to original shape after stretching.) The ability of the skin to stretch can
readily be seen in pregnancy, obesity, and oedema. Small tears that
occur in the dermis during extreme stretching are initially red and
remain visible afterward as silvery white streaks called striae (STRI-e)
or stretch marks.
The reticular region is attached to underlying organs, such as bone and

muscle, by the subcutaneous layer, also called the hypodermis or
superficial fascia. The subcutaneous layer also contains nerve endings
called lamellated or Pacinian corpuscles that are sensitive to pressure.
Nerve endings sensitive to cold are found in and just below the dermis,
while those sensitive to heat are located in the middle and outer dermis.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
Hypodermis
Deep to the dermis is a layer of loose connective tissues known as the

hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue. The hypodermis serves as the flexible
connection between the skin and the underlying muscles and bones as
well as a fat storage area. Areolar connective tissue in the hypodermis
contains elastin and collagen fibres loosely arranged to allow the skin to
stretch and move independently of its underlying structures. Fatty adipose
tissue in the hypodermis stores energy in the form of triglycerides.
Adipose also helps to insulate the body by trapping body heat produced
by the underlying muscles.
Hair
Hair is an accessory organ of the skin made of columns of tightly packed

dead keratinocytes found in most regions of the body. The few hairless
parts of the body include the palmar surface of the hands, plantar surface
of the feet, lips, labia minora, and glans penis. Hair helps to protect the
body from UV radiation by preventing sunlight from striking the
skin. Hair also insulates the body by trapping warm air around the skin.
The structure of hair can be broken down into 3 major parts: the follicle,
root, and shaft.
Nails
Nails are accessory organs of the skin made of sheets of hardened

keratinocytes and found on the distal ends of the fingers and toes.
Fingernails and toenails reinforce and protect the end of the digits and
are used for scraping and manipulating small objects. There are 3 main
parts of a nail: the root, body, and free edge. The nail root is the portion
of the nail found under the surface of the skin. The nail body is the visible
external portion of the nail. The free edge is the distal end portion of the
nail that has grown beyond the end of the finger or toe. Nails grow from
a deep layer of epidermal tissue known as the nail matrix, which
surrounds the nail root.
Sudoriferous Glands
Sudoriferous glands are exocrine glands found in the dermis of the skin
and commonly known as sweat glands. There are 2 major types of
sudoriferous glands: eccrine sweat glands and apocrine sweat glands.
Eccrine sweat glands are found in almost every region of the skin and
produce a secretion of water and sodium chloride. Eccrine sweat is
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
delivered via a duct to the surface of the skin and is used to lower the
body’s temperature through evaporative cooling.
Apocrine sweat glands are found in mainly in the axillary and pubic
regions of the body. The ducts of apocrine sweat glands extend into the
follicles of hairs so that the sweat produced by these glands exits the body
along the surface of the hair shaft. Apocrine sweat glands are inactive
until puberty, at which point they produce a thick, oily liquid that is
consumed by bacteria living on the skin. The digestion of apocrine sweat
by bacteria produces body odor.
Sebaceous Glands
Sebaceous glands are exocrine glands found in the dermis of the skin that
produce an oily secretion known as sebum. Sebaceous glands are found
in every part of the skin except for the thick skin of the palms of the hands
and soles of the feet. Sebum is produced in the sebaceous glands and
carried through ducts to the surface of the skin or to hair follicles. Sebum
acts to waterproof and increase the elasticity of the skin. Sebum also
lubricates and protects the cuticles of hairs as they pass through the
follicles to the exterior of the body.
Ceruminous Glands
Ceruminous glands are special exocrine glands found only in the dermis
of the ear canals. Ceruminous glands produce a waxy secretion known as
cerumen to protect the ear canals and lubricate the eardrum. Cerumen
protects the ears by trapping foreign material such as dust and airborne
pathogens that enter the ear canal. Cerumen is made continuously and
slowly pushes older cerumen outward toward the exterior of the ear canal
where it falls out of the ear or is manually removed. (Prepared by Tim
Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor)
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. List five functions of the skin.

2. …………and……………..are two principal parts of the skin.
3.2 Anatomy of the ear
The ear is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals,

the ear is usually described as having three parts, namely the outer ear,
middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the
external auditory canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part
alone.[1] The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three bony
ossicles. The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and contains structures
which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable
balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and saccule, which
enable balance when stationary; and the cochlea, which enables hearing.
The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side
of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation. The ear develops
from the first pharyngeal pouch and six small swellings that develop in
the early embryo called otic placodes, which are derived from ectoderm.
The ear may be affected by disease, including infection and traumatic
damage. Diseases of the ear may lead to hearing loss, tinnitus (ringing
sound in the ear) and balance disorders such as vertigo, although many of
these conditions may also be affected by damage to the brain or neural
pathways leading from the ear.
3.2.1 Anatomy of the Human Ear
Human ear, organ of hearing and equilibrium that detects and analyses
sound by transduction (or the conversion of sound waves into
electrochemical impulses) and maintains the sense of balance
(equilibrium).
Figure 5: The Human ear
3.2.2 Structure of Human Ear
The human ear consists of three parts: the outer ear, middle ear and inner
ear.[2] The ear canal of the outer ear is separated from the air-filled
tympanic cavity of the middle ear by the eardrum (tympanic membrane).
The middle ear contains the three small bones (ossicles) involved in the
transmission of sound, and is connected to the throat (pharynx) at the
nasopharynx, via the pharyngeal opening of the Eustachian tube. The
inner ear contains the otolith organs: the utricle and saccule, and the
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
semicircular canals belonging to the vestibular system, as well as the

cochlea of the auditory system.
3.2.3 Function of Human Ear Hearing
The human ear can generally hear sounds with frequencies between 20
Hz and 20 kHz (the audio range). Sounds outside this range are considered
infrasound (below 20 Hz)[10] or ultrasound (above 20 kHz)[11] Although
hearing requires an intact and functioning auditory portion of the central
nervous system as well as a working ear, human deafness (extreme
insensitivity to sound) most commonly occurs because of abnormalities
of the inner ear, rather than in the nerves or tracts of the central auditory
system.
Balance
Providing balance, when moving or stationary is also a central function

of the ear. The ear facilitates two types of balance: static balance, which
allows a person to feel the effects of gravity, and dynamic balance, which
allows a person to sense acceleration.
3.2.3 Hearing loss
Hearing loss may be either partial or total. This may be a result of injury
or damage to the ear, congenital disease, or physiological causes. When
hearing loss is a result of injury or damage to the outer ear or middle ear,
it is known as conductive hearing loss. When deafness is a result of injury
or damage to the inner ear, vestibulochoclear nerve, or brain, it is known
as sensorineural hearing loss.
3.3 Anatomy of the Eye
The human eye is an organ which reacts to light and pressure. As a sense
organ, the mammalian eye allows vision. Human eyes help to provide a
three dimensional, moving image, normally coloured in daylight. Rod and
cone cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision
including colour differentiation and the perception of depth. The human
eye can differentiate between about 10 million colours [1] and is possibly
capable of detecting a single photon. The human eye's non-image-forming
photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive light signals which
affect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of
the hormone melatonin and entrainment of the body clock.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
3.3.1 Structure of Human Eye
The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere; rather it is a fused two-piece
unit, composed of the anterior and the posterior segments. The anterior
segment is made up of the cornea, iris and lens. The cornea is transparent
and more curved, and is linked to the larger posterior segment, composed
of the vitreous, retina, choroid and the outer white shell called the sclera.
The cornea is typically about 11.5 mm (0.3 in) in diameter, and 1/2 mm
(500 µm) in thickness near its center. The posterior chamber constitutes
the remaining five-sixths; its diameter is typically about 24 mm. The
cornea and sclera are connected by an area termed the limbus. The iris is
the pigmented circular structure concentrically surrounding the center of
the eye, the pupil, which appears to be black. The size of the pupil, which
controls the amount of light entering the eye, is adjusted by the iris' dilator
(dilator pupillae) and sphincter (sphincter pupillae) muscles.
Figure 6: The Eye

P – Pupil, I – Iris, C – Cornea, UEL – Upper eye lid,
LEL – Lower eye lid, MC –
Medial canthus, LC – Lateral canthus
Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, the pupil and the lens.
The ciliary muscle regulates the changes in the shape of the lens for near
or distant vision (accommodation). Photons of light falling on the light-
sensitive cells of the retina (photoreceptor cones and rods) are converted
into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve
and interpreted as sight and vision.
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PHS 201 MODULE 1
Figure 7: Schematic diagram

of the human eye
3.3.2 Components of Human Eye
The eye is made up of three coats, or layers, enclosing various anatomical

structures. The outermost layer, known as the fibrous tunic, is composed
of the cornea and sclera. The middle layer, known as the vascular tunic or
uvea, consists of the choroid, ciliary body, pigmented epithelium and iris.
The innermost is the retina, which gets its oxygenation from the blood
vessels of the choroid (posteriorly) as well as the retinal vessels
(anteriorly).
The spaces of the eye are filled with the aqueous humour anteriorly,
between the cornea and lens, and the vitreous body, a jelly-like substance,
behind the lens, filling the entire posterior cavity. The aqueous humour is
a clear watery fluid that is contained in two areas: the anterior chamber
between the cornea and the iris, and the posterior chamber between the
iris and the lens. The lens is suspended to the ciliary body by the
suspensory ligament (Zonule of Zinn), made up of hundreds of fine
transparent fibers which transmit muscular forces to change the shape of
the lens for accommodation (focusing). The vitreous body is a clear
substance composed of water and proteins, which give it a jelly-like and
sticky composition
4.0 CONCLUSION
The skin, the ear and the eyes are vital organs in humans. They are all
very important and have different functions in the body. It is hoped that
you have gained a deeper understanding of the skin, ear and eye and
understood the importance of taking care and maintaining the organs.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have described the anatomical structure and functions of

human skin, ear and eyes.
 Describe in details the functions of the skin

 What are the functions of human ear?
 Describe the structure of human eye
1. Elias, P M (1981). Epidermal Lipids, Membranes and

Keratinization. Int J Dermatol 20: 1–9.
2. Savino, Peter J.; Danesh-Meyer, Helen V. (1 May 2012). Color Atlas

and Synopsis of Clinical Ophthalmology - Wills Eye Institute -
Neuro-Ophthalmology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p.12.
ISBN 978-1-60913-266-8. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
3. Dohse, K.C. (2007). Effects of Field of View and Stereo Graphics

on Memory in Immersive Command and Control. ProQuest. p6.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
MODULE2 INTRODUCTION TO BODY SYSTEM
Unit 1 Overview of the skeletal system

Unit 2 Composition and types of bone
Unit 3 Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
Unit 4 The muscles as associate organ of the skeletal system
UNIT1 OVERVIEW OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MainContent
3.1 General futures and surface markings
3.2 The Vertebral Column
3.3 FunctionsoftheSkeletalSystem
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-MarkedAssignment
7.0 References/FurtherReadings
1.0INTRODUCTION
The skeletal system forms the rigid internal framework of the body. It
consists of the bones, cartilages, and ligaments. Bones support the
weight of the body, allow for body movements, and protect internal
organs. Cartilage provides flexible strength and support for body
structures such as the thoracic cage, the external ear, and the trachea and
larynx. At joints of the body, cartilage can also unite adjacent bones or
provide cushioning between them. Ligaments are the strong connective
tissue bands that hold the bones at a moveable joint together and serve to
prevent excessive movements of the joint that would result in injury.
Providing movement of the skeleton are the muscles of the body, which
are firmly attached to the skeleton via connective tissue structures called
tendons. As muscles contract, they pull on the bones to produce
movements of the body. Thus, without the skeleton, you would not be
able to stand, run, or even feed yourself!
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
2.0OBJECTIVES
Attheendofthisunit,youshouldbeableto:
 Discuss the general futures and surface markings of skeletal

system
 Discuss the Vertebral Column
 Discuss the functionsoftheSkeletalSystem
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1General futures and surface markings
Looking to the bone reveals the surface is not smooth but scarred with
bumps, holes and ridges. These are surface markings where muscles,
tendons and ligaments are attached, and where blood & lymph vessels
and nerves may leave their impression.
Depression and openings
Fissure narrow, cleft like opening between adjacent parts of bone.

Example: Supra orbital fissure.
Foramen, a bigger, round opening. Example: Foramen magnum.
Meatus: a relatively narrow tubular canal. Example: External auditory
meatusGroves and sulcus: are deep furrow on the surface of a bone or
other structure.
Example: Inter-vertebral and radial groves of the humerus.
Fossa: shallow depressed area. Example: Mandibular fossa.
Processes that form joints
Condyle: knuckle-like process/ concave or convex. Example

Medial condyle of femur
Head: expanded, rounded surface at proximal end of a bone often joined
to shaft by a narrowed neck. Example: Head of femur
Facet: small, flat surface. Example: Articular facet of ribs.
Process to which tendons, ligaments and other Connective tissue

attach
Tubercle: it is a knob-like process. Example: Greater tubercle of

humerus.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
Tuberosity: it is large, round, roughened process. Example: ischial

tuberosity.
Trochanter: it is a large, blunt projection found only on femur
Crest is a prominent ridge. Example: Iliac crest.
Line: it is a less prominent ridge than a crest.
Spinous process (spine) is a sharp, slender process. Example
Ischial spinEpicondyle is a prominence above condyle. Example medial
Epicondyle of Femur
3.2The Vertebral Column
The vertebral column is also known as the spinal column or spine.

(singular = vertebra), each of which is separated and united by an
intervertebral disc. Together, the vertebrae and intervertebral discs
form the vertebral column. It is a flexible column that supports the head,
neck, and body and allows for their movements. It also protects the
spinal cord, which passes down the back through openings in the
vertebrae. The adult vertebral column consists of 24 vertebrae, plus the
sacrum and coccyx.
The vertebrae are divided into three regions: cervical C1–C7 vertebrae,
thoracic T1–T12 vertebrae, and lumbar L1–L5 vertebrae. The vertebral
column is curved, with two primary curvatures (thoracic and
sacrococcygeal curves) and two secondary curvatures (cervical and
lumbar curves).
Figure 8: Vertebral Column
Regions of the Vertebral Column

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PHS 201 MODULE 2
The vertebral column originally develops as a series of 33 vertebrae, but

this number is eventually reduced to 24 vertebrae, plus the sacrum and
coccyx. The vertebral column is subdivided into five regions, with the
vertebrae in each area named for that region and numbered in
descending order. In the neck, there are seven cervical vertebrae, each
designated with the letter “C” followed by its number. Superiorly, the
C1 vertebra articulates (forms a joint) with the occipital condyles of the
skull.
Inferiorly, C1 articulates with the C2 vertebra, and so on. Below these

are the 12 thoracic vertebrae, designated T1–T12. The lower back
contains the L1–L5 lumbar vertebrae. The single sacrum, which is also
part of the pelvis, is formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae.
Similarly, the coccyx, or tailbone, results from the fusion of four small
coccygeal vertebrae. However, the sacral and coccygeal fusions do not
start until age 20 and are not completed until middle age. An interesting
anatomical fact is that almost all mammals have seven cervical
vertebrae, regardless of body size.
Curvatures of the Vertebral Column
The adult vertebral column does not form a straight line, but instead has
four curvatures along its length. These curves increase the vertebral
column’s strength, flexibility, and ability to absorb shock. When the
load on the spine is increased, by carrying a heavy backpack for
example, the curvatures increase in depth (become more curved) to
accommodate the extra weight. They then spring back when the weight
is removed. The four adult curvatures are classified as either primary or
secondary curvatures. Primary curves are retained from the original fetal
curvature, while secondary curvatures develop after birth.
During fetal development, the body is flexed anteriorly into the fetal
position, giving the entire vertebral column a single curvature that is
concave anteriorly. In the adult, this fetal curvature is retained in two
regions of the vertebral column as the thoracic curve, which involves
the thoracic vertebrae, and the sacrococcygeal curve, formed by the
sacrum and cocci. Each of these is thus called a primary curve because
they are retained from the original fetal curvature of the vertebral
column.
A secondary curve develops gradually after birth as the child learns to

sit upright, stand, and walk. Secondary curves are concave posteriorly,
opposite in direction to the original fetal curvature. The cervical curve
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
of the neck region develops as the infant begins to hold his head upright
when sitting. Later, as the child begins to stand and then to walk, the
lumbarcurve of the lower back develops. In adults, the lumbar curve is
generally deeper in females.
Disorders associated with the curvature of the spine include kyphosis

(an excessive posterior curvature of the thoracic region), lordosis (an
excessive anterior curvature of the lumbar region), and scoliosis (an
abnormal, lateral curvature, accompanied by twisting of the vertebral
column).
Figure 9: Abnormal Curvatures of the Vertebral Column
3.3 FunctionsoftheSkeletalSystem
The five main functions of bones are to provide:
1. Protection of vital structures: Vitalorgansare

protectedbytheskeletalsystem.Thebrainis
protectedbythesurroundingskullastheheartandlungsare
encasedbythesternumandribcage.
2. Support for the body: e.g. the vertebral column forms the
structural framework for the trunk.
3. A mechanical basis for movement:
Bodilymovementiscarriedoutbytheinteractionofthemuscular
andskeletalsystems.Forthisreason, theyareoftengrouped
togetherasthemusculo-skeletalsystem.Musclesareconnected
tobonesbytendons.Bonesareconnected toeachotherby
ligaments.Where bonesmeetoneanotheristypicallycalleda
joint.Muscleswhichcausemovementofajointareconnectedto
twodifferentbonesandcontracttopullthemtogether.An
examplewould bethecontractionof thebicepsandarelaxation
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
ofthetriceps.Thisproducesabendat theelbow.Thecontraction
ofthetricepsandrelaxationofthebicepsproducetheeffectof
straighteningthearm.
4. Blood cells, i.e.
bloodcellsareproducedbythemarrowlocatedinsomebones.
Anaverageof 2.6millionredbloodcells
isproducedeachsecondbythebone marrowtoreplace
thosewornoutanddestroyedbytheliver.
Bonesserveasastorageareaformineralssuchascalciumandphosphor
us. Whenanexcessispresentintheblood,abuild-
upwilloccurwithinthebones.
Whenthesupplyofthesemineralswithin thebloodislow,itwillbewithdrawn
fromthebonestoreplenishthesupply.
5. Storage for salts, i.e., the calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium

salts in bones provide a mineral reservoir for the body.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The vertebral column together with the sternum & ribs constitutes the
skeleton of the trunk of the body. It composes 2/5th of the height of the
body and has average length of 71 cm in males and 61 cm in females.
The adult vertebral column contains 26 vertebrae.
5.0 SUMMARY
Inthisunit,we have been abletodiscuss the general futures and surface

markings of the skeletal system, the vertebral column and the
functionsoftheSkeletalSystem.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKEDASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss the functions of the Skeletal System

2. Discuss the curvatures of the Vertebral Column
3. Discuss the regions of the Vertebral Column
4. List the parts of the sternum
ANSWERTOSELFASSESSMENTEXERCISE
1. Thefunctionsoftheskeletalsystemincludethefollowing:
 It providestheshapeandformforourbodies.
 It providessupportandprotectionfordelicatebodyorgans.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
 It allowsbodilymovement.
 It producesbloodforthebodyandstoresminerals.
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
1. Primary curve
a. Thoracic – Kyphosis, Scoliosis are abnormal thoracic curves
b. Sacral
2. Secondary curve
a. Cervical
b. Lumbar – Lordosis is an abnormal lumbar curve
4. Thesternumis madeupofthemanubrium,thebodyandxiphoid
process.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHERREADINGS
Applegate,EdithJ.(1995).TheAnatomyandPhysiologyLearning
System:Textbook.Philadelphia:W.B. SaundersCompany.
France,DianeL.(1998).LaboratoryManualandWorkbookfor Physical
Anthropology.
Belmont,CA:WadsworthPublishingCompany. Silverstein,Alvin.
(1994).TheSkeletalSystem.NewYork:21stCentury Books.
VanDeGraaff,& Kent,M.(1998).HumanAnatomy,(5thed).WEB,
Boston,MA:McGraw-Hill.
52
UNIT 2 COMPOSITION AND TYPES OF BONE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MainContent
3.1 Classification of Bones
3.2 BoneComposition
3.3 Types of bone
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms

most of the adult skeleton, the support structure of the body. In the areas
of the skeleton where bones move (for example, the ribcage and joints),
cartilage, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provides flexibility
and smooth surfaces for movement.
Thehumanskeletonisdividedintotwodistinctparts:Theaxialskeleton
andtheappendicularskeleton.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Classify bones according to their shapes

• Describe the function of each category of bones
3.1 Classification of Bones
The 206 bones that make up the adult skeleton are divided into five
categories based on their shapes. Their shapes and their functions are
related such that each shape category of bone has a distinct function.
Long Bones
A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is

wide. Keep in mind, however, that the term describes the shape of a
bone, not its size. Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna,
radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers
(metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges). Long bones
function as levers; they move when muscles attached to them contract.
PHS 201 MODULE 2
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
Short Bones
A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being approximately

equal in length, width, and thickness. The only short bones in the human
skeleton are in the carpals
of the wrists and the tarsals of the ankles. Short bones provide stability
and support as well as some limited motion.
Figure 10: Classification of Bones
Bones may be classified according to their shape:
Flat Bones
The term “flat bone” is somewhat of a misnomer because, although a

flat bone is typically thin, it is also often curved. Examples include the
cranial (skull) bones, the scapulae (shoulder blades), the sternum
(breastbone), and the ribs. Flat bones serve as points of attachment for
muscles and often protect internal organs.
Irregular Bones
An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterisable
shape and therefore does not fit any other classification. These bones
tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae that support and
protect the spinal cord from compressive forces. Many facial bones,
particularly the ones containing sinuses, are classified as irregular bones.
Sesamoid Bones
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
A sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is

shaped like a sesame seed. These bones form in tendons (the sheaths of
tissue that connect bones to muscles) where a great deal of pressure is
generated in a joint. The sesamoid bones protect tendons by helping
them to overcome compressive forces. Sesamoid bones vary in number
and placement from person to person but are typically found in tendons
associated with the feet, hands, and knees. The patellae (singular =
patella) are the only sesamoid bones found in common with every
person, with their associated features, functions, and examples.
3.2 Typesof Bones
Thebonesofthebodyfallintofourgeneralcategories:longbones, short
bones,flatbones,andirregularbones.Longbonesarelongerthanthey
arewideandworkaslevers. Thebonesoftheupperandlower extremities(e.g.
humerus,tibia,femur,ulna,metacarpals,etc.)areof thistype.
Shortbonesareshort,cube-shaped,andfoundinthewrists
andankles.Flatboneshavebroadsurfacesforprotectionoforgansand
attachmentofmuscles(e.g. ribs,cranialbones,bonesofshoulder
girdle).Irregularbonesareallothersthatdonotfallintotheprevious
categories.Theyhavevariedshapes,sizes,andsurfacefeatures, and
includethebonesofthevertebraeandafewintheskull.
3.3 Bonecomposition
Bonesarecomposedof tissuesthatmaytakeoneof twoforms in terms of

their texture: Compact, (orDensebone),andspongy (or
cancellousbone).Mostbones containboth types with no sharp boundaries
between the two types because the differences between them depend on the
relative amount of solid matter and the number and size of the spaces in
each of them. All bones have an outer shell of compact bone around a
central mass of spongy bone, except where the latter is replaced by a
marrow or a medullary cavity, or an air space, such as maxillary sinus
in the face. Compactboneisdense,hard,andformsthe
protectiveexteriorportionofallbones.Spongyboneisinsidethe
compactboneandisveryporous(fullof tinyholes).Spongybone
occursinmostbones.Thebonetissueiscomposedofseveraltypesof
bonecellsembeddedinawebofinorganicsalts(mostlycalciumand
phosphorus)togivethebonestrength,andcollagenousfibresand
groundsubstancetogivetheboneflexibility.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
4.0CONCLUSION
Bonemassaccountsfor20percentofthebody weight.Thestrengthof
bonecomesfromitsinorganiccomponentsof such durabilitythatthey
resistdecompositionevenafterdeath.Theclavicleintheshoulderisthe
mostcommonlybrokenboneinthebodybecauseittransmitsforces
fromthearmtothe trunk.
5.0SUMMARY
Thisunitshowsthefollowing:
 Thedifferenttypesofbones
 Thecompositionofbones
 Thefunctionsoftheskeletalsystem
 Thedivisionsoftheskeletalsystem
SELF ASSESSMENTEXERCISE
1. Describethepatella.
2. Listthecategoriesofbonesinthehumanbody.
ANSWERTOSELFASSESSMENTEXERCISE
1. Thepatellaor kneecapisalarge,triangularsesamoidbone
betweenthefemurandthetibia.
2. Thebonesof thebodyfallintofour generalcategories:long bones,
shortbones,flatbones,andirregular bones.
Describethecranialandfacialbones.
France,DianeL.(1998).LabManualandWorkbookforPhysical
Anthropology.Belmont,CA:WadsworthPublishingCompany.
Silverstein,Alvin.(1994).TheSkeletalSystem.NewYork:21stCentury
Books.
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
UNIT 3AXIAL SKELETON AND APPENDICULAR

SKELETON
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MainContent
3.1 TheAxialSkeleton
3.2 The Appendicular skeleton
3.3 Sutures and Fontanelles
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The Adult human skeletons have 206 named bones that are grouped into
two principal parts. These are the axial and appendicular skeleton. The
Axial skeleton consist bones that lie around the axis of the body. And
the appendicular skeleton consists of bones of the body outside of the
axial group (associated with the limbs). These are appendages. Upper &
lower extremities and bones of girdles are grouped under appendicular
skeleton.
2.0OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Distinguish between the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton

 Define the axial skeleton and its components
 Define the appendicular skeleton and its components
3.0MAINCONTENT
3.1TheAxialSkeleton
Theaxialskeletonconsistsof bonesthatform theaxisofthebodyand

supportandprotecttheorgansofthehead,neck,andtrunk.It ismadeup
ofthefollowing:
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
1.TheSkull:The skullisthebonyframeworkofthehead.It
consistsofeightcranialandfourteenfacialbones.
Figure 11: The Human Skull
(a) The cranialbonesmakeuptheprotectiveframeofbonearound the

brain.Thecranialbonesareasfollows:
 Thefrontalformspartof thecranialcavityaswellasthe
forehead,thebrowridgesandthenasalcavity.
 Theleftandrightparietalformsmuchofthesuperiorandlateral
portionsofthecranium.
 Theleftandrighttemporalformthelateralwallsofthecranium
aswellashousingtheexternalear.
 Theoccipitalformstheposteriorandinferiorportionsof the
cranium.Manyneckmusclesattachhere, asthisisthepointof
articulationwiththeneck.
 Thesphenoidformspart oftheeyeorbitandhelpstoformthe floorof
thecranium.
 Theethmoidformsthemedialportionsoftheorbitsandtheroof
ofthenasalcavity.
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
(b) Thefacialbonesmakeuptheupperandlowerjawandotherfacial
structures.Thefacialbonesareasfollows:
 Themandibleisthelowerjawbone.It articulateswith the

temporalbonesat thetemporomandibularjoints.Thisformsthe
onlyfreelymoveablejointinthehead.Itprovidesthechewing motion.
 Theleftandrightmaxillaaretheupperjawbones.Theyform
partofthenose,orbits,androofofthemouth.
 Theleftandrightpalatineformsaportionofthenasalcavityand
theposteriorportionoftheroofofthemouth.
 Theleftandrightzygomaticarethecheekbones. Theyform
portionsoftheorbitsaswell.
 Theleftandrightnasal bonesformthesuperiorpartofthebridge
ofthenose.
 Theleftandrightlacrimal boneshelptoformtheorbits.
 Thevomerformspartofthenasalseptum(thedividerbetween
thenostrils).
2.TheSternum:Thesternumisaflat,daggershapedbonelocated
inthemiddleofthe chest.Alongwiththeribs, thesternumforms
theribcagethatprotectstheheart,lungs,andmajorbloodvessels
fromdamage. Thesternumiscomposedofthree parts:
 Themanubrium,alsocalledthe“handle”.
 Thebody,alsocalledthe“blade”or the“gladiolus”,islocatedin
themiddleofthesternumandconnectsthethirdtoseventhribs
directlyandtheeighththroughtenthribsindirectly.
 Thexiphoidprocess,alsocalledthe“tip”,islocatedonthe
bottomofthesternum.It isoftencartilaginous(cartilage),but
doesbecomebonyin later years. Thesethree
segmentsofboneareusuallyfusedinadults.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
Figure 12: The Thoracic Cage
TheRibs:Theribsarethin,flat,curvedbonesthatforma protective
cagearound theorgansintheupperbody.Theyare comprisedof24
bonesarrangedin12pairs.Thesebonesare dividedintothree categories:
 Thefirstsevenbonesarecalledthetrue ribs.
 Thenextthree pairsofbonesarecalledfalse ribs
 Thelasttwosetsofribbonesarecalledfloatingribs. Floating
ribsaresmallerthanboththetrue ribsandthefalseribs.
Theribsformakindofcagethatenclosestheupperbody.Theygivethe
chestitsfamiliarshape.
Theribsserve severalimportantpurposes:
 Theyprotecttheheartandlungsfrominjuriesandshocksthat
mightdamagethem.
 Theyalsoprotectpartsofthestomach,spleen,andkidneys.
 Theribshelpyouto breathe.Asyouinhale,themusclesin
betweentheribslifttheribcageup,allowingthelungsto
expand.Whenyouexhale, theribcagemovesdownagain,
squeezingtheairoutofyourlungs.
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
4.TheVertebralColumn:
Figure 13: The Vertebral Column

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vertebralcolumn)
Thevertebralcolumn(alsocalledthebackbone,spine,or spinalcolumn)
consistsofaseriesof 33irregularlyshaped bones,calledvertebrae.
These33bonesaredividedintofivecategoriesdependingonwherethey
arelocatedinthebackbone:
·Thefirstsevenvertebraearecalledthecervicalvertebrae. Locatedat
thetopof thespinalcolumn,thesebonesforma
flexibleframeworkfortheneckandsupportthehead.Thefirst
cervicalvertebraiscalledtheatlasandthesecond iscalledthe axis.
Figure 14: The cervical vertebra

Source: http://test.danstretton.com/the-anatomy-of-the-neck-part-one-
the-cervical-vertebrae/
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
Thenexttwelvevertebraearecalledthethoracicvertebrae.These
bonesmovewiththeribstoformtherearanchoroftheribcage.
 Afterthethoracicvertebrae,comethelumbarvertebrae.These
fivebonesarethelargestvertebraeinthespinalcolumn.
 Thesacrumisatriangularbonelocatedjustbelowthelumbar
vertebrae. It consistsof fourorfivesacralvertebraeinachild,
whichbecomesfusedintoasingleboneafterage26.
Thebottomofthespinalcolumnis calledthecoccyxor tailbone.It
consistsof3-5bonesthatarefusedtogetherinanadult.Manymuscles
connecttothecoccyx.
Fig.15:Theintervertebraldisc
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/disc
Thesebones make upthevertebralcolumn,resultinginatotalof26

movablepartsinanadult.Inbetween thevertebraeareintervertebral
discsmadeof fibrouscartilagethatactasshockabsorbersandallowthe
backtomove.Asaperson increases in age, thesediscscompressandshrink,
resultinginadistinctlossofheight(generallybetween0.5and2.0cm)
betweentheagesof50and55.
Whenlookedatfromtheside,thespineformsfourcurves.Thesecurves
arecalledthecervical,thoracic,lumbar, andpelviccurves.Thecervical
andlumbar curvesarenotpresentinaninfant.Thecervicalcurvesform
around theage of3monthswhenaninfantbeginstoholditsheadup
andthelumbarcurvedevelopswhenachildbeginstowalk.
Inadditionto allowinghumanstostanduprightandmaintaintheir
balance,thevertebralcolumnservesseveralotherimportantfunctions. It
helpstosupporttheheadandarms,whilepermittingfreedomof
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
movement.Italso providesattachmentformanymuscles,theribs,and
someoftheorgans,andprotectsthespinalcord, whichcontrolsmost
bodilyfunctions.
SELF ASSESSMENTEXERCISE1
1.Whatarethebasic functionsofthehumanskeleton?
2---------------,---------------------and----------------arethepartsof
thesternum.
3.2 TheAppendicularSkeleton
Theappendicularskeletoniscomposedofbonesthatanchorthe
appendagestotheaxialskeleton.
1. TheUpperExtremities
Figure 16: The Upper Extremity
Theupperextremityconsistsofthreeparts:thearm,theforearm,and
thehand.Thearm,orbrachium,istechnicallyonlytheregionbetweenthe
shoulderandelbow.Itconsistsofasinglelongbonecalledthehumerus.
Thehumerusisthe longestbone intheupperextremity.Thetop,or
head,islarge,smooth,androundedandfitsintothescapulainthe
shoulder.Atthebottomofthehumerus,aretwodepressionswherethe
humerusconnectstotheulnaandradiusoftheforearm.Together,the
humerusandtheulnaformtheelbow
joint.Thebottomofthehumerusprotectstheulnarnerveandiscommonlykno
wn asthe"funnybone"
becausestrikingtheelbowonahardsurfacestimulatestheulnarnerve
andproducesatinglingsensation.
Theforearmisthe regionbetweentheelbowandthewrist.It isformed

bytheradiusonthelateralsideandtheulnaonthemedialsidewhenthe
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
forearmisviewedintheanatomicalposition.Theulnaislongerthanthe
radiusandconnectedmore firmlytothehumerus.Theradius,however,
contributesmoretothemovementofthewristandhandthantheulna.
Thehandconsistsofthreeparts(thewrist,palm,andfivefingers)and
27bones.The wrist,or carpus,consistsof8smallbonescalledthecarpalbones
thataretightlyboundbyligaments.Thesebonesarearranged intwo
rowsoffourbones.
2. TheLowerExtremities
Thelowerextremityiscomposedofthebonesofthethigh,leg,foot, and
thepatella (commonlyknownasthekneecap).
Thethighistheregionbetweenthehipandthekneeandiscomposedof
asinglebonecalledthefemuror thighbone.Thefemuristhelongest,
largest,andstrongestboneinthebody.
Thelegistechnicallyonlytheregionfromthekneetotheankle.Itis
formedbythefibulaonthesideawayfromthebody(lateral side)and
thetibia,alsocalledtheshinbone,onthesidenearestthebody(medial
side).The tibiaconnectstothefemurtoformthekneejointandwiththe
talus,afootbone,toallowtheankletoflexandextend.Thetibiais
largerthanthefibulabecauseitbears mostoftheweight,whilethe
fibulaservesasanareaformuscle attachment.
Thefoot,orpes,containsthe26bonesoftheankle,instep,andthefive
toes.Theankle,ortarsus,iscomposedofthe7tarsalboneswhich
correspondtothecarpalsinthewrist.Thelargesttarsalboneiscalled
thecalcaneusor heelbone.Thetalus restsontopofthecalcaneusandis
connectedtothetibia.Themetatarsalandphalangesbonesofthefoot
aresimilarinnumberandpositiontothemetacarpalandphalanges bones
ofthehand.
Thepatellaor kneecapisalarge,triangularsesamoidbonebetweenthe
femurandthetibia. It isformedin responsetothestraininthetendon
thatformstheknee.Thepatellaprotectsthekneejointandstrengthens
thetendonthatformstheknee.
Thebonesofthelowerextremitiesaretheheaviest,largest,and
strongestbonesinthebodybecausetheymustbeartheentireweightof
thebodywhenapersonisstandingintheuprightposition.
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
Figure 17: The lower extremities
3. TheShoulderGirdle
This is alsocalledthepectoralgirdle, and iscomposed of fourbones:

twoclaviclesandtwoscapulae.
Theclavicle,commonlycalledthecollarbone,isaslenderS-shaped
bonethatconnectstheupperarmtothetrunkofthebodyandholdsthe
shoulderjointawayfromthebody to allowforgreaterfreedomof movement.
Thescapulaisalarge,triangular,flatboneonthebacksideoftherib
cagecommonlycalledtheshoulderblade.It hasashallowdepression
calledtheglenoidcavitythattheheadofthehumerus(upperarmbone) fitsinto.
Usually,a“girdle”referstosomethingthatencirclesor isacomplete ring.

However,theshouldergirdleisanincompletering. Inthefront,the
claviclesareseparatedbythesternum.Intheback,there isagap
betweenthetwoscapulae.
Theprimaryfunctionofthepectoralgirdleis to provideanattachment
pointforthenumerousmusclesthatallowtheshoulderandelbowjoints to
move.It alsoprovidestheconnectionbetweentheupperextremities
(thearms)andtheaxialskeleton.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
Figure 18: The Shoulder girdle
4. ThePelvicGirdle
It isalso calledthehipgirdle,andiscomposedoftwocoxal(hip)bones.
Duringchildhood,eachcoxalboneconsistsofthreeseparateparts:the
ilium,theischium,andthepubis.Inanadult,thesethree bonesare
firmlyfusedintoasinglebone.
Thepelvicgirdleservesseveralimportantfunctionsinthebody.It
supportstheweightofthebodyfromthevertebralcolumn.Italso
protectsandsupportsthelowerorgans,includingtheurinarybladder,
thereproductiveorgans,andthedevelopingfoetusinapregnantwoman.
Thepelvicgirdlediffersbetweenmenandwomen.Inaman,thepelvis
ismoremassiveandtheiliaccrestsarecloser together.Inawoman,the
pelvisismoredelicateandtheiliaccrestsarefartherapart.These
differencesreflectthewoman'sroleinpregnancyanddeliveryofchildren.
Whenachildisborn, itmustpassthroughitsmother'spelvis.
Iftheopeningistoosmall,aCaesareansectionmaybe necessary.
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
Figure 19: The Pelvic girdle
3.3 Sutures and Fontanelles
Sutures
Meaning to stitch, are immovable joints found between skull bones.

There are four main sutures in the skull.
a) Coronal suture: between the frontal & the two-parietal bones.

b) Sagittal suture: between the two parietal bones.
c) Lambdoidal suture: between parietal & occipital bones.
d) Squamosal suture: between parietal bone and temporal bone.
Fontanels
The skeleton of a newly formed embryo consists of cartilage or fibrous

membrane structures, which are gradually replaced by bone. The process
is called ossification. At birth membrane filled spaces on the skull are
called fontanel. They are found between cranial bones.
Function
• They enable the skull of the foetus to compress as it passes

through the birth canal
• They permit the rapid growth and expansion of the brain before
birth and during infancy
• They serve as landmark (anterior fontanel) for withdrawal of
blood from the superior sagittal sinus
• They aid in the determination of fetal position prior to birth.
In the skull of the fetus there are 6 prominent fontanels:
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
a) One anterior fontanel, one posterior fontanel, two anteriolateral

fontanels and two posterolateral fontanels.
b) The Anterior (frontal) fontanel, between angle of two parietal
bones & segment of the frontal bone, is diamond in shape.
4.0CONCLUSION
The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions: the axial and
appendicular. The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central axis of the
body and includes all bones of the head, neck, chest, and back. It serves
to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It also serves as the
attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back, and for
muscles that act across the shoulder and hip joints to move their
corresponding limbs. The axial skeleton of the adult consists of 80
bones, including the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic
cage. The skull is formed by 22 bones. Also associated with the head are
additional seven bones, including the hyoid bone and the ear
ossicles(three small bones found in each middle ear). The vertebral
column consists of 24 bones each of which is called a vertebra, plus the
sacrum and coccyx. The thoracic cage includes the 12 pairs of ribs, and
the sternum, the flattened bone of the anterior chest. The appendicular
skeleton includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones
that attach each limb to the axial skeleton. There are 126 bones in the
appendicular skeleton of an adult.
5.0SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the axial and appendicular skeleton, their
composition and structures. Sutures and fontanelles have also been
described.
6.0TUTOR-MARKEDASSIGNMENT
 Distinguish between the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton

 Define the axial skeleton and its components
 Define the appendicular skeleton and its components
7.0REFERENCES/FURTHERREADINGS
France,DianeL.(1998).LaboratoryManualandWorkbookforPhysical
69
PHS 201 MODULE 2
Books.
VanDeGraaff,& Kent,M.(1998).HumanAnatomy,(5thed.).WEB,
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
UNIT 4 THE MUSCLES AS ASSOCIATE ORGAN OF

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MainContent
3.1 The muscular system
3.2 Functions of muscle tissue
3.3 Muscle structure
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0INTRODUCTION
Think about the things that you do each day—talking, walking, sitting,
standing, and running—all of these activities require movement of
particular skeletal muscles. Skeletal muscles are even used during sleep.
The diaphragm is a sheet of skeletal muscle that has to contract and
relax for you to breathe day and night. If you recall from your study of
the skeletal system and joints, body movement occurs around the joints
in the body. The focus of this chapter is on skeletal muscle organization
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Identify the skeletal muscles and their actions on the skeleton and
soft tissues of the body
 Identify the origins and insertions of skeletal muscles and the
prime movements
 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
3.0MAINCONTENT
3.1The muscular system
The term muscle tissue refers to all the contractile tissues of the body:
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. The muscular system, however,
refers to the skeletal muscle system: the skeletal muscle tissue and
connective tissues that makeup individual muscle organs, such as the
biceps brachii muscle. Cardiac muscle tissue is located in the heart and
is therefore considered part of the cardiovascular system. Smooth
muscle tissue of the intestines is part of the digestive system, whereas
smooth muscle tissue of the urinary bladder is part of the urinary system
and so on.
3.2Functions of muscle tissue
Through sustained contraction or alternating contraction and relaxation,

muscle tissue has three key functions: producing motion, providing
stabilization, and generating heat.
1. Motion
Motion is obvious in movements such as walking and running, and in

localized movements, such as grasping a pencil or nodding the head.
These movements rely on the integrated functioning of bones, joints,
and skeletal muscles.
2. Stabilizing body positions and regulating the volume of

cavities in the body: Besides producing movements,skeletal
muscle contractions maintain the body in stable positions, such as
standing or sitting. Postural muscles display sustained
contractions when a person is awake, for example, partially
contracted neck muscles hold the head upright. In addition, the
volumes of the body cavities are regulated through the
contractions of skeletal muscles. For example muscles of
respiration regulate the volume of the thoracic cavity during the
process of breathing.
3. Thermo genesis (generation of heat). As skeletal muscle

contracts to perform work, a by-product is heat. Much of the heat
released by muscle is used to maintain
normal body temperature. Muscle contractions are thought to
generate as much as 85% of all body heat.
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Physiologic Characteristics of muscle tissue
Muscle tissue has four principal characteristics that enable it to carry out
its functions and thus contribute to homeostasis:
1. Excitability (irritability), a property of both muscle and nerve

cells (neurons), is the ability to respond to certain stimuli by
producing electrical signal called action potentials (impulses).
For example, the stimuli that trigger action potentials are
chemicals-neurotransmitters, released by neurons, and hormones
distributed by the blood.
2. Contractility is the ability of muscle tissue to shorten and

thicken (contract), thus generating force to do work. Muscles
contract in response to one or more muscle action potentials.
3. Extensibility means that the muscle can be extended (stretched)

without damaging the tissue. Most skeletal muscles are arranged
in opposing pairs. While one is contracting, the other not only
relaxed but also usually is being stretched.
4. Elasticity means that muscle tissue tends to return to its original
shape after contraction or extension.
3.3 Muscle structure
A. Connective Tissue Component
A skeletal muscle is an organ that is composed mainly of striated muscle

cells and connective tissue. Each skeletal muscle has two parts; the
connective tissue sheath that extend to form specialized structures that
aid in attaching the muscle to bone and the fleshy part called the belly or
gaster. The extended specialized structure may take the form of a cord,
called a tendon; alternatively, a broad sheet called an aponeurosis may
attach muscles to bones or to other muscles, as in the abdomen or across
the top (vault or vertex) of the skull. A connective tissue sheath called
fascia surrounds and separates muscles. Connective tissue also extends
into the muscle and divides it into numerous muscle bundles (fascicles).
There are three connective tissue components that cover a skeletal
muscle tissue. These are:
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
1. Epimysium─a connective tissue sheath that surrounds and

separates muscles.
2. Perimysium─a connective tissue that surrounds and holds
fascicles together.
3. Endomysium─a connective tissue that surrounds each muscle
fibre.
B. Microscopic structures
The muscle bundles are composed of many elongated muscle cells

called muscle fibres. Each muscle fibreis a cylindrical cell containing
several nuclei located immediately beneath the cell membrane
(sarcolemma). The cytoplasm of each muscle fibre (sarcoplasm) is
filled with myofibrils. Each myofibril is a thread-like structure that
extends from one end of the muscle fibre to the other. Myofibrils consist
of two major kinds of protein fibres: actinsor thin myofilaments, and
myosin or thick myofilaments.
Muscle contractions
The thick myofilaments are composed of a protein called myosin. Each

myosin filament has small regular projections known as crossbridges.
The crossbridges lie in a radial fashion around the long axis of the
myofilament. The rounded heads of the crossbridges lie in apposition to
the thin myofilaments. The thin myofilaments are composed of a
complex protein called actin, arranged in a double stranded coil. The
actin filaments also contain two additional proteins called troponin and
tropomysin.
Naming skeletal muscles
Most of the skeletal muscles are named according to one or more of the
following basis:
1. Direction of muscle fibres relative to the midline of the body or

longitudinal axis of a structure
Rectus means the fibres run parallel to the midline of the body or
longitudinal axis of a structure. Example, rectus abdominis
Transverse means the fibres run perpendicular to the midline
longitudinal axis of a structure. Example, transverse abdominis
Oblique means the fibres run diagonally to the midline
longitudinal axis of a structure. Example, external oblique
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2. Location−structure to which a muscle is found closely related.

Example: Frontal, a muscle near the frontal bone. Tibialis
anterior, a muscle near the front of tibia
3. Size−relative size of the muscle
Maximus means largest. Example, Gluteus maximus
Minimusmeans smallest. Example, Gluteus minimus
Longus means longest. Example, Adductor longus
Brevis means short. Example, Peroneous brevis
4. Number of origins−number of tendons of origin
Biceps means two origins. Example, Biceps brachii
Triceps means three origins. Example, Triceps brachii
Quadriceps means four origins. Example, Quadriceps femoris
5. Shape − relative shape of the muscle
Deltoid means triangular. Example, Deltoid
Trapezius means trapezoid. Example, Trapezius
Serratus means saw-toothed. Example, Serratus anterior
Rhomboideusmeans rhomboid or diamond shape. Example,
Rhomboideus major
6. Origin and insertion−sites where muscles originate and inserts.
Example, Sternocleidomastoid−originates on sternum and
clavicle and inserts on mastoid process of temporal bone.
7. Action−principal action of the muscle.
Flexor: decrease the angle at a joint. Example, Flexor carpi
radialis
Extensor: increases the angle at a joint. Example, Extensor carpi
ulnaris
Abductor: moves a bone away from the midline. Example,
Abductor pollicis brevis
Adductor: moves a bone closer to the midline. Example,
adductor longus
Levator: produces an upward movement. Example, Levatorlabii
superioris
Depressor: produces a downward movement. Example,
Depressor labiiinferioris
Supinator: turns the palm upward or anteriorly. Example,
Supinator
Pronator: turns the palm downward or posteriorly. Example,
Pronator teres
Sphincter: control the size of an opening. Example, External anal
sphincter
Tensor: makes a body part more rigid. Example, Tensor fasciae
latae
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PHS 201 MODULE 2
Rotator: moves a bone around its longitudinal axis. Example,

Obturator externus.
4.0CONCLUSION
Think about the things that you do each day - talking, walking, sitting,
standing, and running; all of these activities require movement of
particular skeletal muscles. Skeletal muscles are even used during sleep.
The diaphragm is a sheet of skeletal muscle that has to contract and
relax for you to breathe day and night. If you recall from your study of
the skeletal system and joints, body movement occurs around the joints
in the body.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the muscular system, the functions of

muscle tissue and muscle structure. Naming of skeletal muscles was also
discussed.
1. With good examples, name ten different muscles in the body

2. Describe the functions of muscular system
France,DianeL.(1998).LaboratoryManualandWorkbookforPhysical
Books.
76
PHS 201 MODULE 3
MODULE 3 NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Unit 1 Overview of the nervous system

Unit 2 Structure of the brain and its blood supply
Unit 3 Spinal cord and spinal nerves
Unit 4 Integration of central nervous system with other systems
Unit 5 The endocrine gland and other secretory organs
UNIT1 OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MainContent
3.1 Anoverviewofthenervoussystem
3.2 Division of the Nervous System
3.3 Anatomy of the Nervous System
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0INTRODUCTION
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs,
and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body.
Together, these organs are responsible for the control of the body and
communication among its parts. The brain and spinal cord form the
control centre known as the central nervous system (CNS), where
information is evaluated and decisions made. The sensory nerves and
sense organs of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) monitor when you
sit,stand,or walkbycontrollingmuscularactivities. Yourbody
temperatureremainsstableonacoldwinter dayor inawarmkitchen
becauseyourrateofheatgenerationandheatlossarecloselyregulated.
2.0OBJECTIVES
1. Explaintheactivitiesofthenervoussystem
2. Describeageneraloverviewofthenervoussystem
3. Describetheanatomicaldivisionsofthenervoussystemandtheir
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functions
4. Describethestructureofthebrain
3.0MAINCONTENT
Thenervoussystem,whichaccountsforamere3percentofthetotal
bodyweight,isthemostcomplexorgansystem.Itisvitalnotonlyto
lifebutalsotoour appreciationoflife.Thisunitdetails withthe
structureandfunctionofneuraltissueandintroducesprinciplesof
neurophysiologythatarevitaltoanunderstandingof thenervous
system’scapabilitiesandlimitations.
3.1AnOverviewoftheNervousSystem
(a)
(b) Parts of the nervous system (b) Composition of a

peripheral nerve
Fig. 20:Thenervoussystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNS
Thenervoussystemincludesalltheneuraltissuesinthebody.Thebasic
anatomicalunitsofthenervoussystemareindividualcellscalled
neurons.Supportingcellsor neuroglia separateandprotecttheneurons,
provideasupportiveframeworkforneuraltissue,actasphagocytes, and help
to regulatethecompositionoftheinterstitialfluid.Neuroglia,also
calledglialcells,faroutnumberneurons,andaccountforroughlyhalf
thevolumeofthenervoussystem.
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Neuraltissue, withsupportingbloodvesselsandconnectivetissues,
formstheorgansofthenervoussystem:the brain;thespinalcord;the
receptorsincomplex senseorgans,suchastheeyeandear;andthe
nervesthatinterconnectthese organsandlinkthenervoussystemwith
othersystems. In Unit 2,weintroducedthetwomajoranatomical
divisionsof thenervoussystem;(1)thecentral nervoussystemand(2)
theperipheralnervoussystem.
The Nervoussystemofmanconsistsof2mainparts:
1. Thecentralnervoussystem.
2. Theperipheralnervoussystem
a. Thesensorysystem. b.Themotorsystem.
c. Thesomaticnervoussystem.
d. Theautonomicnervoussystem,whichissubdividedinto
the parasympatheticandsympatheticdivisions.
Thecentralnervoussystem:
 Consists of the brain and spinal cord

 Co-ordinatestheactivitiesofthenervoussystem
 Receivesconstantinputof impulsesrelatingtochangesin
theinternalandexternalenvironments of the animal.
 Processesandintegratesinformationandsendsoutimpulseto
relevanteffector cells, tissues and
organsforaction.Impulsestransmittedalongsensory
nervesarecalledsensoryimpulses while those transmitted along
motor nerves are called motor impulses.
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Figure 21: Vertical section of Human brain
3.2 Division of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System
The brain and spinal cord together form the central nervous system, or
CNS. The CNS acts as the control center of the body by providing its
processing, memory, and regulation systems. The CNS takes in all of the
conscious and subconscious sensory information from the body’s
sensory receptors to stay aware of the body’s internal and external
conditions. Using this sensory information, it makes decisions about
both conscious and subconscious actions to take to maintain the body’s
homeostasis and ensure its survival. The CNS is also responsible for the
higher functions of the nervous system such as language, creativity,
expression, emotions, and personality. The brain is the seat of
consciousness and determines who we are as individuals.
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all of the parts of the
nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord. These parts include
all of the cranial and spinal nerves, ganglia, and sensory receptors.
Somatic Nervous System
The somatic nervous system (SNS) is a division of the PNS that includes
all of the voluntary efferent neurons. The SNS is the only consciously
controlled part of the PNS and is responsible for stimulating skeletal
muscles in the body.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the PNS that

includes all of the involuntary efferent neurons. The ANS controls
subconscious effectors such as visceral muscle tissue, cardiac muscle
tissue, and glandular tissue.
There are 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system in the body: the
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
 Sympathetic. The sympathetic division forms the body’s “fight or

flight” response to stress, danger, excitement, exercise, emotions,
and embarrassment. The sympathetic division increases
respiration and heart rate, releases adrenaline and other stress
hormones, and decreases digestion to cope with these situations.
 Parasympathetic. The parasympathetic division forms the body’s

“rest and digest” response when the body is relaxed, resting, or
feeding. The parasympathetic works to undo the work of the
sympathetic division after a stressful situation. Among other
functions, the parasympathetic division works to decrease
respiration and heart rate, increase digestion, and permit the
elimination of wastes.
Enteric Nervous System
The enteric nervous system (ENS) is the division of the ANS that is
responsible for regulating digestion and the function of the digestive
organs. The ENS receives signals from the central nervous system
through both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the
autonomic nervous system to help regulate its functions. However, the
ENS mostly works independently of the CNS and continues to function
without any outside input. For this reason, the ENS is often called the
“brain of the gut” or the body’s “second brain.” The ENS is an immense
system—almost as many neurons exist in the ENS as in the spinal cord.
Action Potentials
Neurons function through the generation and propagation of

electrochemical signals known as action potentials (APs). An AP is
created by the movement of sodium and potassium ions through the
membrane of neurons.
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PHS 201 MODULE 3
 Resting Potential: At rest, neurons maintain a concentration of

sodium ions outside of the cell and potassium ions inside of the
cell. This concentration is maintained by the sodium-potassium
pump of the cell membrane which pumps 3 sodium ions out of
the cell for every 2 potassium ions that are pumped into the cell.
The ion concentration results in a resting electrical potential of -
70 millivolts (mV), which means that the inside of the cell has a
negative charge compared to its surroundings.
 Threshold Potential: If a stimulus permits enough positive ions to
enter a region of the cell to cause it to reach -55 mV, that region
of the cell will open its voltage-gated sodium channels and allow
sodium ions to diffuse into the cell. -55 mV is the threshold
potential for neurons as this is the “trigger” voltage that they must
reach to cross the threshold into forming an action potential.
 Depolarization: Sodium carries a positive charge that causes the
cell to become depolarized (positively charged) compared to its
normal negative charge. The voltage for depolarization of all
neurons is +30 mV. The depolarization of the cell is the AP that
is transmitted by the neuron as a nerve signal. The positive ions
spread into neighbouring regions of the cell, initiating a new AP
in those regions as they reach -55 mV. The AP continues to
spread down the cell membrane of the neuron until it reaches the
end of an axon.
 Repolarization: After the depolarization voltage of +30 mV is
reached, voltage-gated potassium ion channels open, allowing
positive potassium ions to diffuse out of the cell. The loss of
potassium along with the pumping of sodium ions back out of the
cell through the sodium-potassium pump restores the cell to the -
55 mV resting potential. At this point the neuron is ready to start
a new action potential.
Synapses
A synapse is the junction between a neuron and another cell. Synapses

may form between 2 neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell.
There are two types of synapses found in the body: chemical synapses
and electrical synapses.
 Chemical synapses: At the end of a neuron’s axon is an enlarged

region of the axon known as the axon terminal. The axon
terminal is separated from the next cell by a small gap known as
the synaptic cleft. When an AP reaches the axon terminal, it
opens voltage-gated calcium ion channels. Calcium ions cause
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
vesicles containing chemicals known as neurotransmitters (NT)

to release their contents by exocytosis into the synaptic cleft. The
NT molecules cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptor
molecules on the cell, forming a synapse with the neuron. These
receptor molecules open ion channels that may either stimulate
the receptor cell to form a new action potential or may inhibit the
cell from forming an action potential when stimulated by another
neuron.
 Electrical synapses: Electrical synapses are formed when 2
neurons are connected by small holes called gap junctions. The
gap junctions allow electric current to pass from one neuron to
the other, so that an AP in one cell is passed directly on to the
other cell through the synapse.
Figure 22: Reflex arc showing the pathway of impulses

Source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C. (1992); Adapted from
Assefa N & Tsige Y. (2003)
3.3 Anatomy of the Nervous Tissue
The majority of the nervous system is tissue made up of two classes of

cells: neurons and neuroglia.
 Neurons. Neurons, also known as nerve cells, communicate

within the body by transmitting electrochemical signals. Neurons
are different from other cells in the body due to the many long
cellular processes that extend from their cell body. The cell body
is the roughly round part of a neuron that contains the nucleus,
mitochondria, and most of the cellular organelles. Small tree-like
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PHS 201 MODULE 3
structures called dendrites extend from the cell body to pick up

stimuli from the environment, other neurons, or sensory receptor
cells. Long transmitting processes called axons extend from the
cell body to send signals to other neurons or effector cells in the
body.
There are 3 basic classes of neurons: afferent neurons, efferent

neurons, and interneurons.
1. Afferent neurons: Also known as sensory neurons, afferent
neurons transmit sensory signals to the central nervous system
from receptors in the body.
2. Efferent neurons: Also known as motor neurons, efferent neurons

transmit signals from the central nervous system to effectors in
the body such as muscles and glands.
3. Interneurons: Interneurons are neurons that have their

components (cell body, axon and dendrite) entirely within the
CNS and convey impulses between motor and sensory neurons.
They especially function in reflex arcs.
Neuroglia
Neuroglia, also known as glial cells, act as the “helper” cells of the
nervous system. Each neuron in the body is surrounded by 6 to 60
neuroglia cells that protect, feed, and insulate the neuron. Because
neurons are extremely specialized cells that are essential to body
function and almost never reproduce, neuroglia are vital to maintaining a
functional nervous system.
Brain
The brain, a soft, wrinkled organ that weighs about 3 pounds, is located
inside the cranial cavity, where the bones of the skull surround and
protect it. The approximately 100 billion neurons of the brain form the
main control centre of the body. The brain and spinal cord together form
the central nervous system (CNS), where information is processed and
responses originate. The brain, the seat of higher mental functions such
as consciousness, memory, planning, and voluntary actions, also
controls essential body functions such as the maintenance of respiration,
heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a long, thin mass of bundled neurons that carries
information through the vertebral cavity of the spine beginning at the
lower border of the medulla oblongata of the brain on and ends
inferiorly in the lumbar region of the spine. In the lumbar region, the
spinal cord separates into a bundle of individual nerves called the cauda
equina (due to its resemblance to the tail (cauda) of the horse (equina).
This continues inferiorly to the levels of the sacrum and coccyx. The
white matter of the spinal cord functions as the main conduit of nerve
signals to the body from the brain. The grey matter of the spinal cord
integrates reflexes to stimuli.
Nerves
Nerves are bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that
act as information highways to carry signals between the brain and
spinal cord and the rest of the body. Each axon is wrapped in a
connective tissue sheath called the endoneurium. Individual axons of the
nerve are bundled into groups of axons called fascicles, wrapped in a
sheath of connective tissue called the perineurium. Finally, many
fascicles are wrapped together in another layer of connective tissue
called the epineurium to form a whole nerve. The wrapping of nerves
with connective tissue helps to protect the axons and to increase the
speed of their communication within the body.
3.3.1Functions of the Nervous System
The nervous system has 3 main functions: sensory, integration, and

motor.
 Sensory: The sensory function of the nervous system involves

collecting information from sensory receptors that monitor the
body’s internal and external conditions. These signals are then
passed on to the central nervous system (CNS) for integrated
processing.
 Integration: The process of integration is the processing of the

many sensory signals that are passed into the CNS at any given
time. These signals are evaluated, compared, used for decision
making, discarded or committed to memory as deemed
appropriate. Integration takes place in the gray matter of the brain
and spinal cord and is performed by interneurons. Many
interneurons work together to form complex networks that
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PHS 201 MODULE 3
provide this processing power.
 Motor: Once the networks of interneurons in the CNS evaluate

sensory information and decide on an action, they stimulate
efferent neurons. Efferent neurons (many of which are motor
neurons) carry signals from the gray matter of the CNS through
the nerves of the peripheral nervous system to effector cells. The
effector may be smooth, cardiac, or skeletal muscle tissue or
glandular tissue. The effector then releases a hormone or moves a
part of the body to respond to the stimulus.
4.0CONCLUSION
The nervous system is unique in the vast complexity of thought

processes and control of actions that it can perform. It receives each
minute literally millions of bits of information from the different sensory
nerves and sensory organs and then integrates all of these to determine
the responses that are to be made by the body.
5.0SUMMARY
The study in this unit included anoverviewofthenervoussystem, divisions

of the nervous system, the anatomy of the nervous system and the
functions of the nervous system.
1. Discuss in details the divisions of the nervous system

2. List and discuss the functions of the nervous system
Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C. (1992), Human anatomy and

physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New York, 2nd ed,) Adapted from
Assefa N & Tsige Y. Human Anatomy and Physiology. Lecture
notes for Nursing Students. 2003
Thibodeau, Gary A. and Kevin T. TheHuman Body in Health and

Disease, ed. 6, Philadelphia, 1987, J.B.LippincotCompany)
Adapted from Assefa N & Tsige Y. Human Anatomy and Physiology.

Lecture notes for Nursing Students. 2003
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
UNIT2STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN AND ITS

BLOOD SUPPLY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MainContent
3.1 Structureofthe Brain
3.2 FunctionsoftheBrain
3.3 Blood supply to the brain
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0INTRODUCTION
The CNS, as its name implies, is centrally located in the core of the
body. Its two major components, the brain and spinal cord, are found
along the midsagittal plane of the body. The brain is protected in the
cranial cavity of the skull. Protective membranes called meninges cover
the brain and spinal cord.
2.0OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to;
 Describe the structureofthe brain

 Describe thefunctionsofthebrain
 Describe the blood supply to the brain
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Structureofthe Brain
TheBrain
 Thehumanbrainweighsabout1.2to1.4kg
 It consumes25%ofthebodyoxygensupplytogenerateenergy
 It iscoveredbyamembranecalledthemeninges
 It isenclosed inabonycasecalledtheskullor cranium
 It is madeupof2typesofnervoustissues,(nervescells,which form
the grey matterandnervesfibres, which constitute the
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PHS 201 MODULE 3
whitematter.).
Divisions of the Brain
The brain, one of the largest organs in man, consists of the following
major divisions, named in ascending order beginning with most inferior
part:
I. Brain stem
A. Medulla oblongata
B. Pons
C. Midbrain
II. Cerebellum
III. Diencephalon
A. Hypothalamus
B. Thalamus
IV. Cerebrum
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
Figure 23: Major regions of the Central Nervous System. A, Sagital

sections of the brain and spinal cord. B, Section of preserved brain
(Source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992)
Brain Stem
The lowest part of the brain stem is the medulla oblongata. Immediately
superior to the medulla oblongata lies the pons and superior to that, the
midbrain. Together these three structures are called the brain stem
(Figure 23). The medulla oblongata is an enlarged, upward extension of
the spinal cord. It lies just inside the cranial cavity superior to the large
opening in the occipital bone called the foramen magnum. Like the
spinal cord, the medulla consists of gray and white matter, but their
arrangement differs in the two parts of the brain. In the medulla, bits of
gray matter mix closely and intricately with white matter to form the
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reticular formation (reticular means "net-like"). In the spinal cord, gray

matter and white matter do not intermingle; gray matter forms the core
of the cord, and white matter surrounds it. The pons and midbrain, like
the medulla, consist of white matter and scattered bits of gray matter.
Diencephalon
The diencephalon is a small but important part of the brain located

between the midbrain inferiorly and the cerebrum superiorly. It consists
of two major structures: the hypothalamus and the thalamus. The
ventricle of the diencephalons is the 3rd ventricle.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus, as its name suggests, is located

inferior to the thalamus. The posterior pituitary gland, the stalk that
attaches it to the undersurface of the brain, and areas of gray matter
located in the sidewalls of a fluid-filled space called the third ventricle
are extensions of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is a crucial part
of the mechanism for maintaining body temperature. Therefore a
marked elevation in body temperature in the absence of disease
frequently characterizes injuries or other abnormalities of the
hypothalamus. In addition, this important center is involved in functions
such as the regulation of water balance; sleep cycles, and the control of
appetite and many emotions involved in pleasure, fear, anger, sexual
arousal, and pain.
Thalamus: Immediately superior to the hypothalamus is a dumb bell

shaped section or largely gray matter called the thalamus. Each enlarged
end of the dumbbell lies in a lateral wall of the third ventricle. The
medial surfaces of the thalamus are connected across the third ventricle
by a thin white matter called the inter-thalamic adhesion. The thalamus
is composed chiefly of dendrites and cell bodies of neurons that have
axons extending up to the sensory areas of the cerebrum. It performs the
following functions:
1. It helps to produce sensations. Its neurons relay impulses to the

cerebral cortex from the sense organs of the body.
2. It associates sensations with emotions. Almost all sensations are
accompanied by a feeling of some degree of pleasantness or
unpleasantness. The way that these pleasant and unpleasant
feelings are produced is unknown except that they seem to be
associated with the arrival of sensory impulses in the thalamus.
3. It plays a part in the so-called arousal or alerting mechanism.
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4. It contains important nuclei such as medial geniculate body,

which is responsible for auditory sense and lateral geniculate
body, which is responsible for vision.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is the second largest part of the human brain. It lies
under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum. In the cerebellum, gray matter
composes the outer layer, and white matter composes the bulk of the
interior.
Function
The cerebellum plays an essential part in the production of normal

movements. Perhaps a few examples will make this clear. A patient who
has a tumor of the cerebellum frequently loses balance and may topple
over and reel like a drunken person when walking. It may be impossible
to coordinate muscles normally. Frequent complaints about being
clumsy and unable to even drive a nail or draw a straight line are typical.
With the loss of normal cerebellar function, the ability to make precise
movements is lost. The general functions of the cerebellum, therefore,
are to produce smooth coordinated movements, maintain equilibrium,
and sustain normal postures.
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest and uppermost part of the brain. If you were
to look at the outer surface of the cerebrum, the first features you would
notice might be its many ridges and grooves. The ridges are called
convolutions or gyri, and the grooves are called sulci. The deepest sulci
are called fissures; the longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum into
right and left halves or hemispheres. These halves are almost separate
structures except for their lower mid-portions, which are connected by a
structure called the corpus callosum (Figure 22c). Two deep sulci
subdivide each cerebral hemisphere into four major lobes and each lobe
into numerous convolutions.
The lobes are named after the bones that lie over them: the frontal lobe,
the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe. Identify these
in Figure below.
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a b
Figure 24: The cerebrum: a. Gyri, fissures and lobes; b. Functional

areas
i. Functions of the cerebrum: The neurons of the cerebrum do not

function alone. They function with many other neurons in many
other parts of the brain and in the spinal cord. Neurons of these
structures continually bring impulses to cerebral neurons and
continually transmit impulses away from them. If all other
neurons were functioning normally and only cerebral neurons were
not functioning, here are some of the things that you could not
do: You could not think or use your will.
ii. You could not remember anything that has ever happened to you.
iii. You could not decide to make the smallest movement, nor could
you make it.
iv. You would not see or hear.
v. You could not experience any of the sensations that make life so
rich and varied.
vi. Nothing would anger or frighten you, and nothing would bring
you joy or sorrow.
vii. You would, in short, be unconscious.
These terms, then sum up cerebral functions: Consciousness, thinking,

memory, sensations, emotions, and willed movements. Figure 23(b)
above shows the areas of the cerebral cortex essential for willed
movements, general sensations, vision, hearing, and normal speech.
Specific areas of the cortex have very specific functions. For example,
the temporal lobe's auditory areas interpret incoming nervous signals
from the ear as very specific sounds. The visual area of the cortex in the
occipital lobe helps you identify and understand specific images.
Localized areas of the cortex are directly related to specific functions, as
shown in Figure 23.
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3.2FunctionsoftheBrain
 Reasoning, a Definitive Characteristic of Human Nature
Thinking or reasoning is performed by the frontal lobe of the cerebral

cortex, and this is what distinguishes you as the most advanced and
superior creature on the planet earth. Cognition or intellect is that
capacity of human beings which enables them to challenge social or
religious beliefs and verify facts. It is one of the amazing brain facts that
the development of knowledge in various fields, such as science, art,
philosophy, mathematics and language is solely owed to the marvelous
potential of your reasoning.
 Movements
One of the important human brain functions is that of the production and
coordination of miscellaneous body movements. The movements can be
of two types, viz. voluntary and involuntary. They occur in various parts
of your body, for example, arms, legs, and neck muscles are controlled
by conscious actions, while beating of heart and breathing are the
involuntary ones. The conscious activities are directed by cerebrum and
originate from the motor areas of the frontal lobe and the primary motor
cortex. Just imagine, if there were no movement in your body, there
would be no life or soul in it!
 Problem Solving and Emotions
Humans, among all the advanced creatures on earth, have profound

capability of understanding, evaluating, and offering a comprehensive
and applicable solution to the critical issues of life. You also know that
man is called the 'emotional beast' because of the variety of emotional
attitudes in response to various real life situations. Both of these
assignments fall under the domain of Frontal Lobe of the cerebral
cortex. However, these problem solving characteristics are also found in
some lower animals that simply follow the genetic programs already
present in their brain, but are unable to reason (think over) and plan the
tasks.
 Memory and Learning
The hippocampus is located in the temporal lobe of telencephalon and is

considered as one of the major components of human brain that plays an
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important role in the process of learning and memory processing. Once

information is received through the sensory organs, it is processed in the
brain and temporarily stored in the short term memory. The function of
the medial temporal lobe is to consolidate the information from short
term memory to the long-term memory and carry out the spatial
navigation.
 Communication and Language
Broca's and Wernicke's Areas are primarily associated with the

production and comprehension of speech sounds, respectively. Broca's
area is located in the Frontal Lobe, while Wernicke's area is found at the
junction between the temporal and parietal lobe. So, this part of the
brain assists you in communication with other members of the society.
Non fluent and fluent aphasias are the disorders of language that are
caused by any damage or injury to the areas that are responsible for the
creation and perception of speech sounds.
 Visual Processing
Did you ever think how your brain creates a perfect visual image of the
things you see in the world around you? Yes, this is the task assigned to
the occipital lobe of the telencephalon region of your brain that receives
the visual signals from the retina of your eye via the Optic Nerve, and
after processing, converts it into the mirror image of the same object.
 Auditory Processing
The perception, recognition and interpretation of the stimuli, related to

the sense of hearing, are accomplished by the assistance of the Temporal
lobe that stretches across both the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex and
is located beneath the lateral fissure. The function of this structurally
and functionally specialized region of the brain is not just limited to
auditory processing, it is also involved in the production of emotional
attitudes, storage of new memories, processing sensory output and the
retention of visual memories.
 Sensory Perception
All of the five traditional senses, namely, sight (vision), hearing

(auditory), smell (olfactory), taste (gustation) and touch
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(somatosensory), are perceived, processed and controlled by one of the

major parts of brain, i.e. cerebrum. It particularly involves the primary
sensory areas. The perception of the world around man is developed by
the sensory information that is synthesized by these regions of the
cerebral cortex.
 Breathing Control
Can you breathe under your voluntary command or control and continue
to control it while sleeping? The answer to the first part of the question
is no and the reason is explained by the second phrase, i.e. if it were
really under man’s deliberate action, he wouldn't be able to breathe
while sleeping, and consequently die! The posterior part of hindbrain,
called medulla oblongata, controls involuntary tasks of the body, such as
gaseous exchange. The alternative expansion and contraction or
relaxation of lung muscles, lowering and elevation of diaphragm, and
the similar activity of chest muscles are done quite automatically
without even thinking about it.
 Regulation of Heartbeat
The heartbeat rate or regular pumping of blood by heart is vital to

overall functioning of the body as it is responsible for the delivery and
elimination of the respiratory gases and the products of metabolism
across the smallest part of the body. If there is any delay in the supply of
oxygen and essential nutrients, the deprived cells start dying, and an
extended delay may even lead to death. Medulla oblongata is the organ
associated with the regulation of heartbeat rate and is comprised of the
lower part of brainstem or hindbrain.
 Blood Pressure Control
The maintenance and regulation of blood pressure is one of the

involuntary human brain functions performed by the medullar region of
the brain that connects the higher parts of Central Nervous System with
the spinal cord. It keeps the diastolic (minimum) and systolic
(maximum) pressure in the arteries under normal limits, and in case it
rises beyond the bearable limits, heart-attack, brain haemorrhage or
other critical circulatory disorders are very likely to be the result.
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Table 3: Functions of Major Divisions of the Brain
BRAIN AREA FUNCTION

Brain stem Two-way conduction
Medulla oblongata pathway
between the spinal cord
and higher
brain centers; cardiac,
respiratory,
Pons and vasomotor control
center
Midbrain Two-way conduction

pathway
between areas of the brain
Diencephalon and
Hypothalamus other regions of the body;
Influences respiration
Two-way conduction
pathway; relay
Thalamus for visual and auditory
Impulses
Cerebellum
Regulation of body
Cerebrum temperature,
water balance, sleep cycle
control
appetite, and sexual
arousal
Sensory relay station

from various
body areas to cerebral
cortex;
emotions and alerting or
arousal
mechanisms
Muscle coordination;
maintenance
of equilibrium and
posture
Sensory perception,
emotions willed
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movements,
consciousness, and
memory
1.Theautonomicnervoussystemconsistsof --------------------and-------------
-------
2.Mentiontwoportionsofthehindbrain.
3.2 FunctionsofthePartsof theBrain
 Thecerebrumcontrolsallthebody’svoluntaryactionand
consciousness.
 Thefrontallobeistheseat ofintelligence,memory, imagination,
thought,judgment, emotionalreactionandmovementofskeletal
muscles.
 Theparietallobereceivesandinterpretsthesensationsof
pressure,temperatureandposition.
 Thetemporallobeisconcernedwithhearing,memoryand
understandingofspeech.
3.3 Blood Supply of the Brain
Cerebral circulation is the movement of blood through the network of

cerebral arteries and veins supplying the brain. The rate of the cerebral
blood flow in the adult is typically 750 millilitres per minute,
representing 15% of the cardiac output. The arteries deliver oxygenated
blood, glucose and other nutrients to the brain, and the veins carry
deoxygenated blood back to the heart, removing carbon dioxide, lactic
acid, and other metabolic products. Since the brain is very vulnerable to
compromises in its blood supply, the cerebral circulatory system has
many safeguards including autoregulation of the blood vessels and the
failure of these safeguards can result in a stroke. The amount of blood
that the cerebral circulation carries is known as cerebral blood flow. The
presence of gravitational fields or accelerations also determine
variations in the movement and distribution of blood in the brain, such
as when suspended upside-down.
Blood supply to the brain is normally divided into anterior and posterior
segments, relating to the different arteries that supply the brain. The two
main pairs of arteries are the Internal carotid arteries (supply the anterior
brain) and vertebral arteries (supplying the brainstem and posterior
brain).
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The anterior and posterior cerebral circulations are interconnected via

bilateral posterior communicating arteries. They are part of the Circle of
Willis, which provides backup circulation to the brain. In case one of the
supply arteries is occluded, the Circle of Willis provides
interconnections between the anterior and the posterior cerebral
circulation along the floor of the cerebral vault, providing blood to
tissues that would otherwise become ischemic.
Anterior cerebral circulation
The Anterior cerebral circulation is the blood supply to the anterior

portion of the brain. It is supplied by the following arteries:
 Internal carotid arteries: These large arteries are the medial

branches of the Common carotid arteries in the neck which enter
the skull, as opposed to the External carotid branches which
supply the facial tissues. The Internal carotid artery branches into
the Anterior cerebral artery and continues to form the Middle
cerebral artery.
 Anterior cerebral artery (ACA)
Anterior communicating artery: Connects both anterior cerebral
arteries, within and along the floor of the cerebral vault.
 Middle cerebral artery (MCA)
Posterior cerebral circulation
The posterior cerebral circulation is the blood supply to the posterior

portion of the brain, including the occipital lobes, cerebellum and
brainstem. It is supplied by the following arteries:
 Vertebral arteries: These smaller arteries are branches of the

Subclavian arteries which primarily supply the shoulders, lateral
chest and arms. Within the cranium the two Vertebral arteries
fuse into the Basilar artery.
 Posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA)
 Basilar artery: Supplies the midbrain, cerebellum, and usually
terminates as the:
 Posterior cerebral artery; other branches are:
- Anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA)
- Pontine branches
- Superior cerebellar artery (SCA)
 Posterior cerebral artery (PCA)
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 Posterior communicating artery
Figure 25: Blood supply of the Brain
Venous drainage
The venous drainage of the cerebrum can be separated into two

subdivisions: superficial and deep.
The superficial system is composed of dural venous sinuses, which have

walls composed of dura mater as opposed to a traditional vein. The dural
sinuses are, therefore, located on the surface of the cerebrum. The most
prominent of these sinuses is the superior sagittal sinus which flows in
the sagittal plane under the midline of the cerebral vault, posteriorly and
inferiorly to the confluence of sinuses, where the superficial drainage
joins with the sinus that primarily drains the deep venous system. From
here, two transverse sinuses bifurcate and travel laterally and inferiorly
in an S-shaped curve that forms the sigmoid sinuses which go on to
form the two Internal jugular veins. In the neck, the jugular veins
parallel the upward course of the carotid arteries and drain blood into the
superior vena cava.
The deep venous drainage is primarily composed of traditional veins

inside the deep structures of the brain, which join behind the midbrain to
form the vein of Galen. This vein merges with the inferior sagittal sinus
to form the straight sinus which then joins the superficial venous system
mentioned above at the confluence of sinuses.
4.0CONCLUSION
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All three parts of the brain stem function as two-way conduction paths.
Areas of the brain are supplied by different arteries. The major systems
are divided into an anterior circulation (the anterior cerebral artery and
middle cerebral artery) and a posterior circulation (posterior cerebral
artery from the vertebral artery).
5.0SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt about the structure of the brain, the
function and blood supply to the brain.
1. List and describe the functions of the brain

2. Describe the similarities and differences between cerebrum and
cerebellum
3. Write a short note on the blood supply of the brain
Albright TD, Jessell TM, Kandell ER, Posner MI: Progress in the neural
sciences in the century after Cajal (and the mysteries that
remain). Ann N Y Acad Sci 929:11, 2001.
Boehning D, Snyder SH: Novel neural modulators. Annu Rev Neurosci

26:105, 2003.
Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and

physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New York, 2nd ed,) Adapted from
Assefa N & Tsige Y. Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture
notes for Nursing Students. 2003
Haines DE: Fundamental Neuroscience. New York: Churchill

Livingstone, 1997. Haines DE, Lancon JA: Review of
Neuroscience. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 2003.
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UNIT 3 SPINAL CORD AND NERVES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MainContent
3.1 Anatomy and Function of Spinal cord
3.2 Map of Dermatomes
3.3 Spinal Nerves
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0INTRODUCTION
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and
support cells that extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to
the lumbar region of the vertebral column. The brain and spinal cord
together make up the central nervous system (CNS). In man, the spinal
cord begins at the occipital bone where it passes through the foramen
magnum, meets and enters the spinal canal at the beginning of the
cervical vertebrae. The spinal cord extends down to between the first
and second lumbar vertebrae where it ends. The enclosing bony
vertebral column protects the relatively shorter spinal cord. It is around
45 cm (18 in) in men and around 43 cm (17 in) long in women. Also, the
spinal cord has a varying width, ranging from 13 mm (1⁄2 in) thick in the
cervical and lumbar regions to 6.4 mm (1⁄4 in) thick in the thoracic area.
The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of nerve signals
from the motor cortex to the body, and from the afferent fibres of the
sensory neurons to the sensory cortex. It is also a center for coordinating
many reflexes and contains reflex arcs that can independently control
reflexes and central pattern generators.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Discuss the anatomy and functions of the spinal cord
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3.0MAINCONTENT
3.1 Anatomy and function of Spinal Cord
The spinal cord lies within the vertebral canal and extends from the
foramen magnum to the level of the second lumbar vertebrae after which
a fibrous remnant, the filum terminale, descends to be attached to the
back of the coccyx. The cord is about 45 cm long. It is cylindrical in
shape, flattened slightly anteroposteriorly, and has cervical and lumbar
enlargements where the nerves supplying the upper and lower limb
originate, the enlargements lie opposite the lower cervical and lower
thoracic vertebrae. Since the spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral
canal, the nerves descend with increasing obliquity before leaving the
canal through the intervertebral foramina. The collection of lower
lumbar, sacral and coccygeal nerves below the spinal cord, with the
filum terminale, is known as the cauda equina. The cord has an
anterior median fissure and a posterior median sulcus. On its sides
the rootlets of the spinal nerves emerge from anterolateral and
posterolateral sulci.
The spinal cord has a small, irregular shaped internal section that
consists of gray matter (nerve cell bodies) and a larger area surrounding
this gray part that consists of white matter (nerve cell fibers). The gray
matter is so arranged that a column of cells extend up and down
dorsally, one on each side; another column is found in the ventral region
on each side. These two pairs of columns, called the dorsal and ventral
horns, give the gray matter an H-shaped appearance in cross section. In
the center of the gray matter is a small channel, central canal that
contains cerebrospinal fluid, the liquid that circulates around the brain
and spinal cord. The white matter consists of thousands of nerve cell
fibers arranged in three areas external to the gray matter on each side.
Functions of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is the link between the spinal nerves and the brain. It is
also a place where simple responses, known as reflexes can be
coordinated even without involving the brain.
The functions of the spinal cord may be divided into three categories:
1. Conduction of sensory impulses upward through ascending tracts

to the brain
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2. Conduction of motor impulses from the brain down through

descending tracts to the efferent neurons that supply muscles or
glands
3. Reflex activities. A reflex is a simple, rapid, and automatic
response involving very few neurons.
When you fling out an arm or leg to catch your balance, withdraw from
a painful stimulus, or blink to avoid an object approaching your eyes,
you are experiencing reflex behaviour. A reflex pathway that passes
through the spinal cord alone and does not involve the brain is termed a
spinal reflex. The stretch reflex, in which a muscle is stretched and
responds by contracting, is an example.
Figure 26: Spinal cord. The meninges, spinal nerves, and sympathetic
trunk are visible in the illustration (Source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P.,
NobackR.C., (1992)
Peripheral Nervous System
The nerves connecting the brain and the spinal cord to other parts of the
body constitute the peripheral nervous system (PNS). This system
includes cranial and spinal nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord,
respectively, to peripheral structures such as the skin surface and the
skeletal muscles. In addition, other structures in the autonomic nervous
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system (ANS) are considered part of the PNS. These connect the brain
and spinal cord to various glands in the body and to the cardiac and
smooth muscle in the thorax and abdomen.
Figure 27: Base of the brain showing cranial nerves (Source: Carola, R.,
Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992)
3.2 Nerves
A nerve is a bundle of nerve cell fibers located outside the CNS.

Bundles of nerve cell fibers within the CNS are tracts. Tracts are located
within the brain and also within the spinal cord to conduct impulses to
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and from the brain. A nerve or tract can be compared to an electric cable
made up of many wires. As with muscles, the "wires," or nerve cell
fibers in a nerve, are bound together with connective tissue.
Figure 28: Nervous Tissue Mag. × 872. (Micrograph provided by the

Regents of University of Michigan Medical School c 2012)
3.2 The Spinal Nerves
A spinal nerve is any of the 31 pairs of nerves that arise from the spinal
cord. The spinal nerves correspond to where it emerges and passes
through the spinal vertebrae: there are 8 cervical (neck), 12 thoracic
(chest), 5 lumbar (lower back), 5 sacral (sacrum bone) and one
coccygeal (tailbone) nerve(s). Each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal
cord by two roots: a dorsal or posterior sensory root and a ventral or
anterior motor root. The fibers of the sensory root carry sensory
impulses to the spinal cord—pain, temperature, touch and position sense
(proprioception)—from tendons, joints and body surfaces. The motor
roots carry impulses from the spinal cord. The spinal nerves exit the
spinal cord and pass through the intervertebral foramen, then divides
into four branches.
Description
There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves. These nerves are mixed,
having both sensory and motor aspects. Their motor fibers begin on the
ventral part of the spinal cord at the anterior horns of the gray matter.
The roots of their sensory fibers are located on the dorsal side of the
spinal cord in the posterior root ganglia. When the motor and sensory
fibers exit the column through the intervertebral foramina and pass
through the meninges, they join together to form the spinal nerves.
Spinal nerves receive only contralateral innervation from first order
neurons.
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Eight pairs of spinal nerves are located in the uppermost, cervical

region of the cord:
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Twelve pairs are found in the thoracic region.

Five pairs are in the lumbar area.
Five pairs are in the sacral area.
One pair is found in the most inferior, coccygeal region.
Function
These second order lower motor neurons, the spinal nerves, form part of
the final common pathway for information traveling from the central
nervous system to the periphery. The spinal nerves provide innervation
to body areas below the neck while cranial nerves (also second order
neurons) carry impulses only to the head and neck, except for the vagus
nerve. (You will understand shortly that cranial nerves can be sensory,
motor or both).
The Autonomic (self-regulating) Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system is involved in the control of the heart,

glands and smooth muscles of the body and plays a major role in
regulating unconscious, vegetative functions. It works together with the
endocrine system to control the secretion of hormones and is itself
controlled by the hypothalamus.
Because motor fibers make up the bulk of the autonomic nervous

system, some anatomists consider it to be purely motor, but it does
include some afferent axons that carry information from the viscera.
Although the autonomic nervous system is considered to be one of the

three main divisions of the human nervous system in its own right, parts
of both the central nervous systems and the peripheral nervous systems
play a role in its functions.
The autonomic nervous system has two components, the

sympatheticsystem and the parasympathetic system. These two
aspects have antagonistic functions.
Sympathetic System
The sympathetic system prepares the body for fight or flight reactions.
Action of this system results in accelerated heart rate, increased blood
pressure and blood flow away from the periphery and digestive system
toward the brain, heart and skeletal muscles. It also causes adrenaline to
be released, temporarily increasing physical strength.
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Parasympathetic System
The parasympathetic system brings the body back to a state of

equilibrium. It slows the heart rate and decreases the release of
hormones into the blood stream. The activity of the parasympathetic
system causes more localized reactions than does the sympathetic
system as much of its output is to specific organs.
The autonomic nervous system consists of four chains of nuclei or

ganglia, two of which are located on either side of the spinal cord. The
outer chains of nuclei form the parasympathetic division of the system
while those closest to the spinal cord make up its sympathetic element.
Rami communicantes
The rami of the autonomic nervous system are the axons of pre-
ganglionic and ganglionic fibers. Most of the axons of pre-ganglionic
neurons are myelinated. Their cell bodies are found in the gray matter of
the brain stem and spinal cord. Their axons synapse with neurons within
the two ganglionic chains.
Pre-ganglionic cells of the autonomic nervous system are neurons

located in some of the cranial nerves of the brain stem and in some of
the spinal nerves that project to the ganglionic chains of the autonomic
nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is closely connected
with the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Ganglionic cells originate within the ganglia. They project to post-

ganglionic neurons.
Post-ganglionic cells are neurons that are located in the target organs
and muscles of the autonomic nervous system.
It can be said that the motor pathways of the autonomic nervous system
are made up of its pre-ganglionic and ganglionic cells.
The fibers of the ganglionic chain of the parasympathetic system are not
as well-defined as those of the sympathetic chain. All pre-ganglionic
neurons of the sympathetic system synapse with the sympathetic chain.
This is not true of the parasympathetic pre-ganglionic cells, however.
Some of them synapse with the chain, but others go directly to end
organs or muscle
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3.3 Map of Dermatomes
A dermatome is a band or region of skin supplied by a single sensory

nerve. Sensory nerves carry sensory impulses to the spinal cord—pain,
temperature, touch and position sense (proprioception)—from tendons,
joints and body surfaces. The face is supplied by the cranial nerves.
Regions
Each pair of spinal nerves links to one of four regions of the body:
 Cervical Region (green): 8 pairs of nerves supply the skin

covering the back of the head, the neck, shoulders, arms and
hands.
 Thoracic Region (blue): 12 pairs of thoracic nerves supply the
skin on the chest, back and under the arms
 Lumbar Region (pink): 5 pairs of lumbar nerves supply the skin
on the lower abdomen, thighs and fronts of the legs
 Sacral Region (yellow): 6 pairs of sacral nerves supply the skin
on the back of the legs, the feet and genial areas
Levels of principal dermatomes
 C5 — clavicles
 C5, C6, C7 — lateral parts of the upper limb
 C8, T1 — medial sides of the upper limb
 C6 — thumb
 C6, C7, C8 — hand
 C8 — ring and little fingers
 T4 — level of nipples
 T10 — level of umbilicus
 T12 — inguinal or groin regions
 L1 L2 L3 L4 — anterior and inner services of lower limb
 L4, L5, S1 — foot
 L4 — medial side of big toe
 S1. S2, L5 — posterior and outer surfaces of lower limbs
 S1 — lateral margin of foot and little toe
 S2, S3, S4 — perineum
Receptor Arc
Nerves can be divided into two types – motor nerves and sensory nerves.
Motor nerves control movement by carrying messages from the brain to
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the muscles. Sensory nerves carry messages from the sensory receptors
in the body to the brain. In many places the motor nerves and sensory
nerves run in pairs alongside each other. There are 31 pairs of nerves
that branch off the spinal cord.
Spinal nerve pairs
Cervical nerve – 8 pairs

Thoracic nerve – 12 pairs
Lumbar – 5 pairs
Sacral – 5 pairs
Coccyx – 1 pair
In the nervous system there is a “closed loop” system of sensation

sensory), decision (brain), and reactions (motor). This process is carried
out through the activity of afferent neurons (sensory), interneurons
(spinal cord), and efferent (motor) neurons. Nerves are made of very
specialized cells called neurons.
Afferent neurons (otherwise known as sensory or receptor neurons) are

receptors that receive the stimulus then carry nerve impulses from
receptors or sense organs towards the central nervous system
communicating sensory information to the spinal cord and brain.
Sensory neurons respond to the senses of touch, sound, light, smell and
taste. An example of a sensory response is when your skin is stuck with
a pin, the afferent neuron communicates pain or discomfort to the spinal
cord and then to the brain. The brain processes the pain information,
decides how your body should react and then sends information back
through the efferent neuron to the muscle to contract which moves the
area (finger, arm, etc.) away from the cause of the pain. This process is
called a receptor or reflex arc.
The sensory and motor fibers of the spinal nerves form a reflex arc.
This type of reflexive behavior occurs when a message from afferent
fibers causes a motor reaction before going to the brain. For example, if
you touch a hot burner on the stove, sensory information about the
temperature of the burner travels along spinal nerves to your spinal cord
and are carried directly to their motor nuclei by interneurons; the motor
command goes out along the axons of the lower motor neuron causing
you to move your hand away from the stove. As messages do not have
to travel up to the brain to be processed, reactions mediated by this
reflex arc can occur very rapidly. Of course you WILL feel pain shortly
thereafter (milliseconds) as the information gets to the parietal lobe via
the thalamus.
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4.0CONCLUSION
The spinal cord begins below the medulla and ends just above the small
of the back at the conus medularis. The area within the vertebral
column beyond the end of the spinal cord is called the cauda equina.
The spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae and the meninges. The dura
mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater of the spinal cord are continuous
with those of the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid is in the subarachnoid
space that lies between the arachnoid and pia mater and in the central
canal, a space in the middle of the gray matter of the cord. It provides a
hydraulic cushion for the spinal cord.
5.0SUMMARY
This unit has discussed the anatomy of the spinal cord, Map of
dermatomes and the spinal nerves including the reflex arc.
 Describe the functions of the spinal cord

 Write a short note on “Reflex Arc”
 Describe Dermatomes with examples
Martini,F.C;Ober,W.C;Garrison,C.W;Welch,K.&Hutchings,R.T.
(2001).Fundamentalsof AnatomyandPhysiology,(5thed).New
Jersey:Prentice-Hall,Inc.
Oxford ConciseMedicalDictionary.
Thibodeau,G.A.&Patton,K.T. (1996).AnatomyandPhysiology(3rd
ed),Mosby.
Assefa N & Tsige Y. Human Anatomy and Physiology. Lecture notes

for Nursing Students. 2003
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UNIT4 INTEGRATION OF CENTRAL NERVOUS

WITH OTHER SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MainContent
3.1 IntegrationwithotherSystems
3.2 Nervous and Chemical Integration
3.3 Sensory Integration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Integration is the process of combining information from many

sources. The nervous system combines information from the different
senses (vision, hearing touch, etc), and each part of the brain combines
information from many other parts of the brain. This process is essential
for the body and its parts to function smoothly and effectively. It is also
essential for the ability of the brain to extract and organize information
about the world. The nervous system can do this because neurons (nerve
cells) have a part (called dendrites), which are designed to combine or
integrate information. They form connections, called ( synapses) with
many other neurons and combine the signals from them.
2.0OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to;
 Discuss integrationof the nervous system withothersystems

 DescribeNervous and Chemical Integration
 Discuss Sensory Integration
 Discuss Sensory Integration Disorder (SID)
3.0MAINCONTENT
3.1Integrationwith OtherSystems
Tofunctioneffectively,everycellinthebodymustcommunicatewith
itsneighboursandwithcellsandtissuesindistantpartsofthebody.
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Inafewspecialisedcases,cellularactivitiesarecoordinatedbythe
exchangeofionsandmoleculesfromonecelltothenextacrossgap
junctions.Thisdirectcommunicationoccursbetweencellsofthesame
type,andthetwocellsmustbe inextensivephysicalcontact.Thetwo
cellscommunicatesocloselythattheyfunctionassingleentity.For
example,gapjunctions(1)coordinateciliary movementamong
epithelialcells, (2) coordinatethecontractionsofcardiacmusclecells,
and(3)facilitate thepropagationofactionpotentialfromoneneuron to
thenextat electricalsynapses.
Directcommunicationishighlyspecialisedandrelativelyrare. Mostof
thecommunicationsbetweencellsinvolvetherelease andreceiptof
chemicalmessages.Each cellcontinuously“talks”toitsneighboursby
releasingchemicalsintotheextracellularfluid.Thesechemicalsspeak of
whattheirneighboursaredoingat anymoment;theresultisthe
coordinationoftissuefunctionat thelocallevel.The useofchemical
messengerstotransferinformationfromcell to cellwithinasingletissue
iscalledparacrine communications.Thechemicalsinvolvedarecalled
paracrinefactors,alsoknownascytokines,or localhormones.Examples
ofparacrinefactorsincludetheprostaglandins.
3.2 Nervous and Chemical Integration
Animals constantly monitor both their internal and external environment

and make the necessary adjustments in order to maintain themselves
optimally, develop and reproduce at the maximum rate. The adjustments
they make may be immediate and obvious, for example, flight from
predators, or longer-term, for example, entry into diapause to avoid
impending adverse conditions. The nature of the response depends on
the nature of the stimulus. Only very rarely does a stimulus act directly
on the effector system; almost always a stimulus is received by an
appropriate sensory structure and taken to the central nervous system,
which “determines” an appropriate response under the circumstances.
When a response is immediate, that is, achieved in a matter of seconds
or less, it is the nervous system that transfers the message to the effector
system. Such responses are usually temporary in nature. Delayed
responses are achieved through the use of chemical messages (viz.,
hormones) and are generally longer-lasting. The nervous and endocrine
systems of an individual are, then, the systems that coordinate the
response with the stimulus. Pheromones, which constitute another
chemical regulating system, coordinate the behaviour and development
of a group of individuals of the same species. This system is intimately
related to nervous and endocrine regulation
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3.3 Sensory Integration
Sensory integration refers to how people use the information provided

by all the sensations coming from within the body and from the external
environment. We usually think of the senses as separate channels of
information, but they actually work together to give us a reliable picture
of the world and our place in it. Your senses integrate to form a
complete understanding of who you are, where you are, and what is
happening around you. Because your brain uses information about
sights, sounds, textures, smells, tastes, and movement in an organized
way, you assign meaning to your sensory experiences, and you know
how to respond and behave accordingly. Walking through a shopping
mall, if you smell a powerful, sweet scent, you are able to identify it as a
candle or essential oil and realize that you're walking past an
aromatherapy store.
Sensory integration refers to how people use the information provided

by all the sensations coming from within the body and from the external
environment. We usually think of the senses as separate channels of
information, but they actually work together to give us a reliable picture
of the world and our place in it. Your senses integrate to form a
complete understanding of who you are, where you are, and what is
happening around you. Because your brain uses information about
sights, sounds, textures, smells, tastes, and movement in an organized
way, you assign meaning to your sensory experiences, and you know
how to respond and behave accordingly. Walking through a shopping
mall, if you smell a powerful, sweet scent, you are able to identify it as a
candle or essential oil and realize that you're walking past an
aromatherapy store.
Sensory Integration Disorder
Sensory integration disorder or dysfunction (SID) is a neurological

disorder that results from the brain's inability to integrate certain
information received from the body's five basic sensory systems. These
sensory systems are responsible for detecting sights, sounds, smell,
tastes, temperatures, pain, and the position and movements of the body.
The brain then forms a combined picture of this information in order for
the body to make sense of its surroundings and react to them
appropriately. The ongoing relationship between behavior and brain
functioning is called sensory integration (SI).
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The normal process of SI begins before birth and continues throughout

life, with the majority of SI development occurring before the early
teenage years. The ability for SI to become more refined and effective
coincides with the aging process as it determines how well motor and
speech skills, and emotional stability develops. The beginnings of the SI
theory by Ayres instigated ongoing research that looks at the crucial
foundation it provides for complex learning and behavior throughout
life.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The nervous system has three main functions: sensory input, integration
of data and motor output. Sensory input is when the body gathers
information or data, by way of neurons, glia and synapses. The nervous
system is composed of excitable nerve cells (neurons) and synapses that
form between the neurons and connect them to centers throughout the
body or to other neurons. These neurons operate on excitation or
inhibition, and although nerve cells can vary in size and location, their
communication with one another determines their function. These
nerves conduct impulses from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal
cord. The data is then processed by way of integration of data, which
occurs only in the brain. After the brain has processed the information,
impulses are conducted from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and
glands, a path which is called motor output. Glia cells are found within
tissues and are not excitable but help with myelination, ionic regulation
and extracellular fluid.
1.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed theIntegration of central nervous with

other systems, Nervous and Chemical Integration and Sensory
Integration. We also mentioned Sensory Integration Disorder.
 What is Sensory Integration?

 Discuss sensory Integration Disorder
Martini,F.C;Ober,W.C;Garrison,C.W;Welch,K.&Hutchings,R.T.
(2001).Fundamentalsof AnatomyandPhysiology,(5thed).New
113
PHS 201 MODULE 3
Thibodeau,G.A.&Patton,K.T. (1996).AnatomyandPhysiology(3rd
ed),Mosby.
Assefa N & Tsige Y. Human Anatomy and Physiology. Lecture notes

for Nursing Students. 2003
http:/ / action. Painfoundation. org/ site/ News2?page=NewsArticle&

id=5135& security=1& news_iv_ctrl=1061
http:/ / www. neurologychannel. com/ multiplesclerosis/
http:/ / www. theraj. com/ ms/ casestudy. Htm
ttp://school.familyeducation.com/sensory-
integration/parenting/36660.html
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UNIT5THEENDOCRINESYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MainContent
3.1 AnOverviewoftheEndocrineSystem
3.2 ComponentsoftheEndocrineSystem
3.3 Hormones
3.4 IntegrationbetweentheEndocrineSystemandthe Nervous
System
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0INTRODUCTION
Thisunitintroducesthecomponentsandfunctionsof theendocrine
systemandexplorestheinteractionsbetweenthenervousandendocrine
systems.Weshallconsiderspecificendocrineorgans,hormonesand
functions.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describetheendocrinesystem
 identifythecomponentsoftheendocrinesystem
 describethethreecategoriesofhormones
 explaintheintegrationbetweentheendocrinesystem andthe
nervoussystem.
3.0MAINCONTENT
3.1AnOverviewoftheEndocrineSystem
Theendocrinesystemincludesalltheendocrinecells,andtissuesofthe
body.Endocrinecellsareglandularsecretorycellsthatreleasetheir
secretionsintotheextracellularfluid.This characteristicdistinguishes
themfromexocrinecells, whichsecretetheirproductsontoepithelial
surfacesgenerallybywayofducts.Thechemicalsreleasedbyendocrine
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cellsmayaffectonlyadjacentcells,asinthecaseofmostparacrine
factors,ortheymayaffectcellsthroughoutthebody.
Structures of the Endocrine System
The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete
hormones as a primary or secondary function. The endocrine gland is
the major player in this system. The primary function of these ductless
glands is to secrete their hormones directly into the surrounding fluid.
The interstitial fluid and the blood vessels then transport the hormones
throughout the body. The endocrine system includes the pituitary,
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands. Some of these glands
have both endocrine and non-endocrine (exocrine) functions. For
example, the pancreas contains cells that function in digestion as well as
cells that secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate
blood glucose levels. The hypothalamus, thymus, heart, kidneys,
stomach, small intestine, liver, skin, female ovaries, and male testes are
other organs that contain cells with endocrine function. Moreover,
adipose tissue has long been known to produce hormones, and recent
research has revealed that even bone tissue has endocrine functions. The
ductless endocrine glands are not to be confused with the body’s
exocrine system, whose glands release their secretions through ducts.
Examples of exocrine glands include the sebaceous and sweat glands of
the skin. As just noted, the pancreas also has an exocrine function: most
of its cells secrete pancreatic juice through the pancreatic and accessory
ducts to the lumen of the small intestine.
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Figure 29: Major Endocrine glands
3.2ComponentsoftheEndocrineSystem
Thecomponentsoftheendocrinesystem areintroducedinFig.28.Some
oftheseorgans,suchasthepituitarygland,haveendocrinesecretionasaprimar
yfunction.Others,suchasthepancreashaveother
functionsinadditiontoendocrinesecretion.Otherendocrineorgans
includethe hypothalamus,theadrenalmedullae,theheart,thethymus,
thepancreasanddigestivetract,thekidneys, thereproductiveorgans,
andplacenta.
Paracrinefactorsenterthebloodstream,buttheconcentrationsare
usuallysolowthatdistant cellsandtissuesarenotaffected.However,
someparacrinefactors,includingseveraloftheprostaglandinsand
relatedchemicals,haveprimaryeffectsintheirtissuesoforiginand
secondaryeffectsinothertissuesandorgans.Whensecondaryeffects
occur,theparacrinefactorsarealsoactingashormones.
1. Whatareendocrinecells?
2. Listthefourendocrineorgansthatyouknow.
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3.3Hormones
Hormonesarechemicalmessengersthatarereleasedinonetissueand
transportedinthebloodstreamtoreachspecificcellsinothertissues.
Whereasmostcellsreleaseparacrinefactors,typicalhormonesare
producedonlybyspecialisedcells. Inintercellularcommunications,
hormonesarelettersandthecirculatorysystemis thepostalservice.A
hormonereleasedintothebloodstreamwillbedistributedthroughoutthe
body.Eachhormonehastargetcells orspecificcellsthatrespondtoits
presence.Thesecellspossessthereceptorsneededtobindand“read”the
hormonalmessage.Althougheverycellinthebodyisexposedtothe
mixtureof hormonesincirculationat anymoment,eachindividualcell
willrespondtoonlyafewofthehormonespresent.Theotherhormones
aretreated
likejunkmailandignored,becausethecelllacksthereceptorstoreadthemessa
gestheycontain.Theuseofhormonesto
coordinatecellularactivitiesintissuesindistantpartsofthebodyis
calledendocrinecommunications.
Becausethetargetcellscanbe anywhereinthebody,asinglehormone
canalterthemetabolicactivitiesofmultipletissuesandorgans
simultaneously.Theseeffectsmaybeslowtoappear,buttheytypically
persistfordays. Consequently,hormonesareeffectiveincoordinating
cell,tissue,andorganactivitiesonasustained,long-termbasis.For
example,circulatinghormoneskeepbodywatercontentandlevelsof
electrolytesandorganicnutrientswithinnormallimits24hoursaday
throughoutourentirelife time.
Whiletheeffectsof asinglehormonepersist, acellmayreceive

additionalinstructionsfromotherhormones.Theresultwillbe afurther
modificationofcellularoperations.Gradualchangesinthequantities
andidentitiesof circulatinghormonescanproducecomplexchangesin
physicalstructureandphysiologicalcapabilities.Examplesincludethe
processesof embryologicalandfoetaldevelopment,growth,and
puberty.Hormonescanbedividedintothree groupsonthebasisof
chemicalstructure:(1)aminoacidderivatives,(2)peptidehormones,
and(3)lipidderivatives.
Although a given hormone may travel throughout the body in the

bloodstream, it will affect the activity only of its target cells; that is,
cells with receptors for that particular hormone. Once the hormone binds
to the receptor, a chain of events is initiated that leads to the target cell’s
response. Hormones play a critical role in the regulation of physiological
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processes because of the target cell responses they regulate. These

responses contribute to human reproduction, growth and development of
body tissues, metabolism, fluid, and electrolyte balance, sleep, and many
other body functions. The major hormones of the human body and their
effects are identified in Table below.
Table 4: Endocrine Glands and Their Major Hormones

Endocrine Associated Chemical Effect
Gland Hormones Class
Pituitary Growth hormone Protein Promotes growth of
(anterior) (GH) body tissues
Pituitary Prolactin (PRL) Peptide Promotes milk
(anterior) production
Pituitary Thyroid-stimulating Glycoprotein Stimulates thyroid
(anterior) hormone (TSH) hormone release
Pituitary Adrenocorticotropic Peptide Stimulates hormone
(anterior) hormone (ACTH) release by adrenal
cortex
Pituitary Follicle-stimulating Glycoprotein Stimulates gamete
(anterior) hormone (FSH) production
Pituitary Luteinizing Glycoprotein Stimulates androgen

(anterior) hormone production by gonads
(LH)
Pituitary Antidiuretic Peptide Stimulates water
(posterior) hormone reabsorption by
(ADH) kidneys
Pituitary Oxytocin Peptide Stimulates uterine
(posterior) contractions during
childbirth
Thyroid Thyroxine (T4), Amine Stimulate basal
triiodothyronine metabolic rate
(T3)
Thyroid Calcitonin Peptide Reduces blood Ca2+
levels
Parathyroid Parathyroid Peptide Increases blood
hormone (PTH) Ca2+ levels
Adrenal Aldosterone Steroid Steroid Increases
(cortex) blood Na+ levels
Adrenal Increase blood
(cortex) Cortisol, Steroid glucose levels
corticosterone,
cortisone
Adrenal Epinephrine, Amine Stimulate fight-or-
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(medulla) norepinephrine flight response

Pineal Melatonin Amine Regulates sleep
cycles
Pancreas Insulin Protein Reduces blood
glucose levels
Pancreas Glucagon Protein Increases blood
glucose levels
Testes Testosterone Steroid Stimulates
development of male
secondary sex
characteristics and
sperm production
Ovaries Estrogens and Steroid Stimulate
progesterone development of
female secondary
sex
characteristics and
prepare the body for
childbirth
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Types of Hormones
The hormones of the human body can be divided into two major groups
on the basis of their chemical structure. Hormones derived from amino
acids include amines, peptidesand proteins. Those derived from lipids
include steroids. These chemical groups affect a hormone’s distribution,
the type of receptors it binds to, and other aspects of its function.
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Figure 30: Structure of Amine, Peptide, Protein, and Steroid hormones

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Functions of Hormones
1. Help regulate:
• Chemical composition and volume of internal

environment (interstitial fluid)
• Metabolism and energy balance
• Contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers
• Glandular secretions
• Some immune system activities
2. Control growth and development.
3. Regulate operation of reproductive systems.
4. Help establish circadian rhythms.
3.4 IntegrationbetweentheEndocrineSystemandthe
NervousSystem
Thenervoussystemalsoreliesprimarilyonchemicalcommunication,
butitdoesnotusebloodstreamcommunicationsformessagedelivery
liketheendocrinesystem.Instead,neuronsreleaseaneurotransmitterat
asynapseveryclosetothetargetcellsthatbeartheappropriate receptors.The
commandtoreleasetheneurotransmitterrapidlytravels
fromonelocationtoanotherintheformofactionpotentialpropagated
alongaxons.Thenervoussystem thusactslikeatelephonecompany,
carryinghigh-speed“messages”fromonelocationinthebodyto another
anddeliveringthemtoaspecificdestination.Theeffectsof
neuralstimulationaregenerallyshortlived,andtendto
berestrictedtospecifictargetcells–primarilybecausetheneurotransmitter
israpidlybrokendownor recycled.Thisformofsynaptic
communicationisidealforcrisismanagement:ifyouareindangerof
beinghitbyaspeedingbus,thenervoussystemcancoordinateanddirectyou
toleaptosafety.Oncethecrisisisoverandtheneuralcircuitquietensdown,thin
gssoonreturntonormal.
Whenviewedfromageneralperspectivethedifferencesbetweenthe
nervousandendocrinesystemsseemrelativelyclear.Infact,these broad
organisationalandfunctionaldistinctionsarethebasisfortreatingthem
astwoseparatesystems.Yet,whenweconsiderthemindetail,thetwo
systemsareorganisedalongparallellines.Forexample:
 Bothsystemsrelyonthereleaseofchemicalsthatbind tospecific
receptorsontheirtargetcells.
 Thetwosystemsshare manychemicalmessengers;forexample,
norepinephrineandepinephrinearecalledhormoneswhen released
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intothebloodstreambutneurotransmitterswhen released
acrosssynapses.
 Bothsystemsare regulatedprimarilybynegativefeedback
controlmechanisms.
 Thetwosystemsshareacommon goal:topreservehomeostasis
bycoordinatingandregulating theactivitiesofothercells,tissues,
organs,andsystems.
Table 5: Endocrine and Nervous Systems
Signaling mechanism(s) Chemical Chemical/electrical

Primary chemical signal Hormones Neurotransmitters
Distance traveled Long or short Always short
Response time Fast or slow Always fast
Environment targeted Internal Internal and external
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Hormonescanbeclassifiedinto3groups:-----------------------------------,
------------------------------------------and---------------------------------------.
4.0CONCLUSION
Youshouldhaveseenthattheendocrinesystemincludesallthe
endocrinecellsandtissuesofthebody.Theyhaveglandularsecretorycellsthat
releasetheirsecretionsintotheextracellularfluid.Themain functionof
theendocrinesystemistopreservehomeostasisby
coordinatingandregulatingtheactivitiesofothercells,tissues,organs,
andsystems.
The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete
hormones critical to homeostasis. The body coordinates its functions
through two major types of communication: neural and endocrine.
Neural communication includes both electrical and chemical signaling
between neurons and target cells. Endocrine communication involves
chemical signaling via the release of hormones into the extracellular
fluid. From there, hormones diffuse into the bloodstream and may travel
to distant body regions, where they elicit a response in target cells.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete hormones. Many
organs of the body with other primary functions—such as the heart,
stomach, and kidneys—also have hormone-secreting cells. Hormones
are derived from amino acids or lipids. Amine hormones originate from
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the amino acids tryptophan or tyrosine. Larger amino acid hormones

include peptides and protein hormones. Steroid hormones are derived
from cholesterol.
5.0SUMMARY
Inthisunitwehave consideredthefactthatendocrinecellsaredifferent
fromexocrinecells;thelattersecretetheirproductsontoepithelia’s
surfacesgenerallybywayofducts.Also,thereareseveral similaritiesas
wellasdistinctionsbetweentheendocrinesystem andthenervous system.
ANSWERTOSELFASSESSMENTEXERCISE1
Theendocrineorgansincludehypothalamus,theadrenalmedullae,the
heart,thethymus,thepancreasanddigestivetract, thekidneys, the
reproductiveorgans,andplacenta.
ANSWERTOSELFASSESSMENTEXERCISE2
Hormonescanbeclassifiedinto(a)amino acidderivatives,(b)peptide
hormones,and(c) lipidderivatives.
Discussthe synergisticrelationshipoftheendocrineandnervous systems.
Martini,F.C;Ober,W.C;Garrison,C.W;Welch,K&Hutchings,R.T.
(2001).Fundamentalsof AnatomyandPhysiology,(5thed.)New
Thibodeau,G.A.&Patton,K.T. (1996).AnatomyandPhysiology, (3rd

ed.)Mosby.
Tortora G.J & Derrickson B. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology,
12th Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.2009.
OpenStax College, Anatomy &Physiology. OpenStax College. 25 April
2013. <http://cnx.org/content/col11496/latest/>.
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MODULE 4 THE RESPIRATORY AND DIGESTIVE

SYSTEMS
Unit 1 Overview of the respiratory system

Unit 2 The structure of the respiratory system
Unit 3 Overview of digestive system
Unit 4 The structure and function of the digestive system
Unit 5 Pelvic organs
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF THE RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 General Function of respiratory system
3.2 Physiology of Respiration
3.3 Air Movement
3.4 Pulmonary Ventilation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The respiratory system extends from the breathing zone just outside of the
nose and mouth through the conductive airways in the head and thorax to
the alveoli, where respiratory gas exchange takes place between the
alveoli and the capillary blood flowing around them. Its prime function is
to deliver oxygen (O2) to the gas-exchange region of the lung, where it
can diffuse to and through the walls of the alveoli to oxygenate the blood
passing through the alveolar capillaries as needed over a wide range of
work or activity levels. In addition, the system must also: (1) remove an
equal volume of carbon dioxide entering the lungs from the alveolar
capillaries; (2) maintain body temperature and water vapour saturation
within the lung airways (in order to maintain the viability and functional
capacities of the surface fluids and cells); (3) maintain sterility (to prevent
infections and their adverse consequences); and (4) eliminate excess
surface fluids and debris, such as inhaled particles and senescent
phagocytic and epithelial cells. It must accomplish all of these demanding
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tasks continuously over a lifetime, and do so with high efficiency in terms

of performance and energy utilization. The system can be abused and
overwhelmed by severe insults such as high concentrations of cigarette
smoke and industrial dust, or by low concentrations of specific pathogens
which attack or destroy its defence mechanisms, or cause them to
malfunction. Its ability to overcome or compensate for such insults as
competently as it usually does is a testament to its elegant combination of
structure and function
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
 Discuss the General Function of respiratory system

 Describe the Physiology of Respiration
 Discuss Air Movement
 Discuss Pulmonary Ventilation
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 General Function
A primary requirement for all body cell activities and growth is oxygen,
which is needed to obtain energy from food. The fundamental purpose of
the respiratory system is to supply oxygen to the individual tissue cells
and to remove their gaseous waste product, carbon dioxide. Breathing or
ventilation refers to the inhalation and exhalation of air. Air is a mixture
of oxygen, nitrogen, carbondioxide and other gases; the pressure of these
gases varies, depending on the elevation above sea level. The first, called
external expiration, takes place only in the lungs, where oxygen from the
outside air enters the blood and carbondioxide leaves the blood to be
breathed into the outside air. In the second, called internal respiration, gas
exchanges take place between the blood and the body cells, with oxygen
leaving the blood and entering the cells at the same time that carbon
dioxide leaves the cells and enters the blood.
The respiratory system is an intricate arrangement of spaces and

passageways that conduct air into the lungs. These spaces include the
nasal cavities; the pharynx, which is common to the digestive and
respiratory systems; the voice box or larynx; the windpipe or trachea; and
the lungs themselves, with their conducting tubes and air sacs. The entire
system might be thought of as a pathway for air between the atmosphere
and the blood.
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3.2 Physiology of Respiration Pulmonary Ventilation
Ventilation is the movement of air into and out of the lungs, as in

breathing. There are two phases of ventilation:
1. Inhalation is the drawing of air into the lungs.
2. Exhalation is the expulsion of air from the lungs.
In inhalation, the active phase of breathing, the respiratory muscles

contract to enlarge the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a strong dome-
shaped muscle attached around the base of the rib cage. The contraction
and relaxation of the diaphragm cause a piston-like downward motion that
result in an increase in the vertical dimension of the chest. The rib cage is
also moved upward and outward by contraction of the external intercostal
muscles and, during exertion, by contraction of other muscles of the neck
and chest. During quiet breathing, the movement of the diaphragm
accounts for most of the increase in thoracic volume. As the thoracic
cavity increases in size, gas pressure within the cavity decreases. When
the pressure drops to slightly below atmospheric pressure, air is drawn
into the lungs.
In exhalation, the passive phase of breathing, the muscles of respiration

relax, allowing the ribs and diaphragm to return to their original positions.
The tissues of the lung, which are elastic, recoil during exhalation. During
forced exhalation, the internal intercostal muscles and the muscles of the
abdominal wall contracts, pulling the lower part of the rib cage in and
down. The abdominal viscera are also pushed upward against the
diaphragm.
3.3 Air Movement
Air enters the respiratory passages and flows through the ever-dividing
tubes of the bronchial tree. As the air traverses this passage, it moves more
and more slowly through the great number of bronchial tubes until there
is virtually no forward flow as it reaches the alveoli. Here the air moves
by diffusion, which soon equalizes any differences in the amounts of
gases present. Each breath causes relatively little change in the gas
composition of the alveoli, but normal continuous breathing ensures the
presence of adequate oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide.
Regulation of respiration
Regulation of respiration is a complex process that keeps pace with

moment-to-moment changes in cellular oxygen requirements and carbon
dioxide production. Regulation depends primarily on the respiratory
control centers located in the medulla and pons of the brain stem. Nerve
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impulses from the medulla are modified by the centers in the pons.
Respiration is regulated so that the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide and
acid are kept within certain limits. The control centers regulate the rate,
depth, and rhythm of respiration.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Of vital importance in the control of respiration are the chemoreceptors.

These receptors are found in structures called the carotid and aortic
bodies, as well as outside the medulla of the brain stem. It is possible for
a person to deliberately breathe more rapidly or more slowly or to hold
his breath and not breath at all for a time. Usually we breathe without
thinking about it, while the respiratory centers in the medulla and pons do
the controlling.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the general function of the

respiratory system, the physiology of respiration and air movement
during respiration.
 Discuss the functions of the respiratory system

 Discuss the physiology of respiration
Martini, F.C; Ober, W.C; Garrison, C.W; Welch, K. & Hutchings, R.T.
(2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, (5th ed), New
Thibodeau, G.A. & Patton, K.T. (1996). Anatomy and Physiology, (3rd
ed), Mosby.
OpenStax College, Anatomy & Physiology. OpenStax College. 25 April

Tortora G.J & Derrickson B. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th

Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.2009.
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Assefa N, Tsige Y. In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health

Training Initiative, The Carter Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of
Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education Human Anatomy
and Physiology. Lecture Notes for Nursing Students.
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UNIT 2 THE STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Concept of the Respiration
3.2 Types of Respiration
3.3 The Respiratory System Anatomy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The respiratory system is the combination of organs and tissues

associated with breathing (gaseous exchange). It consists of a pair of
lungs enclosed in the thorax and connected to the air outside by a series
of branching air tubes (trachea, bronchi and bronchioles) and air
pathways (nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx). The ribcage, intercostal
muscles and diaphragm work together, to draw air into and out of the
lungs.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the respiratory process

 describe the types of respiration
 explain the anatomy of the respiratory system
 describe pulmonary ventilation.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
General Function of respiratory system
The major organs of the respiratory system function primarily to provide

oxygen to body tissues for cellular respiration, remove the waste product
carbon dioxide, and help to maintain acid-base balance. Portions of the
respiratory system are also used for non-vital functions such as sensing
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odors, speech production, and for straining, such as during childbirth or

coughing (Figure 30 below). Functionally, the respiratory system can be
divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory zone. The conducting
zone of the respiratory system includes the organs and structures not
directly involved in gas exchange. The gas exchange occurs in the
respiratory zone.
Figure 31: Major Respiratory Structures. (This content is available for

free at http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6)
Breathing, or ventilation, refers to the inhalation and exhalation of air. Air

is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other gases; the
pressure of these gases varies, depending on the elevation above sea level.
The first, called external expiration, takes place only in the lungs, where
oxygen from the outside air enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves
the blood to be breathed into the outside air. In the second, called internal
respiration, gas exchanges take place between the blood and the body
cells, with oxygen leaving the blood and entering the cells at the same
time that carbon dioxide leaves the cells and enters the blood.
The respiratory system is an intricate arrangement of spaces and

passageways that conduct air into the lungs. These spaces include the
nasal cavities; the pharynx, which is common to the digestive and
respiratory systems; the voice box, or larynx; the windpipe, or trachea;
and the lungs themselves, with their conducting tubes and air sacs. The
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entire system might be thought of as a pathway for air between the

atmosphere and the blood (Figure above).
Structure and Function of Respiratory Pathways

The Nasal Cavities
Several bones that help to form the walls of the nasal cavity have air-
containing spaces called the paranasal sinuses, which serve to warm and
humidify incoming air. Sinuses are lined with a mucosa. Each paranasal
sinus is named after its associated bone: frontal sinus, maxillary sinus,
sphenoidal sinus, and ethmoidal sinus. The sinuses produce mucus and
lighten the weight of the skull. The nares and anterior portion of the nasal
cavities are lined with mucous membranes containing sebaceous glands
and hair follicles that serve to prevent the passage of large debris, such as
dirt, through the nasal cavity. An olfactory epithelium used to detect odors
is found deeper in the nasal cavity.
The Pharynx
The pharynx is a tube formed by skeletal muscle and lined by mucous

membrane that is continuous with that of the nasal Cavities. The pharynx
is divided into three major regions: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and
the laryngopharynx.
Figure 32: Divisions of the Pharynx (This content is available for free at
http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6)
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The Larynx
The larynx (voice box) is located between the pharynx and the trachea.
The larynx is a cartilaginous structure inferior to the laryngopharynx that
connects the pharynx to the trachea and helps regulate the volume of air
that enters and leaves the lungs (Figure 32). The structure of the larynx is
formed by several pieces of cartilage. Three large cartilage pieces—the
thyroid cartilage (anterior), epiglottis (superior), and cricoid cartilage
(inferior)—form the major structure of the larynx. The thyroid cartilage
is the largest piece of cartilage that makes up the larynx. The thyroid
cartilage consists of the laryngeal prominence, or “Adam’s apple,”
which tends to be more prominent in males. The thick cricoid cartilage
forms a ring, with a wide posterior region and a thinner anterior region.
Three smaller, paired cartilages—the arytenoids, corniculates, and
cuneiforms—attach to the epiglottis and the vocal cords and muscle that
help move the vocal cords to produce speech. You can feel the larynx
move upward toward the epiglottis during this process by placing the flat
ends of your fingers on your larynx as you swallow.
The Trachea
The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx toward the lungs. The
trachea is formed by 16 to 20 stacked, C-shaped pieces of hyaline
cartilage that are connected by dense connective tissue. The trachealis
muscle and elastic connective tissue together form the fibroelastic
membrane, a flexible membrane that closes the posterior surface of the
trachea, connecting the C-shaped cartilages. The fibroelastic membrane
allows the trachea to stretch and expand slightly during inhalation and
exhalation, whereas the rings of cartilage provide structural support and
prevent the trachea from collapsing. In addition, the trachealis muscle can
be contracted to force air through the trachea during exhalation. The
trachea is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, which
is continuous with the larynx. The esophagus borders the trachea
posteriorly.
Bronchial Tree
The trachea branches into the right and left primary bronchi at the carina.
These bronchi are also lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium containing mucus-producing goblet cells. The carina is a
raised structure that contains specialized nervous tissue that induces
violent coughing if a foreign body, such as food, is present. Rings of
cartilage, similar to those of the trachea, support the structure of the
bronchi and prevent their collapse. The primary bronchi enter the lungs at
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the hilum, a concave region where blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and
nerves also enter the lungs.
The bronchi continue to branch into a bronchial tree. A bronchial tree

(or respiratory tree) is the collective term used for these multiple-
branched bronchi. The main function of the bronchi, like other conducting
zone structures, is to provide a passageway for air to move into and out
of each lung. In addition, the mucous membrane traps debris and
pathogens.
A bronchiole branches from the tertiary bronchi. Bronchioles, which are

about 1 mm in diameter, further branch until they become the tiny
terminal bronchioles, which lead to the structures of gas exchange. There
are more than 1000 terminal bronchioles in each lung. The muscular walls
of the bronchioles do not contain cartilage like those of the bronchi. This
muscular wall can change the size of the tubing to increase or decrease
airflow through the tube.
3.1 The Concept of Respiration
Respiration is the chemical breakdown of glucose, accelerated by

enzymes inside the body cells to liberate energy. Carbon dioxide and
water or alcohols are given off as waste products.
Respiration can also be described as:
 The intake and absorption of oxygen from the surrounding

environment.
 The transport of oxygen to individual cells of the body.
 Using oxygen to release energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
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Figure 33: A cross section of the alveoli and the respiratory process
3.2 Types of Respiration
1. Internal respiration
2. External respiration
Internal or Tissues Respiration
Air (Oxygen) enters the body through the nostril where it is cleaned,
moistened and heated to the body temperature and passes through:
Trachea→ bronchi→ bronchioles→ alveoli. Internal respiration involves
two breathing processes or mechanisms. These are:
- Inhalation or Inspiration
- Exhalation or Expiration
 In the wall of the alveoli, the oxygen combines with the

haemoglobin in the red blood corpuscles to form oxyhaemoglobin.
This is carried away in the pulmonary vein to the heart and then
distributed to all parts of the body. When the blood reaches an
active organ the oxyhaemoglobin dissociates again, giving up its
oxygen for respiration to produce energy.
 Carbon dioxide produced as one of the end products combines
with sodium carbonates in the plasma to form bicarbonates.
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 In the lungs the bicarbonates are broken down by the enzymes to

liberate carbon dioxide.
 This diffuses into the alveoli and eventually expelled through the
nostrils or the mouth.
Pulmonary Ventilation
The difference in pressures drives pulmonary ventilation because air

flows down a pressure gradient, that is, air flows from an area of higher
pressure to an area of lower pressure. Air flows into the lungs largely due
to a difference in pressure; atmospheric pressure is greater than intra-
alveolar pressure, and intra-alveolar pressure is greater than intrapleural
pressure. Air flows out of the lungs during expiration based on the same
principle; pressure within the lungs becomes greater than the atmospheric
pressure.
Pulmonary ventilation comprises two major steps: inspiration and

expiration. Inspiration is the process that causes air to enter the lungs,
and expiration is the process that causes air to leave the lungs. A
respiratory cycle is one sequence of inspiration and expiration. In
general, two muscle groups are used during normal inspiration: the
diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. Additional muscles can
be used if a bigger breath is required. When the diaphragm contracts, it
moves inferiorly toward the abdominal cavity, creating a larger thoracic
cavity and more space for the lungs.
Contraction of the external intercostal muscles moves the ribs upward and
outward, causing the rib cage to expand, which increases the volume of
the thoracic cavity. Due to the adhesive force of the pleural fluid, the
expansion of the thoracic cavity forces the lungs to stretch and expand as
well. This increase in volume leads to a decrease in intra-alveolar
pressure, creating a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure. As a result,
a pressure gradient is created that drives air into the lungs.
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Figure 34: Inspiration and Expiration

(This content is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6)
1. Internal respiration consists of -----------------------and-------------------.

2. What is respiration?
3.3 Respiratory System Anatomy
Upper Respiratory Tract (URT):
1. Paranasal structures like external nares, nasal cavity and septum,

nasal conchae, nasal meatuses, olfactory epithelium, paranasal
sinuses and ciliated pseudostratified epithelium.
2. Pharynx: Internal nares, auditory tubes, oropharynx and
laryngopharynx.
Lower Respiratory Tract (LRT):
1. Larynx: Thyroid and cricoid cartilage, vocal box and hyoid

2. Trachea: Bronchi and other structures.
3. Lungs (right lung = three lobes; left lung = two lobes), consist of
pleural membranes, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles,
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smooth muscles within bronchiole walls, alveolar ducts, alveolar

sacs and alveoli.
Inspiration: This process is influenced by Boyle's Law (air pressure in

closed space inversely correlate with volume). Increased volume =
decreased pressure; decreased volume = increase pressure.
Differences in air pressure between air and lungs drive the movement of
air into/out of lungs. Normal inspiration is an active process. Inspiratory
muscles involved are:
1. Diaphragm (75% normal inspiratory action). It is activated by the

phrenic nerve.
2. External intercostal muscles (25% normal inspiratory action). It is
activated by intercostal nerves.
3. Accessory muscles can also enhance inspiration. Examples are
sternocleidomastoid and scalenes. Normal breathing (“eupnoea”)
consists of moving approx 0.5 L (tidal volume) into/out of lungs.
Not all air inspired actually enters the lung because there is an
anatomic “dead space” (approx 150 ml) which includes URT and
trachea and bronchi. Only air within alveoli (approx 350ml) can
exchange gases.
Expiration: This is a passive process; it involves the relaxation of the

diaphragm and external intercostals. The ribs are depressed and the
diaphragm curves upwards. Expiration can become an active process by
contraction of abdominals and internal intercostals. Major factors driving
expiration are elastic recoil of lungs and surface tension of alveolar fluid
(lessened by surfactant) .These factors create high “compliance”, that is
ease of lung expansion. Low compliance results from pulmonary
scarring, oedema, surfactant deficiency (especially in premature babies).
Compliance can become too high in conditions like emphysema.
Intrapleural pressure: This is the pressure within the pleural cavity; it must
stay approx 4 mmHg LESS than intrapulmonary pressure. Any condition
that equalises Intrapleural and intrapulmonary pressures causes
immediate lung collapse.
Certain terms associated with pulmonary ventilation include:
 Dyspnea – painful, difficult breathing;

 Hypoxia - decreased oxygen delivery to tissues;
 Hypercapnia - increased carbon dioxide levels in blood.
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1 The upper respiratory tract consists of ---------------, -------------- and---
--------------
2 ------------------------and------------------------------are inspiratory
muscles involved in normal inspiration.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We can conclude this study by emphasising that respiration is the

exchange of gases (oxygen/carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere between
blood and tissues. It is made up of many physical and chemical processes.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit examines the organs of the respiratory tract, and the respiratory
processes. Normal inspiration is an active process, while expiration is a
passive process.
1. Internal respiration consists of inhalation/inspiration and

exhalation/expiration.
2. Respiration is the chemical breakdown of glucose, accelerated by
enzymes inside the body cells to liberate energy. Carbon dioxide
and water or alcohol are given off as waste products.
1. The upper respiratory tract consists of: (a) Paranasal structures like
external nares, nasal cavity and septum, nasal conchae, nasal
meatuses, olfactory epithelium, paranasal sinuses and ciliated
pseudostratified epithelium; (b) Pharynx: internal nares, auditory
tubes, oropharynx and laryngopharynx
2. The diaphragm and external intercostals are muscles involved in
normal inspiration.
Describe the internal and external respiration system.
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(2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, (5th ed), New
ed), Mosby.

Tortora G.J & Derrickson B. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th

Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.2009.
Assefa N, Tsige Y. In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health

Training Initiative, The Carter Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of
Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of EducationHuman Anatomy and

Physiology. Lecture Notes for Nursing Students.
139
PHS 201 ANATOMY
UNIT 3 OVERVIEW OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Digestive System Organs
3.2 General Function of digestive system
3.3 The Walls of the Digestive Tract
3.4 Nutrient Absorption
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The function of the digestive system is to break down the foods you eat,
release their nutrients, and absorb those nutrients into the body. Although
the small intestine is the workhorse of the system, where the majority of
digestion occurs, and where most of the released nutrients are absorbed
into the blood or lymph, each organ of the digestive system makes a vital
contribution to this process (Figure 35).
Figure 35: The digestive system
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Describe the organs of the digestive system

 Discuss the general function of the digestive system
 Describe the walls of the digestive tract
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Organs of the Digestive System
The easiest way to understand the digestive system is to divide its organs
into two main categories. The first group is the organs that make up the
alimentary canal. Accessory digestive organs comprise the second group
and are critical for orchestrating the breakdown of food and the
assimilation of its nutrients into the body. Accessory digestive organs,
despite their name, are critical to the function of the digestive system.
Alimentary Canal Organs
Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal
(aliment- = “to nourish”) is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in
length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when
measured after death, the increase being due to loss of smooth muscle
tone. The main function of the organs of the alimentary canal is to nourish
the body. This tube begins at the mouth and terminates at the anus.
Between those two points, the canal is modified as the pharynx,
esophagus, stomach and large intestines to fit the functional needs of the
body. Both the mouth and anus are open to the external environment; thus,
food and wastes within the alimentary canal are technically considered to
be outside the body. Only through the process of absorption do the
nutrients in food enter into and nourish the body’s “inner space.”
Accessory Structures
Each accessory digestive organ aids in the breakdown of food. Within

the mouth, the teeth and tongue begin mechanical digestion, whereas the
salivary glands begin chemical digestion. Once food products enter the
small intestine, the gallbladder, liver, and pancreas release secretions—
such as bile and enzymes—essential for digestion to continue. Together,
these are called accessory organs because they sprout from the lining cells
of the developing gut (mucosa) and augment its function; indeed, you
could not live without their vital contributions, and many significant
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diseases result from their malfunction. Even after development is

complete, they maintain a connection to the gut by way of ducts.
3.2 General Function of digestive system
Every body cell needs a constant supply of nutrients to provide energy

and building blocks for the manufacture of body substances. Food as we
take it in, however, is too large to enter the cells. It must first be broken
down into particles small enough to pass through the cell membrane. This
process is known as digestion. After digestion, food must be carried to
the cells in every part of the body by the circulation. The transfer of food
into the circulation is called absorption. Digestion and absorption are the
two chief functions of the digestive system.
3.3 The Walls of the Digestive Tract
The wall of the digestive tract, from the esophagus to the anus, is similar
in structure throughout. First is the mucous membrane, so called because
its epithelial layer contains many mucus-secreting cells. The type of
epithelium is simple columnar. The layer of connective tissue beneath
this, the submucosa, contains blood vessels and some of the nerves that
help regulate digestive activity. Next are two layers of smooth muscle.
The inner layer has circular fibers, and the outer layer has longitudinal
fibers. The alternate contractions of these muscles create the wavelike
movement that propels food through the digestive tract and mixes it with
digestive juices. This movement is called peristalsis.
The outermost layer of the wall consists of fibrous connective tissue. Most
of the abdominal organs have an additional layer of serous membrane
that is part of the peritoneum.
The Peritoneum
The abdominal cavity is lined with a thin, shiny serous membrane that
also covers most of the abdominal organs. The portion of this membrane
that lines the abdomen is called the parietal peritoneum; that covering
the organs is called the visceral peritoneum. In addition to these single
layered portions of the peritoneum there are a number of double-layered
structures that carry blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves, and
sometimes act as ligaments supporting the organs. These are called
mesentaries or, in some places, ligaments. The mesentery is a double-
layered portion of the peritoneum shaped somewhat like a fan. The handle
portion is attached to the back (posterior) wall of the abdomen, and the
expanded long edge is attached to the small intestine. Between the two
layers of membrane that form the mesentery are the blood vessels,
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lymphatic vessels, and nerves that supply the intestine. The section of the
peritoneum that extends from the colon to the back wall is the mesocolon.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The digestive system is continually at work, yet people seldom appreciate

the complex tasks it performs in a choreographed biologic symphony.
Consider what happens when you eat an apple. Of course, you enjoy the
apple’s taste as you chew it, but in the hours that follow, unless something
goes amiss and you get a stomachache, you don’t notice that your
digestive system is working. You may be taking a walk or studying or
sleeping, having forgotten all about the apple, but your stomach and
intestines are busy digesting it and absorbing its vitamins and other
nutrients. By the time any waste material is excreted, the body has
appropriated all it can use from the apple. In short, whether you pay
attention or not, the organs of the digestive system perform their specific
functions, allowing you to use the food you eat to keep you going.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit discussed digestive system organs, the general function of

digestive system and the walls of the digestive tract.
 Discuss the functions of digestive system

 Briefly describe peritoneum
(2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, (5th ed). New
ed), Mosby.
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/fooddigestion)

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UNIT 4 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 General Anatomy of the Digestive System
3.2 Major Organs of Digestion and Absorption
3.3 Roles of the Liver
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert

food into energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. It is
responsible for taking whole foods and turning them into energy and
nutrients to allow the body to function, grow, and repair itself. Food
passes through a long tube inside the body known as the alimentary canal
or the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The alimentary canal is made up of the
oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines, and large
intestines. In addition to the alimentary canal, there are several important
accessory organs that help your body to digest food but do not have food
pass through them. Accessory organs of the digestive system include the
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. In order to
achieve the goal of providing energy and nutrients to the body, six
primary functions take place in the digestive system. These are: ingestion
of food, secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes, mixing and movement
of food and wastes through the body, digestion of food into smaller
pieces, absorption of nutrients and excretion of wastes. This chapter
examines the structure and functions of these organs, and explores the
mechanics of the digestive processes. This chapter examines the structure
and functions of these organs, and explores the mechanics of the digestive
processes.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe the general anatomy of the digestive system

 describe the major organs of digestion and absorption
 explain the mechanism of digestion.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 General Anatomy of the Digestive System
 The gastrointestinal tract, also known as the “alimentary canal”

consists of all organs through which food passes (from the mouth
to the anus)
 Accessory structures that assist in digestion include teeth, salivary
glands, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas.
Four major layers of the gastrointestinal tract are:
1. Mucosa - innermost lining of the gastrointestinal tract

2. Submucosa - areolar connective tissue, blood vessels, autonomic
nerves
3. Muscularis externa - circular and longitudinal smooth muscles
4. Serosa - outermost layer
Fig. 36: The Human Digestive System

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3.2 Major Organs of Digestion and Absorption in Man

The Stomach
1. General anatomic regions: Cardiac, fundus, body and pyloric

region
2. The stomach is important in the process of physical digestion
3. Rugae are undulations in stomach wall to help grind
4. Gastric pits contain four major secretory cells:
(a) Chief cells, which produce pepsinogen which is, in turn,
activated by Hydrochloric acid into pepsin
(b) Parietal cells which produces hydrochloric acid (HCl). The
secretion is enhanced by histamine via H2 receptors,
(c) G-cell which secretes gastrin hormone; gastrin activates gastric
juice secretion and gastric smooth muscle “churning”. It also
activates gastroileal reflex which moves chyme (liquefied digested
material) from the ileum to colon,
(d) Mucus cell which plays the protective role of mucus against
acids and digestive enzymes.
5. Pyloric sphincter regulates entry of food into the duodenum.
The Small Intestine
This is the major site of chemical digestion and absorption. It has three
major segments: duodenum, jejunum and the ileum. The histology is as
follows:
(a) Mucosa has intestinal glands (cavities) for secretion of intestinal

juice.
(b) Mucosa also has circular folds, villi and microvilli for increased
surface area.
The Pancreas
The pancreas produces approximately 1.5 litres a day of pancreatic

secretions, the secretions enter the duodenum via two pancreatic ducts
and there are many different components in these secretions like
NaHCO3 (buffers pH of chyme), pancreatic amylase, trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen and carboxypeptidase.
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The Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body. Its functions include:
 To “filter” and process nutrient-rich blood delivered to it.

 To receive nutrient-rich blood from the small intestine via the
hepatic portal vein.
 To regulate carbohydrate metabolism.
The Large Intestine
The major function is to absorb water and eliminate indigestible matter.

Major structures are:
(a) Caecum with vermiform appendix,

(b) Ascending, transverse, descending colon,
(c) Sigmoid colon, rectum,
(d) The haustra which are pouches in the wall of the large intestine.
Table 6: Functions of the Digestive Organs
Organ Major functions Other functions

Mouth Ingests food Chews and mixes Moistens and dissolves food,
food allowing you to taste it
Begins chemical breakdown of Cleans and lubricates the teeth
carbohydrates Moves food into the and oral cavity
pharynx Begins breakdown of Has some antimicrobial activity
lipids via lingual lipase
Pharynx Propels food from the oral cavity Lubricates food and
to the esophagus passageways
Esophagus Propels food to the stomach Lubricates food and
passageways
Stomach Mixes and churns food with gastric Stimulates protein-digesting
juices to form chyme enzymes
Begins chemical breakdown of Secretes intrinsic factor
proteins required for vitamin
Releases food into the duodenum B12 absorption in small
as chyme intestine
Absorbs some fat-soluble
substances (for example, alcohol,
aspirin)
Possesses antimicrobial functions
Small Mixes chyme with digestive juices Provides optimal medium for
intestine enzymatic activity
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Propels food at a rate slow enough

for digestion and absorption
Absorbs breakdown products of
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
and nucleic acids, along with
vitamins, minerals, and water
Performs physical digestion via
segmentation
Accessory Liver: produces bile salts, which Bicarbonate-rich pancreatic
organs emulsify lipids, aiding their juices help neutralize acidic
digestion and absorption chyme and provide optimal
Gallbladder: stores, concentrates, environment for enzymatic
and releases bile activity
Pancreas: produces digestive
enzymes and bicarbonate
Large Further breaks down food residues Food residue is concentrated
intestine Absorbs most residual water, and temporarily stored prior to
electrolytes, and vitamins defecation
produced by enteric bacteria Mucus eases passage of feces
Propels feces toward rectum through colon
Eliminates feces
Figure 37: Accessory Organs The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are
considered accessory digestive organs, but their roles in the digestive
system are vital. (This content is available for free at
http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6)
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1. ------------------, ------------------- and ---------------------- are accessory

structures in human digestion.
2. ------------------ regulates entry of food into the duodenum. Fig. 22: The
wall of the human digestive tract
3.3 The Process of Digestion
Digestion of food starts in the mouth. Saliva is secreted by the salivary

gland. It contains an enzyme called ptyalin. Ptyalin acts on cooked starch,
converting it into complex sugars. It also helps to increase the surface
area of the food substance.
Food passes down from the mouth through the gullet (oesophagus) into
the stomach. In the stomach, food is further broken down into smaller
pieces by the action of enzymes mentioned above. Food is retained in the
stomach for 3-4 hours.
Food passes down from the stomach to the small intestine where actual
digestion, absorption and assimilation takes place by the action of some
enzymes. From the small intestine, undigested food passes into the large
intestine. Here water is absorbed. This concentrates the waste products
and makes it semi-solid. In this state the waste products are called faeces.
The faeces pass into the rectum and out of the body through the anus.
Carbohydrates are enzymatically digested to form monosaccharides

(glucose, fructose, and galactose). They are absorbed in the small
intestine by active transport or facilitated diffusion and enter the blood
capillary in villi, then directed to the hepatic portal vein. Proteins are
enzymatically digested to amino acids or di- and tripeptides, absorbed in
the small intestine by active transport or facilitated diffusion, enter blood
capillaries in villi, then directed to the hepatic portal vein. Lipids are
enzymatically digested to short or long chain fatty acids; they are
suspended in the small intestine in the form of micelles with bile salts,
while inside the epithelial cells, lipids bind into chylomicrons for
transport to lacteal villi; then into lymphatics, and then to venous
circulation.
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Table 7: Contribution of Other Body Systems to the Digestive System
Body Benefits received by the digestive system

system
Cardiovascular Blood supplies digestive organs with oxygen and processed
nutrients
Endocrine Endocrine hormones help regulate secretion in digestive
glands and accessory organs
Integumentary Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D
for calcium absorption
Lymphatic Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and other lymphatic tissue
defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids; and
lymphatic vessels transport lipids to bloodstream
Muscular Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs
Nervous Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and
muscle contractions in the digestive tract
Respiratory Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon
dioxide
Skeletal Bones help protect and support digestive organs
Urinary Kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form, allowing

calcium absorption in the small intestine
1. Describe the role of the saliva in digestion.

2. Describe the absorption of lipids.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The digestive organs, tissues and enzymes are involved in the breaking
down of ingested food in the alimentary canal into a form that can be
absorbed and assimilated by the tissues of the body. Malfunctioning of
any one of them will grossly affect the well-being of an individual. The
digestive system includes the organs of the alimentary canal and
accessory structures. The alimentary canal forms a continuous tube that
is open to the outside environment at both ends. The organs of the
alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine. The accessory digestive structures include
the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The
wall of the alimentary canal is composed of four basic tissue layers:
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. The enteric nervous system
provides intrinsic innervation, and the autonomic nervous system
provides extrinsic innervation.
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5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has looked at the definition of digestion, the organs involved in
digestion and the enzymes that are involved in the digestion and
absorption of nutrients.
1) Teeth, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas are the
major accessory organs of digestion.
2) Pyloric sphincter regulates entry of food into the duodenum.
Description of the absorption of lipids: It is enzymatically digested to

short or long chain fatty acids. It is suspended in Small Intestine in the
form of micelles with bile salts, while inside epithelial cells; lipids bind
into chylomicrons for transport to lacteal villi; then into lymphatics, and
then to venous circulation.
With a well labelled diagram, describe the stomach.
ed), Mosby.
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/fooddigestion)

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UNIT 5 PELVIC ORGANS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Female Reproductive Organ Anatomy
3.2 Male Reproductive Organ Anatomy
3.3 Fertilization and Sexual determination
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The pelvic cavity is a body cavity that is bounded by the bones of the
pelvis. Its oblique roof is the pelvic inlet (the superior opening of the
pelvis). Its lower boundary is the pelvic floor. The pelvic cavity primarily
contains reproductive organs, the urinary bladder, the pelvic colon, and
the rectum. The rectum is placed at the back of the pelvis, in the curve of
the sacrum and coccyx; the bladder is in front, behind the pubic
symphysis. In the female, the uterus and vagina occupy the interval
between these viscera. The pelvic cavity also contains major arteries,
veins, muscles, and nerves. These structures coexist in a crowded space,
and disorders of one pelvic component may impact upon another; for
example, constipation may overload the rectum and compress the urinary
bladder, or childbirth might damage the pudendal nerves and later lead to
anal weakness.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to;
 Understand pelvic anatomy

 Describe Organs and structures of the female pelvis organs
 Describe Organs and structures of the male pelvis organs
 Describe functional anatomy and relevant pathophysiology
 Describe Fertilization and Sex determination
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Anatomy of Female Reproductive Organ
Figure 38: The female reproductive system (Internal

Structures)
Figure 39: The female reproductive system (Gross Anatomy)
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3.1.1 External Genitalia
The vulva, also known as the pudendum, is a term used to describe those
external organs that may be visible in the perineal area. The vulva consists
of the following organs: mons pubis, labia minora and majora, hymen,
clitoris, vestibule, urethra, Skene glands, greater vestibular (Bartholin)
glands, and vestibular bulbs. The boundaries include the mons pubis
anteriorly, the rectum posteriorly, and the genitocrural folds (thigh folds)
laterally.
Mons pubis
The mons pubis is the rounded portion of the vulva where sexual hair
development occurs at the time of puberty. This area may be described as
directly anterosuperior to the pubic symphysis.
Labia
The labia majora are 2 large, longitudinal folds of adipose and fibrous
tissue. They vary in size and distribution from female to female, and the
size is dependent upon adipose content. They extend from the mons
anteriorly to the perineal body posteriorly. The labia majora have hair
follicles.
The labia minora, also known as nymphae, are 2 small cutaneous folds
that are found between the labia majora and the introitus or vaginal
vestibule. Anteriorly, the labia minora join to form the frenulum of the
clitoris.
Hymen
The hymen is a thin membrane found at the entrance to the vaginal orifice.
Often, this membrane is perforated before the onset of menstruation,
allowing flow of menses. The hymen varies greatly in shape.
Clitoris
The clitoris is an erectile structure found beneath the anterior joining of

the labia minora. Its width in an adult female is approximately 1 cm, with
an average length of 1.5-2.0 cm. The clitoris is made up of 2 crura, which
attach to the periosteum of the ischiopubic rami. It is a very sensitive
structure, analogous to the male penis. It is innervated by the dorsal nerve
of the clitoris, a terminal branch of the pudendal nerve.
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Vestibule and urethra
Between the clitoris and the vaginal introitus (opening) is a triangular area
known as the vestibule, which extends to the posterior fourchette. The
vestibule is where the urethral (urinary) meatus is found, approximately
1 cm anterior to the vaginal orifice, and it also gives rise to the opening
of the Skene glands bilaterally. The urethra is composed of membranous
connective tissue and links the urinary bladder to the vestibule externally.
A female urethra ranges in length from 3.5 to 5.0 cm.
Skene and Bartholin glands
The Skene glands secrete lubrication at the opening of the urethra. The
greater vestibular (Bartholin) glands are also responsible for secreting
lubrication to the vagina, with openings just outside the hymen,
bilaterally, at the posterior aspect of the vagina. Each gland is small,
similar in shape to a kidney’s bean shape.
Vestibular bulbs
Finally, the vestibular bulbs are 2 masses of erectile tissue that lie deep to
the bulbocavernosus muscles bilaterally.
3.1.1 Internal Genitalia
Vagina
The vagina extends from the vulva externally to the uterine cervix
internally. It is located within the pelvis, anterior to the rectum and
posterior to the urinary bladder. The vagina lies at a 90º angle in relation
to the uterus. The vagina is held in place by endopelvic fascia and
ligaments. The vagina is lined by rugae, which are situated in folds
throughout. These allow easy distention, especially during child bearing.
The structure of the vagina is a network of connective, membranous, and
erectile tissues.
The pelvic diaphragm, the sphincter urethrae and transverse perineal

muscles, and the perineal membrane support the vagina. The sphincter
urethrae and the transverse perineal muscle are innervated by perineal
branches of the pudendal nerve. The pelvic diaphragm primarily refers to
the levator ani and the coccygeus and is innervated by branches of sacral
nerves S2-S4.
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The vascular supply to the vagina is primarily from the vaginal artery, a
branch of the anterior division of the internal iliac artery. Several of these
arteries may be found on either side of the pelvis to richly supply the
vagina.
The nerve supply to the vagina is primarily from the autonomic nervous
system. Sensory fibers to the lower vagina arise from the pudendal nerve,
and pain fibers are from sacral nerve roots. Lymphatic drainage of the
vagina is generally to the external iliac nodes (upper third of the vagina),
the common and internal iliac nodes (middle third), and the superficial
inguinal nodes (lower third).
Uterus
The uterus is the inverted pear-shaped female reproductive organ that lies
in the midline of the body, within the pelvis between the bladder and the
rectum. It is thick-walled and muscular, with a lining that, during
reproductive years, changes in response to hormone stimulation
throughout a woman monthly cycle. The uterus can be divided into 2
parts: the most inferior aspect is the cervix, and the bulk of the organ is
called the body of the uterus (corpus uteri). Between these 2 is the
isthmus, a short area of constriction.
The body of the uterus is globe-shaped and is typically situated in an

anteverted position, at a 90º angle to the vagina. The upper aspect of the
body is dome-shaped and is called the fundus; it is typically the most
muscular part of the uterus. The body of the uterus is responsible for
holding a pregnancy, and strong uterine wall contractions help to expel
the fetus during labor and delivery.
The average weight of a non-pregnant, nulliparous uterus is

approximately 40-50 g. A multiparous uterus may weigh slightly more
than this, with an upper limit of approximately 110 g. A menopausal
uterus is small and atrophied and typically weighs much less. The cavity
of the uterus is flattened and triangular. The uterine tubes enter the uterine
cavity bilaterally in the superolateral portion of the cavity.
The uterus is connected to its surrounding structures by a series of

ligaments and connective tissue. The pelvic peritoneum is attached to the
body and the cervix as the broad ligament, reflecting onto the bladder.
The broad ligament attaches the uterus to the lateral pelvic side walls.
Within the broad base of the broad ligament, between its anterior and
posterior laminae, connective tissue strands associated with the uterine
and vaginal vessels help to support the uterus and vagina. Together, these
strands are referred to as the cardinal ligament.
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Rectouterine ligaments, lying within peritoneal folds, stretch posteriorly

from the cervix to reach the sacrum. The round ligaments of the uterus
are much denser structures and connect the uterus to the anterolateral
abdominal wall at the deep inguinal ring. They lie within the anterior
lamina of the broad ligament. Within the round ligament is the artery of
Sampson, a small artery that must be ligated during hysterectomy.
The vasculature of the uterus is derived from the uterine arteries and
veins. The uterine vessels arise from the anterior division of the internal
iliac, and branches of the uterine artery anastomose with the ovarian
artery along the uterine tube.
The nerve supply and lymphatic drainage of the uterus are complex.
Lymphatic drainage is primarily to the lateral aortic, pelvic, and iliac
nodes that surround the iliac vessels. The nerve supply is attained through
the sympathetic nervous system (by way of the hypogastric and ovarian
plexuses) and the parasympathetic nervous system (by way of the pelvic
splanchnic nerves from the second through fourth sacral nerves).
Cervix
The cervix is the inferior portion of the uterus, separating the body of the
uterus from the vagina. The cervix is cylindrical in shape, with an
endocervical canal located in the midline, allowing passage of semen into
the uterus. The external opening into the vagina is termed the external os,
and the internal opening into the endometrial cavity is termed the internal
os. The internal os is the portion of a female cervix that dilates to allow
delivery of the fetus during labor. The average length of the cervix is 3-5
cm.
The vasculature is supplied by descending branches of the uterine artery,

which run bilaterally at the 3 o'clock and 9 o’clock position of the cervix.
The nerve supply to the cervix is via the parasympathetic nervous system
by way of the second through fourth sacral segments. Many pain nerve
fibers run alongside these parasympathetics. Lymphatic drainage of the
cervix is complex. The obturator, common iliac, internal iliac, external
iliac, and visceral parametrial nodes are the main drainage points.
Uterine tubes
The uterine tubes (also referred to as oviducts or fallopian tubes) are

uterine appendages located bilaterally at the superior portion of the cavity.
Their primary function is to transport sperm toward the egg (ovum or
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oocyte), which is released by the ovary, and then to allow passage of the
fertilized ovum back to the uterus for implantation.
The uterine tubes exit the uterus through an area known as the cornua and
form a connection between the endometrial and peritoneal cavities. Each
tube is approximately 10 cm in length and 1 cm in diameter and is situated
within a portion of the broad ligament called the mesosalpinx. The distal
portion of the uterine tube ends in an orientation encircling the ovary.
The uterine tube has 3 parts. The first segment, closest to the uterus, is
called the isthmus. The second segment is the ampulla, which becomes
more dilated in diameter and is the typical place of fertilization. The final
segment, furthest from the uterus, is the infundibulum. The infundibulum
gives rise to the fimbriae, finger-like projections that are responsible for
catching the ovum that is released by the ovary.
The arterial supply to the uterine tubes is from branches of the uterine and
ovarian arteries, small vessels that are located within the mesosalpinx.
The nerve supply to the uterine tubes is via both sympathetic and
parasympathetic fibers. Sensory fibers run from thoracic segments 11-12
and lumbar segment 1. Lymphatic drainage of the uterine tubes is through
the iliac and aortic nodes.
Ovaries
The ovaries are paired organs located on either side of the uterus within
the mesovarium portion of the broad ligament below the uterine tubes.
The ovaries are responsible for producing, housing and releasing the ova,
which are necessary for reproduction. At birth, a female has
approximately 1-2 million ova, but only 300 of these ever mature and are
released for the purpose of fertilization.
The ovaries are small and oval-shaped, exhibit a grayish color, and have
an uneven surface. The actual size of an ovary depends on a woman’s age
and hormonal status; the ovaries are approximately 3-5 cm in length
during childbearing years and become much smaller and atrophic once
menopause occurs. A cross-section of the ovary reveals many cystic
structures that vary in size. These structures represent ovarian follicles at
different stages of development and degeneration.
Pathophysiology of Female Reproductive System
Disorders of the female reproductive system can occur as a result of

disease in one of the many varied reproductive organs: the ovaries, the
fallopian tubes, the uterus, the cervix, the vagina, or the breast. During the
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reproductive years, these disorders often present as altered

menstruation, pelvic pain, or infertility. Cancers arising in these tissues
occur more often in the late reproductive or menopausal years.
Unfortunately, for several reasons, they often have high mortality rates
and a high incidence of metastases when they are diagnosed. Some organs
are located deep and are relatively inaccessible to palpation (ovaries).
Others have few sensory nerves (ovary, fallopian tubes) and hence remain
asymptomatic. Additionally, the breasts have large amounts of adipose
tissue, which can make early detection of breast cancer difficult. The one
exception is the uterine cervix. It has easy access to surveillance with use
of the Papanicolaou smear and human papillomavirus (HPV) screening,
which have led to a dramatically reduced mortality rate of cervical cancer.
3.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN ANATOMY
3.2.1 External male genital organs Scrotum
The scrotum is a sac-like organ made of skin and muscles that houses
the testes. It is located inferior to the penis in the pubic region. The
scrotum is made up of 2 side-by-side pouches with a testis located in
each pouch. The smooth muscles that make up the scrotum allow it to
regulate the distance between the testes and the rest of the body. When
the testes become too warm to support spermatogenesis, the scrotum
relaxes to move the testes away from the body’s heat. Conversely, the
scrotum contracts to move the testes closer to the body’s core heat when
temperatures drop below the ideal range for spermatogenesis.
Penis
The penis is the male external sexual organ located superior to the scrotum
and inferior to the umbilicus. The penis is roughly cylindrical in shape
and contains the urethra and the external opening of the urethra. Large
pockets of erectile tissue in the penis allow it to fill with blood and become
erect. The erection of the penis causes it to increase in size and become
turgid. The function of the penis is to deliver semen into the vagina during
sexual intercourse. In addition to its reproductive function, the penis also
allows for the excretion of urine through the urethra to the exterior of the
body.
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3.2.2 Internal genital organs
Testes
The 2 testes, also known as testicles, are the male gonads responsible for
the production of sperm and testosterone. The testes are ellipsoid
glandular organs around 3.5 to 5 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter. Each
testis is found inside its own pouch on one side of the scrotum and is
connected to the abdomen by a spermatic cord and cremaster muscle. The
cremaster muscles contract and relax along with the scrotum to regulate
the temperature of the testes. The inside of the testes is divided into small
compartments known as lobules. Each lobule contains a section of
seminiferous tubule lined with epithelial cells. These epithelial cells
contain many stem cells that divide and form sperm cells through the
process of spermatogenesis.
Epididymis
The epididymis is a sperm storage area that wraps around the superior
and posterior part of the testes. The epididymis is made up of several
centimeters of long, thin tubules that are tightly coiled into a small mass.
Sperm produced in the testes moves into the epididymis to mature before
being passed on through the male reproductive organs. The length of
the epididymis delays the release of the sperm and allows them time to
mature.
Spermatic Cords and Ductus Deferens
Within the scrotum, a pair of spermatic cords connects the testes to the
abdominal cavity. The spermatic cords contain the ductus deferens along
with nerves, veins, arteries, and lymphatic vessels that support the
function of the testes.
The ductus deferens, also known as the vas deferens, is a muscular tube
that carries sperm superiorly from the epididymis into the abdominal
cavity to the ejaculatory duct. The ductus deferens is wider in diameter
than the epididymis and uses its internal space to store mature sperm. The
smooth muscles of the walls of the ductus deferens are used to move
sperm towards the ejaculatory duct through peristalsis.
Seminal Vesicles
The seminal vesicles are a pair of lumpy exocrine glands that store and
produce some of the liquid portion of semen. The seminal vesicles are
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about 5 cm in length and located posterior to the urinary bladder and

anterior to the rectum. The liquid produced by the seminal vesicles
contains proteins and mucus and has an alkaline pH to help sperm survive
in the acidic environment of the vagina. The liquid also contains fructose
to feed sperm cells so that they survive long enough to fertilize the oocyte.
Ejaculatory Duct
The ductus deferens, while passing through the pelvis, is joined by the
duct of the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct. This duct passes
into the prostate gland to join the urethra. During ejaculation, the
ejaculatory duct opens and expels sperm (from the testis) and the seminal
fluid or secretions (from the seminal vesicles) into the urethra.
Urethra
Semen passes from the ejaculatory duct to the exterior of the body via the
urethra, a 20 to 25 cm long muscular tube. The urethra passes through the
prostate and ends at the external urethral orifice located at the tip of the
penis. Urine exiting the body from the urinary bladder also passes through
the urethra.
Prostate
The prostate is a walnut-sized exocrine gland that borders the inferior end
of The urinary bladder and surrounds the urethra. The prostate produces
a large portion of the fluid that makes up semen. This fluid is milky white
in colour and contains enzymes, proteins, and other chemicals to support
and protect sperm during and after ejaculation. The prostate also contains
smooth muscle tissue that can constrict to prevent the flow of urine or
semen.
Cowper’s Glands
The Cowper’s glands, also known as the bulbourethral glands, are a pair
of pea-sized exocrine glands located inferior to the prostate and anterior
to the anus. The Cowper’s glands secrete a thin alkaline fluid into the
urethra that lubricates the urethra and neutralizes acid from urine
remaining in the urethra after urination. This fluid enters the urethra
during sexual arousal prior to ejaculation to prepare the urethra for the
flow of semen.
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Semen
Semen is the fluid produced by males for sexual reproduction and is

ejaculated out of the body during sexual intercourse. Semen contains
sperm, the male reproductive gametes, along with a number of chemicals
suspended in a liquid medium. The chemical composition of semen gives
it a thick, sticky consistency and a slightly alkaline pH. These traits help
semen to support reproduction by helping sperm to remain within the
vagina after intercourse and to neutralize the acidic environment of the
vagina. In healthy adult males, semen contains around 100 million sperm
cells per millilitre. These sperm cells fertilize oocytes inside the female
fallopian tubes.
Figure 40: Male Reproductive system
3.3 Fertilization and Sex determination
3.3.1 Fertilization
Fertilization is the process by which a sperm combines with an oocyte, or

egg cell, to produce a fertilized oocyte called a zygote. The sperm released
during ejaculation must first swim through the vagina and uterus and into
the fallopian tubes where they may find an oocyte. After encountering the
oocyte, a sperm will have to penetrate the outer corona radiata and zona
pellucida layers of the oocyte. Sperm contain enzymes in the acrosome
region of the head that allow them to penetrate these layers. After
penetrating the interior of the oocyte, the nuclei of these haploid cells fuse
to form a diploid cell known as a zygote. The zygote cell begins cell
division to form an embryo.
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3.3.2 Sex determination
Sexual identity is determined at fertilization when the genetic sex of the

zygote has been initialized by a sperm cell containing either an X or Y
chromosome. If this sperm cell contains an X chromosome it will align
with the X chromosome of the ovum and a female child will develop. A
sperm cell carrying a Y chromosome results in an XY combination, and
a male child will develop. Genetic sex determines whether the gonads will
be testes or ovaries. In the developing embryo, if the testes are developed,
it will produce and secrete male sex hormones during late embryonic
development and cause the secondary sex organs of the male to develop.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The female reproductive system is a complicated but fascinating subject.

It has the capability to function intimately with nearly every other body
system for the purpose of reproduction. The female reproductive organs
can be subdivided into the internal and external genitalia (see the images
below). The internal genitalia are those organs that are within the true
pelvis. These include the vagina, uterus, cervix, uterine tubes (oviducts or
fallopian tubes), and ovaries. The external genitalia lie outside the true
pelvis. These include the perineum, mons pubis, clitoris, urethral (urinary)
meatus, labia majora and minora, vestibule, greater vestibular (Bartholin)
glands, Skene glands, and periurethral area. The male reproductive
system includes the scrotum, testes, spermatic ducts (epidiymis, ductus
deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra), sex glands, and penis. These organs
work together to produce sperm, the male gamete, and the other
components of semen and deliver semen out of the body and into the
vagina where it can fertilize oocytes and produce offsprings.
Pathophysiology of Male Reproductive System
A man's reproductive system has many functions, including ensuring his

fertility and providing sex hormones that support his sexual well-being.
Although problems that arise in the system are often treatable, several
disorders can have potentially serious consequences. The disorders of the
male reproductive system include infection caused usually by bacteria
(e.g. gonorrhoea which is a sexually transmitted disease) and virus
including mumps, benign enlargement of the prostate, cancer, infertility
and penile problems.
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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have described the organs and structures of the male and
female pelvis, the functional anatomy and relevant pathophysiology
along with fertilization and sex determination.
 Discuss five Female internal reproductive organs

 What is fertilization?
 Briefly discuss sex determination
 Discuss two male external organs
Moore, Keith L. et al. (2010) Clinically Oriented Anatomy 6th Ed, ch.3
Pelvis and perineum, p.339
Richard S. Snell Clinical Anatomy By Regions, Pelvic cavity

Drake et al. (2009) Grays Anatomy for Students, 2nd Edition, ch.5
Pelvis and perineum - general description
Chung KW. Gross Anatomy. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins; 2000.
Gray H. Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical, The Unabridged Gray's

Anatomy. Philadelphia: Running Press; 1999.
Katz VL, Lentz GM, Lobo RA, Gershenson DM. Comprehensive

Gynecology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby Elsevier; 2007.
Junqueira LC, Carneiro J, Kelley RO. Basic Histology. 9th ed. Stamford,
Connecticut: Appleton & Lange; 1998.
(2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (5th ed.). New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
ed.). Mosby.
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MODULE 5 THE CIRCULATORY AND URINARY

SYSTEM
Unit 1 Overview of the circulatory system

Unit 2 The heart, blood formation and blood vessels
Unit 3 Introduction to urinary system
Unit 4 The structure of the kidney
Unit 5 The organs responsible for urine formation, storage and
elimination
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF THE CIRCULATORY

SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
3.2 Components of Blood
3.3 Blood Groups and Blood Types
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Blood contributes to homeostasis by transporting oxygen, carbon dioxide,

nutrients, and hormones to and from your body’s cells. It helps regulate
body pH and temperature, and provides protection against disease through
phagocytosis and the production of antibodies. The cardiovascular
system (cardio - heart; vascular - blood vessels) consists of three
interrelated components: blood, the heart, and blood vessels. The focus of
this chapter is blood; the next two chapters will examine the heart and
blood vessels, respectively. Blood transports various substances, helps
regulate several life processes, and affords protection against disease. For
all of its similarities in origin, composition, and functions, blood is as
unique from one person to another as are skin, bone, and hair. Health-care
professionals routinely examine and analyze its differences through
various blood tests when trying to determine the cause of different
diseases.
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In this unit, we will discuss how the composition of the interstitial fluid
in tissues throughout the body is kept stable through continuous exchange
between the peripheral tissues and the bloodstream. Blood can help to
maintain homeostasis only if it stays in motion. Thus all the functions of
the cardiovascular system ultimately depend on the heart which beats
approximately 100,000 times each day, pumping roughly 8,000 litres of
blood.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Describe the functions of blood.

 Describe the physical characteristics and principal components of
blood.
 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
 Discuss the Components of Blood
 Discuss Blood Groups and Blood Types
Figure 41: The circulatory system
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
Blood is carried through the body via blood vessels. An artery is a blood
vessel that carries blood away from the heart, where it branches into ever-
smaller vessels. Eventually, the smallest arteries called arterioles, further
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branch into tiny capillaries, at which level nutrients and wastes are
exchanged. Similar vessels called venules exit the capillary bed in
continuity with the capillaries and carry blood to veins, which are larger
blood vessel that return blood to the heart.
Arteries and veins transport blood in two distinct circuits: the systemic
circuit and the pulmonary circuit. Systemic arteries provide blood rich in
oxygen to the body’s tissues. The blood returned to the heart through
systemic veins has less oxygen, since much of the oxygen carried by the
arteries has been delivered to the cells. In contrast, in the pulmonary
circuit, arteries carry blood low in oxygen exclusively to the lungs for gas
exchange. Pulmonary veins then return freshly oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the heart to be pumped back into the systemic circulation.
Although arteries and veins differ structurally and functionally, they share
certain features.
Figure 42: Cardiovascular Circulation
The pulmonary circuit moves blood from the right side of the heart to the
lungs and back to the heart. The systemic circuit moves blood from the
left side of the heart to the head and body and returns it to the right side
of the heart to repeat the cycle. The arrows indicate the direction of blood
flow, and the colors show the relative levels of oxygen concentration.
Different types of blood vessels vary slightly in their structures, but they
share the same general features. Arteries and arterioles have thicker walls
than veins and venules because they are closer to the heart and receive
blood that is surging at a far greater pressure. Each type of vessel has a
lumen - a hollow passageway - through which blood flows. Arteries have
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smaller lumens than veins, a characteristic that helps to maintain the

pressure of blood moving through the system. Together, their thicker
walls and smaller diameters give arterial lumens a more rounded
appearance in cross section than the lumens of veins.
3.1.1 Circulatory Loops
There are 2 primary circulatory loops in the human body: the pulmonary
circulation loop and the systemic circulation loop.
1. Pulmonary circulation transports deoxygenated blood from the right side
of the heart to the lungs, where the blood picks up oxygen and returns it
to the left side of the heart. The pumping chambers of the heart that
support the pulmonary circulation loop are the right atrium and right
ventricle.
2. Systemic circulation carries highly oxygenated blood from the left side of
the heart to all of the tissues of the body. Systemic circulation removes
wastes from body tissues and returns deoxygenated blood to the right side
of the heart. The left atrium and left ventricle of the heart are the pumping
chambers for the systemic circulation loop.
3. Blood Vessels: These are the body’s highways that allow blood to flow
quickly and efficiently from the heart to every region of the body and back
again. The size of blood vessels corresponds with the amount of blood
that passes through the vessel. All blood vessels contain a hollow area
called the lumen through which blood is able to flow. Around the lumen
is the wall of the vessel, which may be thin in the case of capillaries or
very thick in the case of arteries.
4. All blood vessels are lined with a thin layer of simple squamous
epithelium known as the endothelium that keeps blood cells inside of the
blood vessels and prevents clots from forming. The endothelium lines the
entire circulatory system, all the way to the interior of the heart, where it
is called the endocardium.
5. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and
veins. Blood vessels are often named after either the region of the body
through which they carry blood or the nearby structures. For example, the
brachiocephalic artery carries blood into the brachial (arm) and cephalic
(head) regions. One of its branches, the subclavian artery, runs under the
clavicle; hence the name subclavian. The subclavian artery runs into the
axillary region where it becomes known as the axillary artery.
6. Arteries and Arterioles: Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away
from the heart. Blood carried by arteries is usually highly oxygenated,
having just left the lungs on its way to the body’s tissues. The pulmonary
trunk and arteries of the pulmonary circulation loop provide an exception
to this rule – these arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the
lungs to be oxygenated.
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Arteries face high levels of blood pressure as they carry blood being
pushed from the heart under great force. To withstand this pressure, the
walls of the arteries are thicker, more elastic, and more muscular than
those of other vessels. The largest arteries of the body contain a high
percentage of elastic tissue that allows them to stretch and accommodate
the pressure of the heart.
Smaller arteries are more muscular in the structure of their walls. The
smooth muscles of the arterial walls of these smaller arteries contract or
expand to regulate the flow of blood through their lumen. In this way, the
body controls how much blood flows to different parts of the body under
varying circumstances. The regulation of blood flow also affects blood
pressure, as smaller arteries give blood less area to flow through and
therefore increase the pressure of the blood on arterial walls.
Arterioles are narrower arteries that branch off from the ends of arteries
and carry blood to capillaries. They face much lower blood pressures than
arteries due to their greater number, decreased blood volume, and distance
from the direct pressure of the heart. Thus arteriolar walls are much
thinner than those of arteries. Arterioles, like arteries, are able to use
smooth muscle to control their aperture and regulate blood flow and blood
pressure.
7. Capillaries: Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest of the blood vessels
in the body and also the most common. They can be found running
throughout almost every tissue of the body and border the edges of the
body’s avascular tissues. Capillaries connect to arterioles on one end and
venules on the other.
Capillaries carry blood very close to the cells of the tissues of the body in
order to exchange gases, nutrients, and waste products. The walls of
capillaries consist of only a thin layer of endothelium so that there is
minimum amount of structure possible between the blood and the tissues.
The endothelium acts as a filter to keep blood cells inside of the vessels
while allowing liquids, dissolved gases, and other chemicals to diffuse
along their concentration gradients into or out of tissues.
Precapillary sphincters are bands of smooth muscle found at the arteriole

ends of capillaries. These sphincters regulate blood flow into the
capillaries. Since there is a limited supply of blood, and not all tissues
have the same energy and oxygen requirements, the precapillary
sphincters reduce blood flow to inactive tissues and allow free flow into
active tissues.
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8. Veins and Venules: Veins are the large return vessels of the body and act
as the blood return counterparts of arteries. Because the arteries,
arterioles, and capillaries absorb most of the force of the heart’s
contractions, veins and venules are subjected to very low blood pressures.
This lack of pressure allows the walls of veins to be much thinner, less
elastic, and less muscular than the walls of arteries.
Veins rely on gravity, inertia, and the force of skeletal muscle contractions
to help push blood back to the heart. To facilitate the movement of blood,
some veins contain many one-way valves that prevent blood from flowing
away from the heart. As skeletal muscles in the body contract, they
squeeze nearby veins and push blood through valves closer to the heart.
When the muscle relaxes, the valve traps the blood until another
contraction pushes the blood closer to the heart. Venules are similar to
arterioles as they are small vessels that connect capillaries, but unlike
arterioles, venules connect to veins instead of arteries. Venules pick up
blood from many capillaries and deposit it into larger veins for transport
back to the heart.
3.1.2 Coronary Circulation
The heart has its own set of blood vessels that provide the myocardium
with the oxygen and nutrients necessary to pump blood throughout the
body. The left and right coronary arteries branch off from the aorta and
provide blood to the left and right sides of the heart. The coronary sinus
is a vein on the posterior side of the heart that returns deoxygenated blood
from the myocardium to the vena cava.
3.1.3 The Circulatory Pump
The heart is a four-chambered “double pump,” where each side (left and
right) operates as a separate pump. The left and right sides of the heart are
separated by a muscular wall of tissue known as the septum of the heart.
The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the systemic
veins and pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation. The left side of the heart
receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it through the
systemic arteries to the tissues of the body. Each heartbeat results in the
simultaneous pumping of both sides of the heart, making the heart a very
efficient pump.
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3.1.4 Regulation of Blood Pressure
Several functions of the cardiovascular system can control blood pressure.

Certain hormones along with autonomic nerve signals from the brain
affect the rate and strength of heart contractions. Greater contractile force
and heart rate lead to an increase in blood pressure. Blood vessels can also
affect blood pressure. Vasoconstriction decreases the diameter of an
artery by contracting the smooth muscle in the arterial wall. The
sympathetic (fight or flight) division of the autonomic nervous system
causes vasoconstriction, which leads to increases in blood pressure and
decreases in blood flow in the constricted region. Vasodilation is the
expansion of an artery as the smooth muscle in the arterial wall relaxes
after the fight-or-flight response wears off or under the effect of certain
hormones or chemicals in the blood. The volume of blood in the body also
affects blood pressure. A higher volume of blood in the body raises blood
pressure by increasing the amount of blood pumped by each heartbeat.
Thicker, more viscous blood from clotting disorders can also raise blood
pressure.
3.1.5 Haemostasis
Haemostasis, or the clotting of blood and formation of scabs, is managed

by the platelets of the blood. Platelets normally remain inactive in the
blood until they reach damaged tissue or leak out of the blood vessels
through a wound. Once active, platelets change into a spiny ball shape
and become very sticky in order to latch on to damaged tissues. Platelets
next release chemical clotting factors and begin to produce the protein
fibrin to act as structure for the blood clot. Platelets also begin sticking
together to form a platelet plug. The platelet plug will serve as a temporary
seal to keep blood in the vessel and foreign material out of the vessel until
the cells of the blood vessel can repair the damage to the vessel wall. (Tim
Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor)
3.1.6 Structure of blood vessels
Arteries:
1. Outer coat (tunica external)

2. Middle coat (tunica media), usually the thickest and is made up of
elastic fibres and smooth muscle which has sympathetic innervation.
3. Inner coat (tunica internal). It is made up of endothelium and basement
membrane.
4. Large arteries (conducting) which have more elastic fibres.
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5. Medium arteries (distributing) they have more smooth muscle and

thicker and most vasodynamic.
6. Arterioles: regulate blood into capillaries.
Capillaries: These are endothelial sites of nutrient/gas/waste exchange.

Venules and veins: They have few smooth muscles
3.1.7 Movement of Materials across Capillaries
Diffusion: This is most important for solutes. It takes place through

plasma membranes, fenestrations and clefts. It is concentration
dependent.
Vesicular: This type of movement entails large hydrophilic molecules

e.g. IgG.
Bulk flow: This regulates volume of plasma and interstitial fluid. Clinical
implication of abnormal movement of material across capillaries is
oedema. This is caused by:
1. Increased venous flow

2. Cardiac failure
3. Poor circulation
4. Increased fluid uptake
5. Plasma protein loss (kidney disease)
6. Increased capillary permeability due to toxins
3.1.8 Blood Circulation within the Heart
The contraction and relaxation of the heart to pump blood is called

heartbeat. At rest the average heartbeat is about 70 times per minute.
During exercise, this rate goes up to over 100 times, thereby increasing
the supply of oxygen that goes to the body cells. Heartbeats occur in two
stages: systole and diastole.
 At systole, the two ventricles contract, while at diastole they both

relax.
 At systole, deoxygenated blood enters the right auricle (atrium)
through the superior and inferior vena cavae.
 The tricuspid valve is closed.
 The right ventricles pump deoxygenated blood to the lungs
through pulmonary artery.
 Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium from the lungs through the
pulmonary veins.
 The bicuspid valve is closed.
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 The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood through the semilunar

valve and the aorta to the body.
 The tricuspid and bicuspid valves auricles and ventricles (left and
right) prevent the back flow of blood into the atria when the
ventricles contract. The thick wall of left ventricles enables it to
pump blood with sufficient pressure around the body.
 Ventricles relax at diastole.
 The tricuspid and bicuspid valves open.
 Deoxygenated blood enters the right ventricle from the right
atrium.
 Oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle from the left atrium.
 Systole restarts when the ventricles are filled.
 Circulation is divided into systemic and pulmonary circulation
Directions of blood circulation
Blood from arteries → arteriole → capillaries

venules → veins→ heart.
3.1.9 Functions and Properties of blood
Blood is a connective tissue composed of a liquid extracellular matrix

called blood plasma that dissolves and suspends various cells and cell
fragments. Interstitial fluid is the fluid that bathes body cells and is
constantly renewed by the blood. Blood transports oxygen from the lungs
and nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract, which diffuse from the blood
into the interstitial fluid and then into body cells. Carbon dioxide and
other wastes move in the reverse direction, from body cells to interstitial
fluid to blood. Blood then transports the wastes to various organs—the
lungs, kidneys, and skin—for elimination from the body. Blood, which is
a liquid connective tissue, has three general functions:
1. Transportation. As you just learned, blood transports oxygen from the

lungs to the cells of the body and carbon dioxide from the body cells to
the lungs for exhalation. It carries nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract
to body cells and hormones from endocrine glands to other body cells.
Blood also transports heat and waste products to various organs for
elimination from the body.
2. Regulation. Circulating blood helps to maintain homeostasis of all

body fluids. Blood helps to regulate pH through the use of buffers. It also
helps to adjust body temperature through the heat absorbing and coolant
properties of the water (see page 40) in blood plasma and its variable rate
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of flow through the skin where excess heat can be lost from the blood to
the environment. In addition, blood osmotic pressure influences the water
content of cells, mainly through interactions of dissolved ions and
proteins.
3. Protection. Blood can clot, which protects against its excessive loss
from the cardiovascular system after an injury. In addition, its white blood
cells protect against disease by carrying on phagocytosis. Several types of
blood proteins, including antibodies, interferons, and complement, help
to protect the body against disease in a variety of ways.
Figure 43: Blood Cells
3.1.10Physical Characteristics of Blood
Blood is denser and more viscous (thicker) than water and feels slightly
sticky. The temperature of blood is 38oC (100.4oF), about 1oC higher than
oral or rectal body temperature, and it has a slightly alkaline pH ranging
from 7.35 to 7.45. The color of blood varies with its oxygen content.
When it has a high oxygen content, it is bright red. When it has low
oxygen content, it is dark red. Blood constitutes about 20% of
extracellular fluid, amounting to 8% of the total body mass. The blood
volume is 5 to 6 liters (1.5 gal) in an average-sized adult male and 4 to 5
liters (1.2 gal) in an average-sized adult female. The difference in volume
is due to differences in body size.
3.2 Components of Blood
Blood has two components:
1. Blood plasma, a watery liquid extracellular matrix that contains

dissolved substances, and
2. Formed elements, which are cells and cell fragments.
If a sample of blood is centrifuged (spun) in a small glass tube, the cells

sink to the bottom of the tube while the lighter weight plasma forms a
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layer on top. Blood is about 45% formed elements and 55% blood
plasma. Normally, more than 99% of the formed elements are cells named
for their red color—red blood cells (RBCs).
3.2.1 Blood Plasma
When the formed elements are removed from blood, a straw-colored

liquid called blood plasma (or simply plasma) is left. Blood plasma is
about 91.5% water and 8.5% solutes, most of which (7% by weight) are
proteins. Some of the proteins in blood plasma are also found elsewhere
in the body, but those confined to blood are called plasma proteins.
3.2.2 Formed Elements
The formed elements of the blood include three principal components: red
blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets. RBCs and
WBCs are whole cells; platelets are cell fragments. RBCs and platelets
have just a few roles, but WBCs have a number of specialized functions.
Several distinct types of WBCs—neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes,
eosinophils, and basophils—each with a unique microscopic appearance,
carry out different functions.
I. Red blood cells

II. White blood cells
A. Granular leukocytes (contain conspicuous granules that are

visible under a light microscope after staining)
1. Neutrophils
2. Eosinophils
3. Basophils
B. Agranular leukocytes (no granules are visible under a light

microscope after staining)
1. T and B lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells

2. Monocytes
III. Platelets
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Figure 44: Photomicrograph and Scanning electron micrograph of the

formed elements of blood.
3.2.3 Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes (e-RITH-ro¯ -sı¯ts; erythro-_

red; -cyte _ cell) contain the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin, which
is a pigment that gives whole blood its red color. A healthy adult male has
about 5.4 million red blood cells per microliter (μL) of blood,* and a
healthy adult female has about 4.8 million. (One drop of blood is about
50 μL.) To maintain normal numbers of RBCs, new mature cells must
enter the circulation at the astonishing rate of at least 2 million per second,
a pace that balances the equally high rate of RBC destruction. These cells,
like almost all the blood cells, live a much shorter time (120 days) than
most other cells in the body, some of which last a lifetime. One purpose
of the red cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. The oxygen
is bound in the red cells to haemoglobin, a protein that contains iron. The
erythrocytes are by far the most numerous of the corpuscles, averaging
from 4.5 to 5 million per cubic millimeter of blood.
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3.2.4 Leukocytes
The leukocytes, or white blood cells, are very different from the
erythrocytes in appearance, quantity, and function. Unlike red blood cells,
white blood cells or leukocytes have nuclei and do not contain
hemoglobin. WBCs are classified as either granular or agranular,
depending on whether they contain conspicuous chemical-filled
cytoplasmic granules (vesicles) that are made visible by staining when
viewed through a light microscope. Granular leukocytes include
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils; agranular leukocytes include
lymphocytes and mono-cytes.
3.2.5 Granular Leukocytes
After staining, each of the three types of granular leukocytes displays

conspicuous granules with distinctive coloration that can be recognized
under a light microscope. The large, uniform-sized granules within an
eosinophil are eosinophilic, they stain red-orange with acidic dyes. The
granules usually do not cover or obscure the nucleus, which most often
has two lobes connected by a thick strand of chromatin. The round,
variable-sized granules of a basophil are basophilic, they stain blue-
purple with basic dyes. The granules commonly obscure the nucleus,
which has two lobes. The granules of a neutrophil (NOO-tro-fil) are
smaller, evenly distributed, and pale lilac in color, the nucleus has two to
five lobes, connected by very thin strands of chromatin. As the cells age,
the number of nuclear lobes increases. Because older neutrophils have
several differently shaped nuclear lobes, they are often called
polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs), polymorphs, or “polys.”
Younger neutrophils are often called bands because their nucleus is more
rod-shaped.
3.2.6 Agranular Leukocytes
Even though so-called agranular leukocytes possess cytoplasmic

granules, the granules are not visible under a light microscope because of
their small size and poor staining qualities. The nucleus of a lymphocyte
is round or slightly indented and stains darkly. The cytoplasm stains sky
blue and forms a rim around the nucleus. The larger the cell, the more
cytoplasm is visible. Lymphocytes may be as small as 6 - 9 μm in diameter
or as large as 10 - 14 μm in diameter. There are three types of
lymphocytes: T lymphocytes (T cells), B lymphocytes (B cells), and
natural killer (NK) cells.
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3.2.7 Functions of WBC
The most important function of the leukocytes is to destroy pathogens.

Whenever pathogens enter the tissues, for example through a wound,
certain white blood cells (neutrophils and monocytes) are attracted to that
area. They leave the blood vessels and proceed by ameboid or ameba-
like motion to the area of infection. There they engulf the invaders by a
process called phagocytosis. If the pathogens are extremely strong or
numerous, they may destroy the leukocytes. The collection of dead and
living leukocytes, forms pus. A collection of pus localized in one area is
known as abscess. The Lymphocytes destroy foreign invaders by
attacking the cells directly or by producing antibodies that circulate in the
blood and help to destroy the cells.
3.2.8 Platelets
Of all the formed elements, the blood platelets (thrombocytes) are the
smallest. Platelets help to stop blood loss from damaged blood vessels by
forming a platelet plug. When, as a result of injury, blood comes in contact
with any tissue other than the lining of the blood vessels, the platelets stick
together and form a plug that seals the wound. Their granules also contain
chemicals that, once released, promote blood clotting. Platelets have a
short life span, normally just 5 to 9 days. Aged and dead platelets are
removed by fixed macrophages in the spleen and liver
Plasma: Plasma is the non-cellular or liquid portion of the blood that

makes up about 55% of the blood’s volume. Plasma is a mixture of water,
proteins, and dissolved substances. Around 90% of plasma is made of
water, although the exact percentage varies depending upon the hydration
levels of the individual. The proteins within plasma include antibodies
and albumins. Antibodies are part of the immune system and bind to
antigens on the surface of pathogens that infect the body. Albumins help
to maintain the body’s osmotic balance by providing an isotonic solution
for the cells of the body. Many different substances can be found
dissolved in the plasma, including glucose, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
electrolytes, nutrients, and cellular waste products. The plasma functions
as a transportation medium for these substances as they move throughout
the body.
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3.3 Blood Groups and Blood Types
The ABO blood group is based on two glycolipid antigens called A and
B. People whose RBCs display only antigen A have type A blood. Those
who have only antigen B are type B. Individuals who have both A and B
antigens are type AB; those who have neither antigen A nor B are type
O. Four blood types involving the A and B antigens have been
recognized: A, B, AB, and O. These letters indicate the types of antigen
present on the red cells, with O indicating that neither A nor B antigen is
present. It is these antigens on the donor’s red cells that react with the
antibodies in the patient’s plasma and cause a transfusion reaction. Blood
serum containing antibodies that can agglutinate and destroy red cells that
have A antigens on the surface is called anti-A serum; blood serum
containing antibodies that can destroy red cells with B antigen on the
surface is called anti-B serum. These sera are used to test for blood type.
Persons with type O blood are said to be universal donors because they
lack the AB red cell antigens and in an emergency their blood can be given
to anyone. Type AB individuals are called universal recipients, since
their blood contains no antibodies to agglutinate red cells and they can
therefore receive blood from most donors.
3.3.1 The Rh Blood Group
Rh factor is another red cell antigen that determines the blood group. The
Rh blood group is so named because the antigen was discovered in the
blood of the Rhesus monkey. The alleles of three genes may code for the
Rh antigen. People whose RBCs have Rh antigens are designated Rh+ve
(Rh positive); those who lack Rh antigens are designated Rh-ve (Rh
negative). Normally, blood plasma does not contain anti-Rh antibodies. If
an Rh-ve person receives an Rh+blood transfusion, however, the immune
system starts to make anti-Rh antibodies that will remain in the blood. If
a second transfusion of Rh+ve blood is given later, the previously formed
anti-Rh antibodies will cause agglutination and haemolysis of the RBCs
in the donated blood, and a severe reaction may occur.
A pregnant woman who is Rh negative may become sensitized by proteins

from her Rh positive fetus (this factor having been inherited from the
father) if these proteins enter the mother’s circulation before or during
childbirth. During a subsequent pregnancy with an Rh positive fetus,
some of the anti Rh antibodies may pass from the mother’s blood in to the
blood of her fetus and cause destruction of the fetus’s red cells. This
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condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis, or haemolytic disease of

the newborn.
Table 8: The ABO Blood Group System
Blood Type Antigen Antibodies Can take Can donate

RBC Plasma from to
A A Anti-B A, O A, AB
B B Anti-A B,O B, AB
AB A,B None AB, A, B, O AB
O NONE Anti-A, O O,A, B, AB

Anti-B
Source: Anatomy for Nurses
4.0 CONCLUSION
When blood flow needs to be redistributed to other parts of the body, the
vasomotor center located in the medulla oblongata sends sympathetic
stimulation to the smooth muscles in the walls of the veins, causing
constriction—or in this case, venoconstriction. Less dramatic than the
vasoconstriction seen in smaller arteries and arterioles, venoconstriction
may be likened to a “stiffening” of the vessel wall. This increases pressure
on the blood within the veins, speeding its return to the heart.
Approximately 21 percent of the venous blood is located in venous
networks within the liver, bone marrow, and integument. This volume of
blood is referred to as venous reserve. Through venoconstriction, this
“reserve” volume of blood can get back to the heart more quickly for
redistribution to other parts of the circulation.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has described the Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, the
functions of blood, the physical characteristics and principal components
of blood, the Components of Blood, Blood Groups and Blood types.
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 Discuss the functions of blood

 Discuss blood groups and blood types
 What are the components of blood
ed). Mosby.
Nega Assefa N and Tsige Y. Human Anatomy and Physiology. Lecture

Notes for Nursing Students. 2003.
Tortora GJ and Derrickson B. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology.12th

Edition.
Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor.
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UNIT 2 THE HEART, BLOOD FORMATION AND

BLOOD VESSELS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Structure of the Heart
3.2 The Four Chambers of the heart
3.3 The Four Valves of the heart
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The heart is a muscular pump that drives the blood through the blood
vessels. Slightly bigger than the owner’s fist, this organ is located between
the lungs in the center and a bit to the left of the midline of the body. The
importance of the heart has been recognized for centuries. The fact that
its rate of beating is affected by the emotions may be responsible for the
very frequent references to the heart in song and poetry. However, the
vital functions of the heart and its disorders are of more
practical importance.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Describe the Structure of the heart

 Discuss the Four Chambers of the heart
 Discuss the Four Valves of the heart
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Structure of the Heart
The heart is a hollow organ, the walls of which are formed of three
different layers:
1. The endocardium is a very thin smooth layer of cells that
resembles squamous epithelium. This membrane lines the interior
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of the heart. The valves of the heart are formed by reinforced folds
of this material.
2. The myocardium, the muscle of the heart, is the thickest layer.
3. The epicardium forms the thin outermost layer of the heart wall
and is continuous with the serous lining of the fibrous sac that
encloses the heart. These two membranes together make up the
pericardium. The serous lining of the pericardial sac is separated
from the epicardium on the heart surface by a thin fluid- filled
space.
Two Hearts and a Partition
Physicians often refer to the right heart and the left heart. This is because
the human heart is really a double pump. The two sides are completely
separated from each other by a partition called the septum. The upper part
of this partition is called interatrial septum; while the larger lower
portion is called interventricular septum. The septum, like the heart
wall, consists largely of myocardium.
3.2 The Four Chambers of the heart
On either side of the heart are two chambers, one a receiving chamber
(atrium) and the other a pumping chamber (ventricle):
1. The right atrium is a thin-walled chamber that receives the blood that
is
2. returning from the body tissues. This blood, which is low in oxygen,
is carried in the veins, the blood vessels leading to the heart from the
body tissues.
3. The right ventricle pumps the venous blood received from the right
atrium and sends it to the lungs.
4. The left atrium receives blood high in oxygen content as it returns
from the lungs.
5. The left ventricle, which has the thickest walls of all, pumps
oxygenated blood to all parts of the body. This blood goes through the
arteries, the vessels that take blood from the heart to the tissues.
3.3 The Four Valves of the heart
Since the ventricles are the pumping chambers, the valves, which are all
one way, are located at the entrance and the exit of each ventricle. The
entrance valves are the atrioventricular valves, while the exit valves are
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the semilunar valves. Semilunar means “resembling a half moon”. Each

valve has a specific name, as follows:
1. The right atrioventricular valve also is known as the tricuspid valve,
since it has three cusps or flaps that open and close. When this valve is
open, blood flows freely from the right atrium into the right ventricle.
However, when the right ventricle begins to contract, the valve closes so
that blood cannot return to the right atrium; this ensures forward flow into
the pulmonary artery.
2. The left atrioventricular valve is the bicuspid valve, which is usually

referred to as the mirtal valve. It has two rather heavy cusps that permit
blood to flow freely from the left atrium into the left ventricle. However,
the cusps close when the left ventricle begins to contract; this prevents
blood from returning to the left atrium and ensures the forward flow of
blood into the aorta. Both the tricuspid and mitral valves are attached by
means of thin fibrous threads to the wall of the ventricles via bundles of
muscular tissue called papillary muscles. The function of these threads,
called the chordae tendineae, is to keep the valve flaps from flipping up
into the atria when the ventricles contract and thus preventing a backflow
of blood.
3. The pulmonary (semilunar) valve is located between the right

ventricle and the pulmonary artery that leads to the lungs. As soon as the
right ventricle has finished emptying itself, the valve closes in order to
prevent blood on its way to the lungs from returning to the ventricle.
4. The aortic (semilunar) valve is located between the left ventricle and
the aorta. Following contraction of the left ventricle, the aortic valve
closes to prevent the flow of blood back from the aorta to the ventricle.
Figure 45: Heart and great vessels (Source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P.,
Noback R.C., (1992)
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Blood Supply to the Myocardium
Although blood flows through the heart chambers, only the endocardium
comes into contact with it. Therefore, the myocardium must have its own
blood vessels to provide oxygen and nourishment and to remove waste
products. The arteries that supply blood to the muscle of the heart are
called the right and left coronary arteries. These arteries, which are the
first branches of the aorta, arise just above the aortic semilunar valve.
They receive blood when the heart relaxes. After passing through
capillaries in the myocardium, blood drains into the cardiac veins and
finally into the coronary (venous) sinus for return to the right atrium.
Capacity of the heart
The normal functional capacity of the heart includes the following:
(i) Approx. 100,000 heartbeats/day,

(ii) Approx. 2,760,000,000 heartbeats/lifetime
(iii) Approx. 4,000 gallons (15,000 litres) blood pumped/day.
Blood that leaves the heart is called oxygenated blood because it contains
oxygen. Blood that comes back to the heart is called deoxygenated blood
because it does not contain oxygen. The human heart works continuously
throughout the life of a person. It weighs about 300 grams. It is divided
into four chambers: two upper chambers, the left and right atria and two
lower chambers, the left and right ventricles. The chambers are separated
by walls called septum. The walls are thick and muscular. The ventricles
have thicker walls than the atria to ensure that enough pressure is
generated to pump the blood to the body and lungs. The left ventricle
whose force of contraction pumps the blood to all parts of the body has
the thickest wall compared to other chambers.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The heart is a muscular pumping organ located medial to the lungs along
the body’s midline in the thoracic region. The bottom tip of the heart,
known as its apex, is turned to the left, so that about 2/3 of the heart is
located on the body’s left side with the other 1/3 on right. The top of the
heart, known as the heart’s base, connects to the great blood vessels of the
body: the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary trunk, and pulmonary veins. We
can see that all the functions of the cardiovascular system depend on the
heart. The cardiovascular system is the most hardworking of all the
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systems in the body because, unlike other systems, its components do not
rest. Not surprisingly, then, any substantial interruption or reduction in
the flow of blood to this system has grave consequences: what we
commonly call heart attack.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has described the structure of the Heart, the four Chambers of
the heart and the four Valves of the heart.
 Describe the structure of the human heart showing clearly, the

directions of blood circulation.
 Discuss the 4 chambers of the heart
ed.). Mosby. Nega Assefa N and Tsige Y. Human Anatomy and
Physiology. Lecture Notes for Nursing Students. 2003.
Tortora GJ and Derrickson B. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology.12th

Edition.
Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
UNIT 3 INTRODUCTION TO THE URINARY

SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Major Organs of the Urinary System
3.2 The Structures and Functions of the Kidney
3.3 An Overview of the Nephron
3.4 Glomerular Filtration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The urinary system is the entire system of ducts and channels that conduct
urine from the kidneys to the exterior. It includes the ureters, the urinary
bladder and the urethra. The main function of the urinary system is to
maintain homeostasis of blood composition, volume and pressure.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the overall function of the urinary system

 Identify the major organs of the urinary system and describe their
functions
 Describe the mechanism of action of the urinary system.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Introduction to the Major Organs of the Urinary System
The major organs of the Urinary system are the:
 Kidneys
 Ureters
 Urinary bladder
 Urethra
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PHS 201 MODULE 5
They are located in the abdomen, pelvis and perineum and are responsible
for the formation elimination of urine and other waste materials from the
body.
3.2 Introduction to the Structure and Function of the Kidney
 Hilum –This is the entrance to renal sinus.

 Renal pelvis – An expansion of the ureter.
 Calyces (major and minor) – These are tubes emanating from renal
pelvis.
 Inner medullary region – This contains renal columns and
pyramids (site of nephrons).
 Outer cortex - Forms the outer cover and renal columns.
 Renal columns –This is the portion of cortex extending between
renal pyramids
 Renal pyramids – The number is approximately 8-18 regions per
kidney.
The Major Functions of the Kidney
The kidney:
 Regulates blood volume and composition

 Regulates blood pressure as it monitors renal blood pressure and
the secretion of rennin
 Rregulates certain aspects of metabolism like gluconeogenesis.
3.3 An Overview of the Nephron
There are two principal types of nephrons: cortical nephron and

juxtamedullary nephron.
Each nephron has two major portions:
1. Renal corpuscle.
2. Renal tubule.
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The basic function of the nephron is to filter blood and produce filtrate.
Figure 46: The nephron of human kidney
3.4 Filtrate Production
This is a three-step process:
1. Glomerular filtration: Filters fluid and waste solutes out of the

blood.
2. Tubular reabsorption: Returns important solutes to the blood.
3. Tubular secretion: Selective secretion of more solutes into filtrates.
The one major factor affecting the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the
glomerular hydrostatic pressure (HPg), which is determined by the
diameter of afferent/efferent arterioles. The major mechanisms regulating
GFR are:
1. Renal autoregulation
2. Hormonal regulation, like aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)
3. Neuronal regulation
4.0 CONCLUSION
The kidney is very essential to life because it helps to get rid of substances
that are toxic to the body, and also helps to maintain homeostasis.
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PHS 201 MODULE 5
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has shown that the urinary system consists of the kidneys, the
ureters, the urinary bladder and the urethra. The important role played by
the nephron is the process of glomerular filtration.
1. What are the three major functions of the kidneys?

2. The four major organs of the urinary system are --------------------------
------,
----------------------------------, ---------------------------------- and ---------------------
------.
1. What is the basic function of a nephron?

2. Write out the three steps of renal filtration.
1. The major function of the urinary system is to maintain

homeostasis of blood composition, volume and pressure.
2. The four major organs of the urinary system are kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder and urethra.
1. The basic function of the nephron is to filter blood and produce

filtrate.
2. The three steps of renal filtration are:
 Glomerular filtration
 Tubular reabsorption
 Tubular secretion
Describe the process of filtrate production.
190
PHS 201 ANATOMY
(2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (5th ed). New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc,
ed). Mosby.
191
PHS 201 MODULE 5
UNIT 4 THE STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Structure and functions of the kidney
3.2 Accessory excretory structures of the urinary system
3.3 Urine and urination
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The urinary system is also called the excretory system of the body because
one of its functions is to remove waste products from the blood and
eliminate them from the body. The urinary system consists of two kidneys
which are the organs that extract wastes from the blood, balance body
fluids and form urine. The two ureters are tubes which conduct urine from
the kidneys to the urinary bladder while the urinary bladder is a reservoir
that receives and stores the urine brought to it by the two ureters. The
urethra is a tube that conducts urine from the bladder to the outside of the
body for elimination.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the structure & functions of the kidney

 Describe Accessory excretory structures of the urinary system
 Discuss Urine and urination
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Structure and functions of the Kidney
This is a pair of reddish brown, bean shaped organ located in the posterior
wall of the abdominal region, one in each side of the vertebral column.
They usually span between T12 to L3. They are protected at least partially
by the last pair of ribs and capped by the adrenal gland. The bean shape
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
of the kidney is medially concave and laterally convex. On the medial

concave border is the hilus (small indented area) where blood vessels,
nerves & ureters enter and leave the kidney.
Covering and supporting each kidney are three layers of tissue:
• Renal capsule – innermost, tough, fibrous layer

• Adipose or fatty capsule – the middle layer composed of fat,
giving the kidney protective cushion.
• Renal fascia – is outer sub-serous connective tissue layer.
Figure 47: Human Kidneys
The kidneys are slightly protected by the ribs and are surrounded by fat
for protection.
3.1.1 Internal Anatomy of the kidney
A sagittal section of the kidney reveals three distinct regions called pelvis,
medulla and cortex from inside out (Figure 47).
The renal pelvis is the large collecting space within the kidney formed
from the expanded upper portion of the ureters. The pelvis branches into
two levels of cavities; these are 2-3 major calyces and 8 to 18 minor
calyces.
The Renal medulla is the middle portion of the kidney. It consists of 8 to

18 renal pyramids, which are longitudinally striped, cone-shaped areas.
The base of each pyramid is adjacent to the outer cortex. The apex of each
renal pyramid ends in a papilla, which opens to a minor calyx. Pyramids
contain tubules and collecting ducts of the nephron. The tubules are
involved in transportation and re-absorption of filtered materials.
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PHS 201 MODULE 5
The renal cortex is the outermost portion of the kidney. It is divided into
two regions: the outer cortical and the inner juxtamedullary region. The
cortical tissue that penetrates between the pyramids forms Renal
Columns. The renal columns are
composed of mainly collecting tubules.
Figure 48: Internal structure of the Kidney
3.1.2 Functions of the Kidney
All the functions are directly or indirectly related to the formation of

urine. The series of events leads to:
- Elimination of wastes
- Regulation of total body water balance.
- Control of the chemical composition of blood and other body
fluids
- Control of acid base balance
The processes in urine formation are: -

1. Blood filtration; every day the kidneys filter 1700 liters of blood
2. Tubular re-absorption
3. Tubular secretion
The relative amounts of filtration, re-absorption and excretion in the
kidney tubular system is influenced by daily diet, fluid intake, weather
factors and exercise, all of which determine the composition of urine.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
3.2 Accessory Excretory structures
Urine is formed in the kidney, but accessory structures are required to

transfer, store and eventually eliminate urine from the body. These
structures are the two ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
3.2.1 Ureters
Attached to each kidney are two tubes called the ureters. Ureters
transport urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder. The ureters
pass between the parietal peritoneum and the body wall to the pelvic
cavity, where they enter the pelvic cavity. It is narrow at the kidney and
widen near the bladder.
The wall of the ureters is composed of three layers:
- Innermost Tunica Mucosa

- The middle Tunica Muscularis (made of smooth muscle)
- The outer Tunica Adventitia
3.2.2 Urinary bladder
Urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular organ that collects urine from the
ureters and store it until it is excreted. It usually accumulates 300 to 400
ml of urine but it can expand twice as much. It is located on the floor of
the pelvic cavity like the kidneys and ureters. It is Retroperitoneal. In
males it is anterior to the rectum and above the prostate gland. In females,
it is located somewhat lower, anterior to the uterus and upper vagina.
3.2.3 Urethra
Urethra is a tube of smooth muscle lined with mucosal layer. It leaves the
bladder at its inferior surface (base) and transports urine outside the body
during urination. It is an average of 4 cm long in females and 12 cm in
length in males. In females it opens between the vagina and clitoris. In
males, it passes through the prostate, membranous portion (pelvic
diaphragm muscle), spongy portion (that passes through corpus
spongiosus muscle) and open at the tip of penis. The spongy portion is
joined by ducts from the bulbo-uretheral gland (Mucus secreting gland).
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PHS 201 MODULE 5
3.3 Urine & urination
Composition of urine varies depending on the diet, exercise, water

consumption and other factors. However, it is composed of mainly water,
urea, chloride, potassium, sodium, creatinin, phosphate, sulfates and uric
acid. Proteins, glucose, casts (decomposed blood) and calculi from
minerals are abnormal if present in urine. The PH of urine is 5.0 to 8.0
(mostly acidic) and has translucent (clear, not cloudy) color. To maintain
the proper osmotic concentration of the extra cellular fluid to excrete
wastes and to maintain proper kidney function the body must excrete at
least 450ml of urine per day. A healthy person excretes 1000 to 1800 ml
of urine daily. The volume and concentration of urine is controlled by:
- Antidiuretic hormone
- Aldestrone
- The Renin – angiotensin mechanism
3.3.1 Urination
Urination is emptying of the bladder; it is the process of conscious and

unconscious nerve control. Steps of urination are:
 Conscious desire to urinate

 Pelvic diaphram muscles relax
 Urinary bladder neck moves down, outlet opens
 Wall stretches
 Receptors are stimulated
 Smooth muscle of Urinary bladder Contracts & urine ejects
4.0 CONCLUSION
Urine is a fluid of variable composition that requires specialized

structures to remove it from the body safely and efficiently. Blood is
filtered, and the filtrate is transformed into urine at a relatively constant
rate throughout the day. This processed liquid is stored until a convenient
time for excretion. All structures involved in the transport and storage of
the urine are large enough to be visible to the naked eye. This transport
and storage system not only stores the waste, but it protects the tissues
from damage due to the wide range of pH and osmolarity of the urine,
prevents infection by foreign organisms, and for the male, provides
reproductive functions.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
5.0 SUMMARY
 In this unit, we have discussed the structure & functions of the

kidney, accessory excretory structures of the urinary system, Urine
and urination.
 Discuss the external structures of kidney

 Briefly discuss the structures involved in removing urine from
the body
Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and

physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New York, 2nd ed.
Memmler, Ruth Lundeen, Barbara Jansen Cohen and Dena Lin Wood
(1996), The Human Body in Health and Disease, 8th Ed.
Grollman Sigmund, (1969), The human body it’s structure and

physiology, London, The Macmillan company, 2nd ed)
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PHS 201 MODULE 5
UNIT 5 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cells of the Immune System
3.2 Innate Immunity
3.3 Types of Specific Immune Response
3.4 Hypersensitivity Reactions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The immune system consists of the organs responsible for the body’s
ability to resist infections, afforded by the help of circulating antibodies
and white blood cells (mentioned in a previous unit on haematology).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe the cells of the immune system

 define immunity and types of immunity
 define transplant immunology
 describe autoimmunity and related conditions.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cells of the Immune System
1 Leukocytes: 5-10,000 cells/mm3 in blood; and Granulocytes:
a. Neutrophils (50-70%); 3-day lifespan: major phagocyte and

granulocyte; attracted by inflammatory factors and complement;
granules with hydrolytic enzymes; cell dies after
degranulation/phagocytosis.
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
i) "Band" is immature neutrophil (band-shaped nucleus);

ii) "Seg" is mature neutrophil (segmented nucleus).
iii) Neutrophilia: increased percentage; common with acute bacterial
infections
iv) Neutropenia: decreased percentage; common with anaemias, viral
infections, radiation/chemotherapy.
b. Eosinophils (2-4%): major anti-helminthes protection (myelin basic

protein released); it also contributes to some hypersensitivity reactions
and phagocytosis of bacteria.
c. Basophils (<1%): granulocytic, nonphagocytic; major inflammatory
cell, releases histamines, proteases and granulocyte-attracting factors.
d. Mast cells: non-circulating, reside in connective tissues, similar
function as basophils; initiate inflammatory reactions.
2. Monocytes (2-8%): only last 8-12 hrs in circulation. then migrate to

tissue = major function to become macrophage in tissue; play key
role in "antigen presentation".
3. Platelets (240-400,000/mm3): crucial to help activate blood clot
formation; spleen acts as reserve site.
4. Lymphocytes (20-30%) mononuclear cells: mediate/regulate
specific immune responses (antibody formation, anti-viral and anti-
tumor protection)
a. B-cells: produce immunoglobulins (mature in bone marrow).
b. T-cells: activate/regulate B-cells, major immune regulatory
cells (mature in thymus).
c. NK cell: natural killer cell; non-specific anti-tumor cytolytic
cell.
3.2 Innate Immunity
Innate immunity is genetically determined. It is present at birth and has

no relationship to previous exposures to the antigen involved. For
example, people do not get the same disease as fishes. Innate immunity
only breaks down in the case of AIDS or other conditions that depress all
aspects of specific resistance.
3.3 Types of Specific Immune Response
There are two types of specific immune response: Humoral and Cellular
Immunity
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PHS 201 MODULE 5
Humoral Immunity
1. Immunoglobulin (Ig): Production by activated B-cells

2. Antigen (Ag): Any molecule capable of eliciting a specific
immune response.
3. Antigen presentation: Macrophage (or B-cell) ingests antigen,
degrades into fragments, and re-expresses antigen fragments on
the surface in context of major histocompatibility complex II
(MHC class II).
4. During this process, the macrophage releases Interleukin 1, a
potent cytokine which acts as a pyrogen and activator of T-helper
cells.
T-helper (CD4+) cell specific for that antigen binds to MHC-Ag using T-
cell receptor (TCR) and is stimulated by binding and by Interleukin-1
released from antigen-presenting cell. This presentation usually occurs in
lymph node or spleen. T-cell clone is activated, proliferates, and secretes
Interleukin-2 which enhances T-cell activation. B-cell bearing Ig specific
for that antigen binds antigen, and presents it to T-cell in the context of
MHC-II. Binding of activated T-helper cell to B-cell and release of B-cell
growth factors including Interleukins 4 and 6 from Tcells activate B-cells
to proliferate and produce more Ig.
1. Clonal selection of Ag-specific T-cell (with TCR) and B-cell (with Ig)
prospecific immune response.
Memory B- and T-cells are also produced with the ability to be
activated easily upon second exposure to Ag, provide long-term
“immune protection”, allows for very large and rapid response to
second exposure (secondary immune response).
Immunoglobulins: “Y” shape monomer, two Ag-binding sites, one “tail”

region (Fc region), made of two heavy chain proteins, two light chains
proteins, produced only by B-cells. The immunoglobulins include:
a. IgG: most abundant Ig, long-lasting in serum, usually produced

upon second exposure to Ag; can cross placenta.
b. IgM: second most abundant Ig, pentamer, produced upon first
exposure to Ag.
c. IgA: most abundant Ig in secretions (saliva, tears and mucus). d.
IgE: involved in allergic reactions by binding of mast cells and
basophils and triggering to degranulate upon Ag exposure.
e. IgD: is seen on resting B-cells, not seen in serum (<0.1%).
Neutralisation:
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
This is the binding of Ig to virus, toxins, and bacteria to block

activity or infectivity.
Agglutination: clumping of cells by Ig binding, aids in phagocytosis.
Opsinisation = coating cell with Ig, enhances binding of macrophage by
binding to the tail region of Ig (Fc region).
Precipitation: clumping of soluble molecules by Ig binding, aids in

phagocytosis.
Complement activation: Ig bound to cell surfaces activates complement

cascade to attack targeted cell.
Cellular Immunity
General Description: Specific anti-viral, anti-tumor immune response

mediated by cytolytic T-cells (CD8+). All normal cells express major
histocompatibility complex I (MHC-I) (only antigen presenting cells
express MHC-II). MHC-I is your molecular “ID card” and is used to
present antigens produced within the cell (not brought in from outside).
Virus-infected cells express viral antigens in the context of MHC-I
Tcytotoxic (CD8+) bearing TCR specific for a particular antigen bind to
Ag/MHC-I on virus-infected cells and are activated. T-cytotoxic cells
release cytolytic molecules (lymphotoxin, perforin) to kill target cells.
Activation of T-cytotoxic cells is enhanced by cytokines released by T-

helper cells (IL-2, gamma interferon). T-cytotoxic cells also act against
tumour cells in similar way; tumour cells express tumor-Ag in the context
of MHC-I and become targets for T-cytotoxic cells. The immune system
constantly checks all tissues for “altered cells” (foreign, virus-infected,
tumors) in a process called “immune surveillance”. The use (necessity)
of expressing most antigens in the context of MHC (class I or II) to
initiate an immune response is termed “MHC Restriction”.
3.4 Hypersensitivity Reactions
Hypersensitivity reactions of the immune system include:
1. Type I: Anaphylactic Reactions (typical bee-sting or hay fever

allergic responses).
2. Type II: Cytotoxic Reactions (as in mismatched ABO transfusion
reaction).
3. Type III: Immune Complex Reactions (as in rheumatoid arthritis
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PHS 201 MODULE 5
or in “serum sickness”).
1. Type IV: Cell-mediated Reactions (seen with positive tuberculin
(TB)-skin test reaction).
Autoimmunity
This is “self/non-self” discrimination (self-tolerance) of the immune

system developed during thymic maturation. It consists of positive and
negative selection processes. Autoimmunity can occur in the following
conditions:
1. Graves disease
2. Rheumatoid arthritis
3. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
4. Myasthenia gravis
5. Insulin-dependant diabetes: Auto-reactive T-cytotoxic cells
destroy pancreatic beta-cells (the insulin producing cells).
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. What are the two arms of specific immune response?

2. List the four types of hypersensitive immune reactions of the
immune system.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Cells of the immune system (Leucocytes and granulocytes) provide

immunity that is resistant to injuries and diseases caused by foreign
compounds, toxins or pathogens.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we examined the cells of the immune system, immunity and
types of immunity.
ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1. The two arms of specific immune response are humoral and

cellular immunity.
2. The four types of hypersensitive immune reactions of the immune
system are:
(a) Type I: Anaphylactic reactions (typical bee-sting or hay
fever allergic responses).
(b) Type II: Cytotoxic reactions (as in mismatched ABO
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PHS 201 ANATOMY
transfusion reaction)
(c) Type III: Immune Complex reactions (as in rheumatoid
arthritis or in “serum sickness”)
(d) Type IV: Cell-mediated reactions (seen with positive
tuberculin (TB)-skin test reaction).
Enumerate the cells of the immune system.
(2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, (5th ed.). New
Thibodeau, G.A& Patton, K.T. (1996). Anatomy and Physiology, (3rd

ed.), Mosby.
203

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COURSE

Course Team Prof. Afolabi Adebanjo &

Dr Esther O. Oluwole (Course Update)

Dr Gloria Anetor (Programme Leader)

Printed 2017, 2019

All Rights Reserved

PHS 201: Anatomy is a first semester two-credit course. It will be

 define the concept of anatomy and physiology

Major components of the course are:

1. The Course Guide

Each study unit consists of some work, and includes introduction,

The course assignment will cover:

Basic anatomy of the human body; concept, meaning and the

There are two aspects to the assessment of the course:

There are some tutor-marked assignments. You are encouraged,

The assignments must be submitted together with a TMA (tutor-marked

Assignments:4TMAsof10markseach=40%of course marks

Each of the study units follows a common format:

1. Introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

The following is a practical strategy for working through the course.

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the Tutor-Marked

There are 8hours of tutorials provided in support of this Course. You

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail for discussion.

 You do not understand any part of the study units or the

Comments on an assignment, or with the grading of an assignment.

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY………. 1

Unit 1 Basic concepts of anatomy and physiology….. 1

MODULE 2 INTRODUCTION TO BODY SYSTEMS… 45

Unit 1 Overview of the Skeletal System…………….. 45

MODULE 3 NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE

Unit 1 Overview of the Nervous System………….. 75

MODULE 4 THE RESPIRATORY AND

Unit 1 Overview of the Respiratory System……… 124

Unit 1 Overview of the Circulatory System…………. 165

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY

Unit 1 Basic concepts of Anatomy and Physiology

UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ANATOMY AND

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Anatomy and Physiology

3.2 Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are closely integrated both theoretically and

Carefully read through this simple non-biological analogy.

Assume that this class is made up of anatomists and physiologists, and we

3.3 Divisions of Anatomy

Anatomy can be divided into different specialties based on:

 Degree of structural detail under consideration

On the basis of structural detail we have:

Microscopic anatomy deals with structures that cannot be seen without

Cytology is the analysis of the structure of individual cells, the simplest

Histology is the examination of tissues, which are groups of specialized

Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic Anatomy) is the examination of

Surface anatomy: Study of general form and superficial markings.

Regional anatomy: Focuses on anatomical organization of specific areas

Systemic anatomy: Study of the structure of organ systems, such as the

Other anatomical specialties with focus on clinical settings include: