Small-Signal Modeling of Pulse-Width

Modulated Switched-Mode Power

Converters
R. D. MIDDLEBROOK, FELLOW, IEEE

Invited Paper

A power processing system is required to convert electrical for which, at the outset, there was no model for analysis of
energy from one voltage, current, or frequency to another with, the transfer functions.
ideally, 100-percent efficiency, together with adjustability of the
conversion ratio. The allowable elements are switches, capacitors,
Over more than 15 years, much has been achieved in
and magnetic devices. Essential to the design is a knowledge of modeling the nonlinear switching converter power stages
the transfer functions, and since the switching converter is nonlin- and modulators, and also in application of the models to
ear, a suitable modeling approach is needed. This paper discusses the design of improved, more cost-effective switching reg-
the state-space averaging method, which is an almost ideal com-
ulators.
promise between accuracy and simplicity. The treatment here
emphasizes the motivation and objectives of modeling by equiva- Rather than attempt a review of the many approaches
lent circuits based upon physical interpretation of state-space aver- which, in the available space, would inevitably result in a
aging, and is limited to pulse-width modulated dc-to-dc convert- superficial treatment of all of them, this paper instead will
ers. emphasize the motivations and objectives of modeling by
one approach, state-space averaging, that represents an
I. INTRODUCTION almost ideal tradeoff between accuracy and simplicity,
Almost all electronic equipment contains a power sup- which no doubt accounts for i t s widespread adoption.
ply, often with a regulated output. The so-called linear reg- In order to make the topic more easily accessible to
ulator, originally predominant, has largely given way to the nonspecialists, thescopewill beeven more limited: the bulk
switching regulator having higher efficiency and smaller of this paper emphasizes the motivation and objectives of
sizeand weight. Despite these obvious benefits, the switch- modeling by equivalent circuits, since these give physical
ing power supply unfortunately also has some disadvan- insight into the qualitative behavior and are an essential
tages, including conducted and radiated noise arising from prerequisite to proper use of the more abstract analytic and
the switching process. computational methods. Indeed, historically, the equiva-
Less apparent is the fact that a switching power supply lent circuit approach preceded the generalization embod-
presents an order of magnitude greater difficulty in design. ied in state-space averaging.
Both linear and switching power supplies are feedback sys- For the specialist reader, the paper offers a perspective
tems, and therefore can be characterized in terms of the on the equivalent circuit models, and their comparative
familiar concepts of loop gain, bandwidth, and stability properties for different operating modes, together with a
margins. Analysis, and hence design, of a linear regulator summary of the formal state-space averaging method.
can be accomplished with use of standard linear circuit The work of the author, his colleagues, and students of
techniques incorporating small-signal linearized models of the Power Electronics Group at the California Institute of
the nonlinear active devices. In contrast, the switching Technology has been collected in [I]. Much of it concerns
power supply feedback loop contains a modulator and a the subject of modeling, and illustrates the development
switching power stage that constitute a type of analog-to- of the viewpoint summarized here. Many other workers,
digital followed by a digital-to-analog conversion function, some of whom are explicitly referenced, have also con-
tributed to the subject of modeling, particularly in exten-
Manuscript received September21,1987; revised January6,1988. sions of the state-space averaging method, as well as dif-
This work was conducted in part under the Power Electronics Pro- ferent approaches.
gram supported by GTE Communication Systems Corporation, In Section II, a power processing system i s compared and
EG&C Almond Instruments, and Rockwell Inc.
The author i s with the Power Electronics Group, California Insti-
contrasted with a signal processingsystem. Not onlyare the
tute of Technology, Pasadena, C A 91125, USA. objectives different, but so are the allowable elements from
I E E E Log Number 8820080. which they may be built.

0018-9219/88/0400-0343$01.00 0 1988 IEEE

P R O C E E D I N G S OF THE IEEE, VOL. 76, NO. 4, APRIL 1988 343

 In Section Ill, a generalized dc-to-dc regulated power I
PFiOCESSED

supply i s used as a vehicle for introduction of the moti-

vation and objectivesof mode1ing.A switched-mode power
stage and a "linear" power stage are both nonlinear sys-
tems, and the modeling objective is the same for each: to
find a small-signal ac model whose element values are con-
stant but functions of the large-signal dc operating point. -nn-nrL rn
In Section IV, canonical models are established in a qual- (a)
itative manner for pulse-width-modulated switched-mode PROCESSED
converters in various modes of operation. A canonical PROCESSING
model is merely an equivalent circuit that has a fixed con- SYSTEM
figuration, regardless of the type of converter it represents,
although its element values are different for different con- N FO
verters. ? A

A qualitative comparison of the properties of the various J%% t ti++

b V

operating modes for different converters is made in Section (b)

V. This is the purpose of modeling, so that the designer i s Fig. 1 . A signal processing system (a), contrasted with a
awareof the natureofthetransferfunctions to bedealtwith power processing system (b).
in design of the regulator feedback loop.
Thedetailed foundation of the modeling described in the systems extend down to the most basic level of design: the
earlier sections i s state-space averaging, reviewed in Sec- selection of elements available for use by the engineer. In
tion VI. Equivalent circuit models are one of several useful somewhat oversimplified summary, these are resistors,
forms of the results; others are analytic expressions for fre- inductors, capacitors, and active devices that can be used
quency responses, and numerical outputs of individual either in linear (analog) modeor in switching(digita1) mode.
transfer functions. All these elements are available t o the signal processing
Conclusions are drawn in Section VII. The state-space integrated-circuit designer-except the inductors. Mag-
averaging method does not accommodate another impor- netic elements are shunned because they are bulky, heavy,
tant class of power processing systems, namely resonant expensive, and do not (yet) fit conveniently on to semi-
converters, and methods for their analysis are not men- conductor chips. Indeed, it i s convenient t o develop, when
tioned in this paper; nor are modeling methods for dc-to- necessary, quite complicated circuitryto simulate inductor
ac inverters. properties. Of course, what i s being simulated i s Ldildt, the
signal processing function, not i L i 2 , the energy storage
II. DESIGNCONSTRAINTS
AND OBJECTIVES
OF POWER
function needed for power processing.
PROCESSINGSYSTEMS
In contrast, the power processing designer has at his dis-
Power processing systems, contrasted with signal pro- posal a different array of elements: resistors are now anath-
cessing systems, are required to process power with min- ema because they are lossy and do not meet the efficiency
imum power loss, rather than to process information with requirement. For the same reason, linear operation of active
minimum power consumption. The function of electrical devices must be excluded, which leaves only inductors,
power processing systems is to convert electrical energy capacitors, and switches as allowable elements. Of course,
from one voltage, current, or frequency to another. This transformers and a wide variety of more complex magnet-
function is to be achieved, ideally, with 100-percent effi- ically coupled structures are also included, and, indeed,
ciency. In most applications, including those of greatest exploitation of these possibilities i s one of the greatest cur-
technical interest, the conversion is to be accomplished rent challenges in the power electronics field [2].
adjustably; this issothataregulatedoutputcan beobtained It i s seen that the different set of available elements
by closing afeedback loop that causes the conversion ratio requires the power processing designer to develop a quite
to be automatically adjusted. different way of thinking from that of the signal processing
The term power processing suggests an intentional con- designer. One aspect of this i s the recognition of a conflict
trast with signal processing, a function much more familiar unique to the power processing field: minimization of the
to most modern electronics engineers. As indicated in Fig. parasitic resistances of the magnetics, capacitors, and
l(a), a signal processing system is concerned with perform- switches, desirable in the interests of efficiency, leads also
ing operations upon the information content of an input: to undesirable minimum damping of the inherent LCfilters,
typical functions are analog amplification, digital recoding, with consequent increased difficulties in design of thefeed-
analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversions. To per- back loop and in the dynamic range. As usual, proper def-
form these functions, electrical power i s required, usually inition of the problem constitutesa large part of its solution:
in dc form and in an amount to be minimized. what i s needed is lossless damping, of which more will be
In a power processing system, as indicated in Fig. l(b), said later.
the "power" and "information" inputs are interchanged, One means of converting one voltagekurrent level to
and the concern i s with performing operations upon the another is the conventional transformer. Such a practical
power input according to the functions specified by the device can approach very closely the ideal 100-percent effi-
information input. Typical functions are dc-to-dc conver- ciency, especially in large sizes. However, from the point
sion, dc-to-ac inversion, ac-to-dc rectification, and ac-to-ac of view of power processing, it suffersfrom two severe lim-
cycloinversion. itations: it does not change frequency, and it does not oper-
The distinctions between signal and power processing ate at dc. Although its capabilities are limited, the physical

344 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 76, NO. 4, APRIL 1988

transformer nevertheless suggests a characterization of the transformer. The most general objective of the power pro-
general power conversion functions, namely, conversion cessing design may then be crystallized thus: How t o find
of one voltage/current/frequency combination t o another, an optimum arrangement of the allowed circuit elements,
in which dc is included as zero-frequency ac. as suggested in Fig. 2(b), i n order t o achieve the conversion
I n turn, this generalization suggests a useful represen- functions shown in Fig. 2(a)?Part of the answer lies in knowl-
tation, or model, of the power conversion function: the cir- edge of the small-signal ac properties of the various pos-
cuit symbol shown i n Fig. 2(a), an adjustable-ratio ideal sible configurations.

POWER PROCESSING SYSTEM

I l l . MOTIVATION
AND OBJECTIVES
OF MODELING
OBJECTIVE:
Of the four processing functions designated in Fig. l(b),
the modeling approach for only one, dc-to-dc conversion,
will be discussed in this paper. The essence of such a dc
regulated power supply i s shown i n Fig. 3. For illustration,
the switchingconverter isa simple buck (voltage step-down)
circuit; any other converter, such as the basic boost (voltage
step-up) or flyback (step-up or step-down), shown in Fig. 4,
control
could be substituted. In all of these, the transistor and diode
Adlustable-ratio ideal transformer: operate as a single-pole switch.
de-to-de, d e - t o - a c , oc-lo-de, oc-to-ac In Fig. 3, the unregulated line input at voltage vg passes

---I-
(a) through a switching converter t o the output of voltage v,
REALIZATION: from which an output current i i s drawn requiring a line
inputcurrenti,.Thetransistor switch iscontrolled byaduty

4 ratio(digita1) signal d f r o m theoutputof a modulator,which

is usually a simple comparator whose inputs are a clock
sawtooth or triangular waveform and an (analog) control
signal. In the waveforms shown here, the modulator turns
o n the transistor switch uniformly at the beginning of each
clock cycle, and turns it off when the control signal over-
takes the ramp. If the control signal varies, so does the duty
conirol
ratio. This constant frequency, pulse-width modulated
Swltched- mode conversion: approaches
100% efficiency (pwm) transistor switch, together with the power diode,
present a square voltage waveform to the LC filter, which
(b)
in turn delivers the average component of this waveform
Fig. 2. (a) Objective of a power processing system; (b) its
realization by an optimal arrangement of the allowable ele- to the output with small residual switching frequency rip-
ments. ple.

onolog
MODULATOR-
POWER-STAGE
SUBSYSTEM
L
"""gy
clock ramp

/
refereweb

output
spectrum t bondposs
/

f 2f 3f f,-f fs zfs 3fs frequency

Fig. 3. A dc-to-dc switching regulator incorporating a three-port duty ratio programmed
modulator-power-stage subsystem whose transfer functions aredefined in terms of ratios
of small-signal ac quantities (hats) superimposed upon large-signal dc quantities (capitals).
The spectrum of the output signal contains the switching frequency, the control fre-
quency, their respective harmonics, and sidebands.

MIDDLEBROOK: MODELING OF POWER CONVERTERS 345

 values with large-signal dc operating point. The operating
point i s defined by the dc values Vg, I, V,, etc.
In addition to the nonlinearity that causes harmonics of

A
Pf the control signal frequency f t o occur in the output, a
switching converter presents an additional problem: the
presence in the output of the switching frequency fs and
its harmonics, and also sidebands fs - f, etc. The spectrum
Fig. 4. Left: basic boost converter. Right: basic flyback
(buck-boost)converter. of theoutput voltage i s also illustrated in Fig. 3. Fortunately,
this problem i s not as severe as it may seem, because the
basic requirement for low output switching ripple requires
The regulator feedback loop i s closed via the sensed con- that the low-pass filter corner frequency be well below the
verter output which i s compared with the reference, and switching frequency fs by at least a decade. This then highly
the (analog) amplifier error signal constitutes the control accentuates the component of the output at the control
signal t o the modulator. The error amplifier output i s rep- fundamental frequency f, and de-emphasizes all the other
resented by a Thevenin equivalent voltage source v, and frequencies.
series impedance (diamonds are used to distinguish depen- Thus, the linearized part of the transfer properties con-
dent from independent sources represented by circles). sists of the output signal (magnitude and phase) at the same
The ultimate analysis objective i s t o find, as functions of frequency as the control signal P,. Hence, as before, a con-
frequency, the loop gain and hence the closed-loop prop- trol-to-output transfer function for the linearized system
erties of the regulator. The essential prerequisite is t o find can be defined as O/P,, and similarly for the other transfer
the transfer functions of the three-port subsystem inside functions.
the large box in Fig. 3, designated the modulator-power- Suitable models from which the transfer functions can
stage subsystem. The most important of these are the con- be found are discussed in the next section.
trol-to-output and line-to-output transfer functions and,
secondarily, the converter output and input impedances.
Iv. SMALL-SIGNAL CANONICAL MODELS
FOR DC-TO-DC
If the subsystem inside the boxes in Fig. 3 were linear, the
CONVERTERS
control input, represented by the sum of dc and ac com-
ponents v, = V, + V,, would lead t o a corresponding con- With the motivation and objectives of the model of the
+
verter output v = V Pin which the ac component V would modulator-power-stage subsystem in Fig. 3 now clearly
be at the same frequency as 9, and proportional to it, so that delineated, establishment of the model itself is but a final
the control-to-output ac transfer function would be W,, short step, at least qualitatively.
independent of theamplitudeof V,.Thesamewould betrue As already seen from the description of the operation, the
of any transfer function. control-to-output transfer function vh, can be considered
However, the subsystem inside the box i s not linear; made u p of two parts, the modulator transfer function dlv,
nevertheless, the objective i s still to find the transfer func- and the power stage transfer function vld. The first part is
tions, albeit subject to some approximation. There will be very simple, being merely a proportionality factor W,,,,
a price t o pay for the resulting simplification, namely, where V, is the height of the clock ramp. This follows
restrictions on the validity of the result. because the duty ratio d i s zero when the control voltage
It is to be noted that this problem is not peculiar to the v, i s zero, i s unity when the control voltage is V,, and i s
switching converter subsystem. If the subsystem i s a so- linear in between if the ramp i s linear. The ramp need not
called linear regulator, exactly the same problem exists [3]. belinear, inwhichcase V,istheequivalentheightofararnp
A transistor operated in the active region i s a nonlinear having the same slope as the actual ramp at a given oper-
device, and the solution t o the problem lies in finding a ating point.
model that represents the small-signal ac properties at a The model of the power stage can be established by intro-
given large-signal operating point. The resulting model, for duction of components that represent the three essential
each transistor, contains elements whose values may be features of any dc-to-dc pwm switching converter, all of
functions of operating point, but are otherwise indepen- which have already been mentioned.
dent of the ac signal amplitude as long as it is small enough. The first essential feature is the dc-to-dc conversion prop-
There are many such models, known as the tee, hybrid-*, erty itself, already represented by the generalized ideal
y-parameter, etc. In the tee model, for example, the value transformer symbol of Fig. 2(a), characterized by the con-
of the emitter resistance is inversely proportional t o the version ratio M.
emitter dc operating current, but i s taken to be constant The second essential feature is the presence of a low-pass,
with respect to sufficiently small ac signals. essentially lossless filter, since in anydc-to-dc converter the
It i s simple, yet significant, to say that the sole purpose switching frequency i s t o be heavily attenuated in the out-
of an equivalent circuit model i s t o give the right answer put. This feature may be represented directly by a low-pass
for the transfer functions. In the case of the switching con- LC filter.
verter subsystem in Fig. 3, the required transfer functions The third essential feature i s adjustability of the conver-
are those of the three-port subsystem, and so an equivalent sion ratio, which i s implicit in the dependence of M upon
circuit model representing the whole box, not just one tran- the duty ratio d. This i s inconvenient with respect to appli-
sistor, i s required. The objective, however, i s the same: to cation of the model, because when d i s varied according
find a linear equivalent circuit that represents the prop- to the control voltage v, then M = M(d) = M(D d ) also+
erties of terminal small-signal ac variations, in which the varies and makes the transformer a nonlinear element. In
nonlinearities are relegated t o the variation of the element accordance with the procedure for linearizing a nonlinear

346 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 76, NO. 4, APRIL 1988

element described in Section Ill, the transformer i s char- i s turned OFF by the modulator, the inductor current com-
acterized by a conversion ratio fixed at the value M(D) cor- mutates to the diode, which therefore at the same time i s
responding to agiven operating-point duty ratio D, and the automatically turned ON. The inductor current thereupon
d variation component i s separated out into two "modu- ramps down. If the inductor current has not reached zero
lation'' generators proportional t o d, where the propor- at theend of theswitching period when the modulator again
tionality factors are functions of large-signal operating turns the transistor ON, a continuous conduction mode
point.This process, introduced in [4] and described in detail (ccm) of the inductor current exists i n which the transistor
in [5] and [6], involves the usual small-signal restriction in and diode are alternately ON and OFF and operate as a two-
order to eliminate the nonlinearity. Both a current and a position single-pole switch. The converter then constitutes
voltage modulation generator are necessary, because a a two-switched network.
variation of the conversion ratio affects both current and In ccm, the canonical model of Fig. 5 [;1is useful directly
voltage. because the transformer conversion ratio is afunction only
The three model components representing the three of duty ratio D. Thus, the control voltage V, uniquely deter-
essential features are assembled in Fig. 5 [4]. A further mines the duty ratio D, which can be described as dutyratio
programming, and in turn the duty ratio D uniquely deter-
mines the converter output voltage V(for a given line volt-
age Vg) so that, overall, the converter can be described as
voltage programmed i n that the control voltage uniquely
determines the output voltage.
Quantitatively, i n ccm, the specific dependences of the
canonical model element values upon converter type are
as follows. I n the simple buck converter chosen for illus-
tration in Fig. 3, the filter in the model directly represents
the physical filter; however, in someconverters, notablythe
boost and the buck-boost (also known as the flyback) the
inductance in the model has an effective value related t o
Fig. 5. Canonical model for pwm converter in duty ratio the physical inductor value, but i s also a function of oper-
programmed continuous conduction mode. This model ating point.
contains the three essential features: dc-to-dc conversion In the buck converter, both modulation generators, while
transformer, low-pass filter, and modulation generators.
dependent upon operating point, are independent of fre-
quency; however, again notably i n the boost and flyback
reduction i s also included: the simple proportionalityof the converters, the voltage generator is also a function of fre-
modulator transfer function has been inserted into the quency in the form of a right half-plane (rhp) zero, which
modulation generator coefficients, which are now driven i s also a function of operating point.
by 0, instead of by d. The total control voltage v, = V, +
0, i s thus separated into two parts, and the dc component B. Canonical Model for Duty-Ratio Programmed
V, determines the dc (operating point) duty ratio D = V,/ Discontinuous Conduction Mode
V, of which the transformer conversion ratio is a function.
As described above, the continuous conduction mode
This function M(D) is different in different converters, and
exists if, when ramping down during the transistor OFF-
may be nonlinear. It may be noted that the transformer sym-
time, the inductor current does not reach zero. Conversely,
bol is modified by imposition of a straight and a wavy line,
i f the inductor current does reach zero before the modu-
as a reminder that it represents a generalized conversion
lator turns the transistor O N again, the diode current tries
function that extends t o zero frequency.
t o reverse but cannot, and the diode thereupon turns OFF.
Qualitatively, the model i n Fig. 5 represents the transfer
Following the transistor ON, diode OFF and transistor OFF,
function properties of any dc-to-dc pwm switching con-
diodeON intervals, there i s therefore athird interval during
verter, regardless of its actual configuration (topology), and
which both transistor and diode are OFF and the inductor
is therefore designated a canonicalmodel. The values of the
current remains at zero. The transistor and diode therefore
elements, and their dependences upon operating point do,
operate as a three-position single-pole switch per cycle of
however, depend o n the converter type and, more dras-
the switching frequency, and the converter then consti-
tically, o n the converter mode of operation.
tutes a three-switched network described as the discontin-
uous conduction mode (dcm) of the inductor current. Tran-
A. Canonical Model for Duty-Ratio Programmed
sition from continuoustodiscontinuous modeoccurswhen
Continuous Conduction Mode
theconverter load current falls below some minimumvalue,
In the description of Fig. 3, it was mentioned that the tran- usually designed to be about 10 percent of the maximum
sistor and diode operate as a single-pole switch. Further load current.
examination reveals, however, that the single-pole switch In dcm, thecanonical model of Fig. 5 is not useful directly
can operate in either a two-position or a three-position becausetheelement values becomestrongfunctionsof the
mode, per cycle of the switching frequency. load current. In particular, the transformer conversion ratio
When the transistor is ON, the filter inductor is con- becomes a function not only of the duty ratio D, but also
nected t o the line input, the diode i s OFF, and the inductor of a parameter K = 2fsL/R, so that M = M(D, K ) , where L i s
current ramps u p (essentially linearly if the filter corner fre- the filter inductance value and R is an operating point
quency i s much lower than the switching frequency, which parameter defined as the ratio of the dc load voltage to the
i s always the case in pwrn converters). When the transistor dc load current. For a resistive load, R i s the same as the load

MIDDLEBROOK: MODELING OF POWER CONVERTERS 347

resistance. Because of the dependence of M upon R, it i s "standard,"a different modulator connection, which i s not
n o longer convenient t o model the conversion ratio by a duty ratio programmed, has rapidly gained acceptance over
transformer since the current and voltage transfer prop- the last ten years [9].
erties become unequal. Forthisand other reasons it is more Variously known as "current," "current-mode," or "cur-
useful to represent the discontinuous conduction mode by rent-reference" programmed, this configuration is shown
a y-parameter model, as shown in Fig. 6. in Fig.7.The principal differenceisthatthefixedclock ramp

'h
"

j fhpflop

Fig. 6 . Canonical model for pwm converter in duty ratio

programmed discontinuous conduction mode, and also in
current-programmed continuous conduction mode. The
output current is only approximately programmed by the
I
control voltage, since the resistive component of the output
admittance is comparable to the load resistance.
I l/
I
I

The model of Fig. 6 [8] is again acanonical model, because

it represents qualitatively the properties of any converter
regardless of i t s detailed topology. The two dependent gen-
erators y21and yI2 are unequal, so cannot be replaced by --stabilizing ramp

a transformer, confirming that the network is nonrecipro-

Fig. 7. A current-programmed modulator-power-stage
cal. The two modulation generators remain, albeit in a dif-
subsystem incorporatinga minor current feedback loop, and
ferent format as y2cand ylc. The inductance, however, is a stabilizing ramp derived from the clock.
notably absent explicitly; this i s because the inductor cur-
rent, in discontinuous conduction, starts and ends each
input to the modulator (comparator) i s replaced by a signal
switching cycle at zero, and therefore drops out as a state
proportional to the ramp waveform of the power stage
variable of the system. It is, however, implicitly present via
switch current, which i s also the current through an induc-
the dependence of some of the element values upon the
tor regardless of the power stage topology. The clock, as
parameter K. So i s the switching frequency implicitly
before, initiates the switch ON-time uniformly at the
present through the same parameter K, whereas it was
switching frequency fs.However, the switch ON-time is now
absent altogether from the canonical model for continuous
terminated when the ramping-up inductor current reaches
conduction mode, other than as an upper frequency limit
avalue proportional to the control signal v,. Clearly, a phys-
upon the validity of the model as a whole.
ical "minor" current feedback loop exists within the mod-
Both ccm and dcm modes of operation areduty ratio pro-
ulator-power-stage subsystem, inside the "major" voltage
grammed, in that the duty ratio i s uniquely determined by
feedback loop of the regulator of Fig. 3.
the modulator control voltage. For the ccm, the canonical
Instability of the minor loop occurs for a duty ratio 0.5
model of Fig. 5 shows that the transformer conversion ratio
or greater, unless a stabilizing ramp of suitable slope is
is solely a function of duty ratio and so, as already men-
applied t o the modulator input [9], [IO]. This stabilizing ramp
tioned, the output voltage is also programmed by the con-
i s easily derived from the clock, as indicated in Fig. 7.
trol, because the output resistance i s contributed only by
The immediate consequence of the minor feedback loop
parasitic losses.
i s that its sensed "output," the switchhnductor current,
O n the other hand, in dcm, the resistive component of
tends to follow its "input," the control signal v,; in other
the output admittance y22in the canonical model of Fig. 6
words, this current is programmed. As a first approxima-
is not small, but in fact i s comparable to the resistive com-
tion, therefore, the entire subsystem in the box of Fig. 3
ponent of the load. Consequently, in this mode the con-
could be modeled (at least as far as the control-to-output
verter cannot be said to be either voltage or current pro-
transfer function i s concerned) by a current generator
grammed.
across the output, dependent upon the control signal.
It turns out, however, that this model i s rather too simple.
C. Canonical Model for Current-Programmed Continuous
One approach to a more detailed treatment [IO] i s to start
Conduction Mode
with the canonical model for the duty ratio programmed
Any duty ratio programmed pwm switching converter power stage, and to add to it the model of the modulator
topology having a modulator as shown in Fig. 3 may operate obtained from analysis of the comparator input waveforms
in either the continuous or discontinuous inductor current of Fig. 7. An example i s shown in Fig. 8, for the boost con-
mode. Although such configurations are still considered verter in continuous conduction mode.

348 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 76, NO. 4, APRIL 1988

 t o represent the duty ratio programmed subsystem of Fig.
3 i n discontinuous conduction mode, but also the current-
1
programmed subsystem i n continuous conduction mode.

i
The performance similarity between the two modes even
extends quantitatively: the resistive component of y22 in
current-programmed mode is also o n the order of the out-
put operating point parameter (the load resistance in the
case of resistive load), as it i s for dcm, which means that the
C
output i s not a stiff current source,which in turn means that
the "current programming" i s not particularly effective.
There are two reasons why the current feedback loop,
now buried inside the y-parameter model, does not lead t o
- astiff current sourceatthe power stageoutput.One reason,
already mentioned, is that the current loop gain is quite
low, so that the sensed current does not track the control
signal veryclosely.Theother reason i s thatthecurrent being
sensed, the switch/inductor current, is not necessarily the
power stage output current that is being modeled by the
y-parameters. I n the buck converter, the inductor current
istheoutputcurrent, but in the boost and flyback,forexam-
ple, it i s not (because the inductor i s not in series with the
output), and so there i s an additional transfer function
between the inductor current and the output current that
Fig. 8. Basic model of the current-programmed boost con- also leads t o a less stiff current source in the model of the
verter, showing the current loop via f,,, closed around the output properties.
canonical model for the duty ratio programmed mode. It may be concluded that the power stage and modulator
subsystem of Fig. 7 hardly deserves the name "current-pro-
The modulator transfer function &Oc i s n o longera simple grammed," since the current programming is n o more
proportionality, since the modulator now has two addi- effective than in the case of the duty ratio programmed dis-
tional inputs, the inductor current and the linevoltage.The continuous conduction mode. I n other words, both sub-
line voltage appears because in the boost converter, during systems are about equally well (or equally poorly) current
the switch ON-time, the line voltage appears across the programmed, at least in comparison with the stiff voltage
inductor and determines the slope of i t s current ramp. I n programming that occurs in the duty ratio programmed
the buck converter, during the switch ON-time, the dif- continuous conduction mode of operation. It is, however,
ference between the line and output voltages appears too late to suggest any change in the established descrip-
across the inductor, and consequently the output voltage tions.
i s yet another input t o the modulator. The canonical models can easily be extended t o repre-
The model of Fig. 8, or the corresponding one for another sent the properties of many derived converter topologies,
converter, can be analyzed for the loop gain of the minor such as the push-pull, forward, and other transformer-cou-
current feedback loop. I n all cases it i s found t o be quite pled versions [12].
low [IO], i n the range 1 to 10 at low frequencies and, more-
V. COMPARISON
OF PROPERTIES
OF DIFFERENT
MODES
OF
over, declines below unity at a crossover frequency fc which
OPERATION
is between one-sixth and two-thirds of the switching fre-
quency. The purpose of the canonical models established i n the
Although the model of Fig. 8 could be used directly in the previous section is t o permit easy analysis of the various
analysis and design of the complete regulator, it i s simpler transfer functions, and to provide insight into the quali-
first t o reduce this model t o a canonical form [IO], [Ill. In tative behavior. This is an intermediate step towards deter-
thisway, thecurrent feeback i s absorbed into thecanonical mination of the regulator major loop gain and, hence, the
model, which in turn can be used as a component in the closed-loop properties of the regulator that must meet
analysis of the regulator major voltage feedback loop in the design specifications.
usual manner. Also, such a canonical model of the sub- I n this section, a qualitative comparison i s made of the
system box of Fig. 3 exposes the properties of the power properties represented bythe threecanonical models, with
stage independently of the major voltage loop and, in par- respect toonlythe most important of thetransfer functions,
ticular, shows how successfully the current programming the control-to-output.
causes the switchlinductor current t o followthe control sig- The three models discussed are for duty ratio pro-
nal-not very successfully, it turns out. grammed continuous and discontinuous inductor current
As already mentioned, a first-order model of the current- modes of operation, and for current-programmed contin-
programmed power stage consists merely of an output cur- uous mode of operation. It has already been seen that the
rent generator dependent upon the control signal. It i s rea- second and third modes havequite similar properties, both
sonable, therefore, to choose a more general model that represented by the y-parameter model of Fig. 6. There i s a
includes such a generator as one of its elements. The fourth mode, current-programmed discontinuous induc-
obvious choice i s the y-parameter model. tor current, but its properties are similar to those of the sec-
Hence, the y-parameter model of Fig. 6 i s suitable not only ond and third modes, and will not be discussed.

MIDDLEBROOK: MODELING OF POWER CONVERTERS 349

 Thecontrol-to-output transfer function O/O,for duty ratio Converters operating in current-programmed continu-
programmed ccm can be found from the canonical model ous mode are also represented by the y-parameter canon-
of Fig. 5. For zero line source impedance, the current mod- ical model of Fig. 6, although the expressions for the ele-
ulation generator is shorted out, and the voltage modu- ment values are somewhat more complicated. In particular,
lation generator thus appears across the conversion trans- all six elements contain a pole at the current feedback loop
former primary. The function O/Q,therefore consistsof three crossover frequency f,,which i s a manifestation of the usual
factors: thecoefficient of thevoltage modulation generator, result that the effects of feedback disappear above the loop
the conversion ratio M, and the filter voltage transfer func- gain crossover frequency.
tion. The pole at fc in the output admittance y2>canbe ignored,
In the case of a buck converter power stage, the voltage because at this frequency the output capacitance Calready
modulation generator coefficient i s independent of fre- dominates the total load on the y2, and yZcgenerators. The
quency and hence the frequency response of the control- remaining resistive component R2* of yZ2,as already men-
to-output transfer function i s simply that of the filter. Also tioned, i s comparable to the operating point parameter R
for the buck, the filter effective inductance L, i s equal to the = VI/ and hence, for a resistive load RL, as in the case of the
physical inductor value L, and so the filter characteristic is discontinuous conduction mode, there i s a pole in the con-
constant, independent of operating point. trol-to-output transfer function $/$, determined by R221/R,
Typically, the LCfilter has a Q of at least 0.5, and is there- in parallel with the output capacitance C.
fore underdamped and has a transfer function character- In current-programmed mode, however, there i s a sec-
ized by a complex pole pair. The resultant peaking i n the ond pole in O/OCthat comes directly from the pole fc in the
response i s undesirable for several reasons: the accom- y2,generator of Fig. 6. Hence, the control-to-output transfer
panying steep phase lag in the control-to-output transfer function in current-programmed mode is a two-pole func-
function causes stability difficulties i n the regulator major tion, although one pole i s dominant (that due to C), and the
voltage loop gain, and also the peaking restricts the avail- other pole i s at a much higher frequency (fc, between one-
able dynamic range of ac load current components. sixth and two-thirds of the switching frequency) [IO]. In
These properties are the core of the design conflict other words, the two poles are characterized by a low Q-
already alluded t o in Section I I : the lower the losses, the factor, much less than 0.5 and therefore heavily damped.
higher the Q, and the less desirable the dynamic response. Current programming, consequently, introduces the desir-
Hence, higher efficiency involves greater dynamic design able effect of lossless damping, lossless because the damp-
difficulty[l3]. One resolution ofthisconflictcan beachieved ing results from the minor current feedback loop, and not
by placing adc-blocked damping resistanceacross the filter from physical (lossy) resistance. This so-called ”single-pole
capacitor; this i s an example of lossless damping [14]. response” i s commonly quoted as one of the principal ben-
Both the boost and flyback power stages, in continuous efits of current programming; however, “dominant-pole
conduction mode, exhibit even greater design difficulties. response” would be a more appropriate term, since the
The voltage modulation generator in the canonical model additional phase lag from the second pole can have a sig-
of Fig. Scontainsan rhpzero, sothecontrol-to-outputtrans- nificant influence on the phase margin of the regulator
fer function contains the rhp zero in addition to the two major voltage feedback loop.
(complex) poles of the filter. The 270° asymptotic phase lag A comparison of the most important features of the
severely restricts the allowable bandwidth of the regulator canonical models for the three operation modes that have
voltage loop gain, since the rhp zero can lie considerably been discussed i s displayed in Table 1. The “approximately
below the switching frequency. Worse, not only does the current programmed” description refers to the fact, already
rhp zero change with operating point, but so do the filter discussed, that the output resistance i s comparable to the
poles, because the effective inductance itself becomes a value of the (resistive) load, and i s therefore relatively high
function of the duty ratio. compared to that of astiff voltage source, although not high
In duty ratio programmed dcm, the y-parameter canon- enough to constitute a stiff current source. The onlyfeature
ical model of Fig. 6 shows thatthecontrol-to-output transfer not so far mentioned i s that the rhp zero in the boost or
function i s considerably simpler, for all basic power stage flyback converter i s present in the current programmed as
topologies. The only model elements needed to solve for well as duty ratio programmed continuous conduction
O M c are y2c and y22; although both depend on operating modes. This is because the duty ratio programmed model
point, neither isafunctionoffrequency,and s o ~ ~ ~resis- i s a i s embedded in the current programmed model, as seen in
tance R,, whose value, as already mentioned, i s comparable the exampleof the boost converter in Fig. 8, and thecurrent
with the converter output operating point parameter R E minor feedback loop does not affect any zeros in the con-
VI/. Hence, for a resistive load RL, OM, i s a single-pole func- trol-to-output transfer function.
tion in which the pole i s determined by R2211RL in parallel It i s seen from Table 1 that the dynamic properties of the
with the output capacitance C. current programmed mode of operation are in between
Although the single-pole response is much easier to han- those of the duty ratio programmed continuous and dis-
dle in the regulator loop design than is the high-Q double- continuous modes. Moreover, the current programmed
pole response, there are disadvantages of the discontin- modecombinestheadvantagesoftheother two modes, the
uous compared t o the continuous conduction mode. Since continuous conduction operation together with the dom-
the inductor current starts and ends each switching cycle inant pole response, for the price only of retention of the
at zero, its rms value i s always higher in relation to its dc rhp zero in the boost and flyback converters.
value than in continuous conduction, with consequent There are two other significant advantages of the current
higher losses. Also, there i s higher relative noise. For these programmed mode of operation, not directly related to the
reasons, use of discontinuous conduction mode i s usually small-signal response: implementation of the current sense
limited to converters for relatively low power ratings. inherently provides almost all the components necessary

350 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 76, NO. 4, APRIL 1988

 Table 1 Relative Properties of the Control-to-OutputTransfer Function of pwm
Converters in Three Modes of Operation
Control-to-Output
Transfer Function
rhp zero in
Boost and
Operation Mode output Poles Flyback
Duty ratio programmed voltage programmed complex pair Ye5
continuous inductor (high Q)
current mode
Duty ratio programmed approx. current single no
discontinuous inductor programmed
current mode
Current programmed approx. current real pair, one Yes
continuous inductor programmed dominant
current mode (low Q)

for a cycle-by-cycle current limit o n the power switch, and way. The state variables are the inductance currents and
the high output resistance permits paralleling of power capacitance voltages, and a state-space equation i s a first-
stages inside the same voltage regulator loop, greatly order differential equation. I n matrix notation, the two sets
enhancing the designability of modular power supplies. All of state-space equations are
these features have led t o current programming becoming
the preferred mode of operation for most pwm switching
X = + BTU
A1x (1)
converters. x = A2x + B2u (2)
where x is the vector of state variables, U i s the vector of
VI. THESTATE-SPACEAVERAGING
METHOD
independent sources (the linevoltage, for example), andAl,
The description of converter small-signal models given B,, and A2, B2 are respective system matrices in each of the
in the previous section is a circuit-oriented approach, aimed two switched networks.
at equivalent-circuit results having elements that retain The key concept in state-space averaging is the replace-
direct physical interpretation. Indeed, this i s the way in ment of the two sets of state-space equations by a single
which the modeling was originally done. However, a for- equivalent set
mal, general analysis method has been developed [15], [7l
by which the dc and small-signal transfer functions can be
X = AX + Bu (3)
obtained directly without the use of an equivalent circuit in which the equivalent matricesA and Bare weighted aver-
at all, although such a circuit model can be extracted from ages of the actual matrices that alternately describe the
an intermediate step. switched system. For a duty ratio d, the system spends a
This general analysis method is state-space averaging. I t s fraction d of the switching period described by Al and B,,
essence lies in the fact that any pwm converter is a special and the remaining fraction (1 - d) described by A2 and BZ.
kind of nonlinear system, one which i s switched sequen- Hence [15], [7l, the equivalent matrices are defined by
tially among two or more linear circuits according t o one
or more duty ratios. Furthermore, the "inputs" or control
A E dAl + (1 - d)A2 (4)
signals include not only independent voltages and cur- B E dB1 + (1 - d)B2. (5)
rents, but also the duty ratios.
A single equivalent network can be found that i s charac-
The basic buck, boost, flyback, and derived converters
terized by the matrices A and B.
(such as the forward, push-pull, half- and full-bridge) are
With the switched network now described by the equiv-
two-switched network converters when operated in con-
alent matrices A and B, the solution of (3) now proceeds i n
tinuous inductor current mode, in that the system i s
the usual manner. The steady-state solution, with dc values
switched back and forth between two linear systems under
indicated by capital letters, i s obtained by setting x = 0:
the control of the duty ratio. The same converters operated
in discontinuous inductor current mode [8], are three- X = -A-lBU. (6)
switched network systems, since the switching can be rep-
The ac small-signal solution i s found by the substitution U
resented by a single-pole three-position switch. Only one
of the three intervals i s under independent control; the ratio
+
= U 0, x = X +9 into (31, i n the usual way. However, the
second key step peculiar t o the switching converter appli-
between the remaining two intervals (defined by the induc-
cation now arises, which involves recognition that the duty
tor current falling t o zero) i s not an independent variable.
ratio d i s also modulated and constitutes an input; hence,
However, there are other, more elaborate pwm converters
that are multiple-switched networks in which all the duty
the substitution d = D +2is also made i n (3). Since this
ratios are independent control inputs. makes (3) nonlinear, the small-signal restriction becomes
necessary in order that the equation may be linearized by
Although state-space averaging accommodates all these
omission of terms in the products of ac quantities. When
cases, only the simplest, that applicable t o two-switched
this i s done, and the dc terms are subtracted out, the result-
networks in ccm, will be summarized here. The name itself
ing state-space average equation for the small-signal ac
is almost self-explanatory.
quantities i s
In each of the two positions of the switch, the system is
linear and state-space equations can bewritten i n the usual 2 = A)? + BO + BdG (7)

MIDDLEBROOK: MODELING OF POWER CONVERTERS 351

where cussed earlier, this is exactlythefrequency rangeoverwhich
Bd(A1 - AJX + (B, - B>)U. (8) the results are needed, and extension of the range of valid-
ity requires rapidly increasing complexity of the model.
By Laplace transformation, the solution of (7) can be written Specifically, as discussed in [7], the inherent constraint
required for the averaging step to be valid i s that the corner
f(s) = ( s l - A)-’ [BG(s) + B,&s)] (9)
frequency of the converter filter must be much lower than
where I is the identity matrix. the switching frequency, by at least an order of magnitude.
It often happens that the output signal required for some This condition i s normally met in pwm converters, but res-
transfer function is not one of the state variables, but some onant converters belong to a different class for which this
combination of them and, in general, some direct function condition i s not met. State-spaceaveraging is therefore not
of the inputs, including the duty ratio. For example, if acon- applicable, at least not directly, to resonant converters, and
verter output capacitor equivalent series resistance i s their models are not discussed in this paper.
accounted for, the converter output voltage is a function
of both thecapacitance voltage and inductancecurrent state VII. CONCLUSIONS
variables. In such cases, an output vector y may be Signal processing systems achieve desired functionswith
expressed for each of the two switched networks as use of active devices, resistors, and capacitors, but induc-
y = C,X + DIU (10) tors are avoided because of their incompatibility with inte-
grated circuit fabrication techniques. Power processing
y = C2x + D,u (11) systems, on the other hand, must avoid resistors in the
interests of efficiency, and can incorporate only switches,
and weighted averaging of the matrices is done in the same
capacitors, and magnetic structures.
way as for A and B. The same steps then lead to the results
A power processing system, such as a switched-mode dc-
Y=CX+DU (12 ) to-dc regulated power supply, i s also a signal processing
system in that the regulator feedback loop must be char-
P(s) = C,t(s) + D@s)+ Dd&) (13)
acterized by appropriate transfer functions, which include
where the matrix coefficients are defined by (4), (5),and ( 8 ) those of the switched-mode modulator and power stage.
with C, D, and Ddsubstituted for A, B, and Bd, respectively. Since the power stage i s nonlinear, one seeks a suitable
Equations (12) and (13) provide, in closed form, the dc model from which the transfer functions can be obtained.
conditions and the small-signal frequency response of any Asdiscussed in Section I l l , a suitable model is asmall-signal
pwm switching converter. The extension to more than two ac model whose element values depend upon the large-sig-
switched network systems is straightforward. nal dc operating point, but are otherwise constant.
One of the uses of the results i s that a single equivalent Canonical models, of a given configuration but which
network can be found that is characterized by the averaged have different element values for different converters and
equations, which i s the generalization of the circuit-ori- operating conditions, are developed qualitatively in Sec-
ented approach to modeling that was taken in the earlier tion IV. Fig. 5 shows the model for duty ratio programmed,
sections. In particular, the averaging step corresponds to pu Ise-width-modulateddc-to-dcconverters operated i n the
replacement of the switch by the conversion transformer, continuous inductor current mode, in which the switching
and the linearization step requiring the small-signal restric- devices function as a two-position, single-pole switch. The
tion corresponds to replacement of the conversion trans- model contains the three essential features of any such con-
former varying ratio by a fixed-ratio transformer and the verter: the basic dc-to-dc conversion property, represented
modulation generators. Note that the matrix coefficients B, by the conversion transformer symbol which defines
and D,,of dare functions of operating point, as are the coef- response down to dc; the effective low-pass filter property;
ficients of the modulation generators in the circuit model. and the adjustability property. Actually, adjustability is
The equivalent circuit models can be used either for ana- attained by modulation of the duty ratio D, of which the
lytic prediction of transfer functions, or can be presented conversion ratio M i s a function; however, the model is lin-
as inputs to computer circuit analysis programs. If the pro- earized by representation of the adjustability property by
gram is capable of handling nonlinearities, the modulation separate voltage and current modulation generators. A duty
of the conversion transformer can be accommodated ratio programmed converter i s one whose duty ratio drive
directly without separation into the modulation generators is a unique function of the control voltage, as delivered by
1161. a modulatorthatconsistsof acomparator driven bythecon-
Identification of an equivalent circuit model is, however, trol voltage and a fixed clock ramp, illustrated in Fig. 3.
not necessary; the analytic results can be used directly to Fig. 6 shows the canonical model for the same duty ratio
solve for any transfer function either numerically [I71 or programmed modulator as in Fig. 3, but with a power stage
algebraically. operated in the discontinuous inductor current mode, in
The state-space average modeling method is an almost which the switching devices function as a three-position
ideal compromise between accuracy and simplicity. Both single-pole switch. The same canonical model of Fig. 6 also
the equivalent circuit format, and the analytic results applies to a current-programmed power stage, i n which a
embodied in (12) and (13), are in formsfamiliar to electronic local, or minor, current feedback loop is closed around the
circuit engineers, and are therefore easily accessible. The modulator-power-stage subsystem of Fig. 3, as illustrated
principal limitation i s that the results break down for mod- in Fig. 7. The same y-parameter canonical model of Fig. 6
ulation frequencies approaching the switching frequency, is appropriate for both modes of operation, because in both
and indeed half the switching frequency i s also a special the output current follows the control voltage 9, and i s
case not fully accounted for in the results. However, as dis- therefore modeled by a voltage-controlled current gener-

352 PROCEEDINGS OF THE I E t E , VOL. 76, NO. 4, APRIL 1988

ator ~ ~ However,
~ 0 again~ in . both modes of operation, the ods for dc-to-dc switching converters,” in Proc. IEEElnt. Semi-
output current follows the control voltage only poorly, and conductor Power Converter Conf., pp. 90-111,1977.
[6] R. D. Middlebrook, “Topics in multiple-loop regulators and
the resistive component of the output admittance yZ2is not
current-mode programming,” in Proc. /€€E Power Nectronics
negligibly large, but comparable to the load resistance. Specialists Conf., pp. 716-732, 1985.
Strictly speaking, neither mode of operation deserves the [q R. D. Middlebrook and S . Cuk, “A general unified approach
title “current-programmed,” but this i s the name conven- to modeling switching converter power stages,” in Proc. IEEE
tionally adopted to describe the configuration of Fig. 7 in Power Electronics Specialists Conf., pp. 18-34, 1976; also lnt.
1. Electron., vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 521-550, June 1977.
which an explicit attempt i s made to achieve that result. [8] S. Cuk and R. D. Middlebrook, “A general unified approach
Comparison of the transfer functions as predicted by the to modeling switching dc-to-dc converters in discontinuous
canonical models for the three modes of operation is conduction mode,” in Proc. /E€€ Power Electronics Special-
described in Section V, and summarized in Table 1.The cur- ists Conf., pp. 36-57, 1977.
rent-programmed mode has dynamic-response properties [9] C. W. Deisch, “Simple switching control method changes
power converter into a current Source,” in Proc. /€E€ Power
in between those of the other two, having the major advan- Electronics Specialists Conf., pp. 300-306, 1978.
tages of both, namely dominant pole response in the con- IO] R. D. Middlebrook, “Topics in multiple-loop regulators and
tinuous inductor current mode, but with the disadvantage current-mode programming,” IEEE Trans. PowerElectron., vol.
of a right half-plane zero in the boost and flyback type con- PE-2, pp. 109-124, Apr. 1987.
II] S.-P. Hsu, A. Brown, L. Rensink, and R. D. Middlebrook,
verters. Dominant-pole response (low Q, overdamped) is “Modeling and analysis of switching dc-to-dc converters in
far preferable to the complex-pole (high Q, underdamped) constant-frequency current-programmed mode,” in Proc.
response of the duty ratio programmed continuous induc- / € € E Power Electronics Specialists Conf., pp. 284-301, 1979.
tor current mode since the damping i s lossless, which con- 121 R. D. Middlebrook,”Design techniquesfor preventing input-
filter oscillations in switched-mode regulators,” in Proc. Pow-
siderably eases the efficiency versus dynamic response
ercon 5 Conf., pp. A3.1-A3.16, 1978.
design tradeoff. This advantage, together with the simplic- 131 -, “Design considerations and noise reduction in switch-
itywith which switch current limit and parallelingof power ing converters,” Powerconversion Int. Mag., vol. 9, no. 8, pp.
stages can be achieved, makes current-programming the 20-30, Sept. 1983.
preferred mode of operation. [I41 -, ”Input filter considerations in design and application of
switching regulators,” in Proc. /FEE lndustry Applications
State-space averaging i s the formal process of which the Society Annual Meeting, pp. 366-382, 1976.
canonical equivalent circuit models are one form of the [IS] R. W. Brockett and J.R. Wood, ”Electrical networks contain-
results. The method is summarized in Section VI. There are ingcontrolledswitches,” in “Applicationsof Liegroup theory
two key steps. One i s the averaging step itself, in which the & nonlinear network problems,” supplement to IEEE lnt.
Symp. on Circuit Theory, (San Francisco, CA), pp. 1-11, Apr.
state-space equations describing the two or more switched 1974.
networks are averaged according to the fractions of the [I61 V. G. Bello,“Computer-modelingthe pulsewidth modulated
switching period that the system resides in each configu- (PWM)converter,” in Proc. Powercon 7Conf., pp. G3.1-G3.11,
ration. The validity depends upon the corner frequency of 1980.
the power stage filter being much lower than the switching [I7 S. Cuk, B. Lau, R. Gupta, and D. Borkovic, “Computer aided
design of switching converter frequency response,” in Proc.
frequency. The second key step accommodates the switch PowerCAD ’87 Conf., pp. 106-121,1987.
duty ratios as control inputs, subject to the small-signal lim- [I81 SCAMP: Switching Converter Analysis and Measurement
itation. Other useful formsofthe resultsareanalyticexpres- Program, Power Electronics Group, California Institute of
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trol procedures,” in Proc. / € € E Power Electronics Specialists
Many authors have discussed the state-space averaging Conf., pp. 329-336,1981.
method [19]-[21], its limitations, and have made extensions [20] D. J.Shortt and F. C. Lee, “Extensions of the discrete-average
to higher frequencies [22], larger signals [23], and to dc-to- models for converter power stages,” in Proc. /E€€ PowerElec-
ac converters [24]. Its major constraint, however, is that it tronics Specialists Conf., pp. 23-37, 1983.
[21] R. J. Dirkman, “Generalized state-spaceaveraging,” in Proc.
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State-space averaging i s not the only analysis method for of switching regulators,“ in Proc. lE€E Power Electronics Spe-
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are discussed in [25]-[30]. Simulation and computer-aided [23] R. W. Erickson, S. Cuk, and R. D. Middlebrook, “Large-signal
modeling and analysis of switching regulators,” in Proc. /FEE
methods have also been employed [31]-[33]. Power Electronics Specialists Conf., pp. 240-250, 1982.
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verters,” /€€€ Trans. Power Electron., vol. PE-I, pp. 223-230,
[I] R. D. Middlebrook and S. Cuk, Advances in Switched-Mode Oct. 1986.
PowerConversion,vols. I, II,and Ill. Pasadena,CA:TESLAco, [25] A. Capel, J. G. Ferrante, and R. Prajoux, “Dynamic behaviour
1983. and Z-transform stability analysis of DC/DC regulators with
[2] S. Cuk, “Integrated magnetics versus conventional power fil- a nonlinear PWM controlled loop,” in Proc. /E€€ Power Elec-
tering,“ in Proc. INT€L€C87Conf., pp. 61-72, 1987. tronics Specialists Conf., pp. 149-157, 1973.
[3] F. Barzegar, S. Cuk, and R. D. Middlebrook, “Using small [26] R. P. Iwens, Y. Yu, and J. E. Triner, “Time domain modeling
computers to model and measure magnitude and phase of and stability analysis of an integral pulse frequency modu-
regulator transfer functions and loop gain,” in Proc. Pow- lated DC to DC power converter,” in Proc. / € E € Power Elec-
ercon 8 Conf., pp. H1.l-H1.28, 1981. tronics Specialists Conf., pp. 80-90, 1975.
[4] C. W. Wester and R. D. Middlebrook, ”Low-frequency char- [27l A. Capel, J. G. Ferrante, and R. Prajoux, “State variable sta-
acterization of switched dc-to-dc converters,” in Proc. /FEE bilityanalysisof multi-loop PWMcontrolled regulators in light
Power Electronics Specialists Conf., pp. 9-20, 1972; also / E € € and heavy mode,” in Proc. / € E € Power Electronics Specialists
Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst., vol. AES-9, pp. 376-385, May COnf., pp. 91-102, 1975.
1973. [28] F. C. Lee, Y. Yu, and J. E. Triner, “Modeling of switching reg-
[5] R. D. Middlebrook and S. Cuk, “Modeling and analysis meth- ulator power stages with and without zero-inductor-current

MIDDLEBROOK: MODELING OF POWER CONVERTERS 353

 dwell time," in Proc. IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conf., R. D.Middlebrook (Fellow, IEEE) received the
pp. 62-72, 1976. Ph.0. degree in electrical engineeringfrom
[29] R. P. Iwens, F. C. Lee, and J. E. Triner, "Discrete time domain Stanford University, Stanford, CA, in 1955.
modeling and analysis of dc-dc converters with continuous He i s Professor of Electrical Engineering
and discontinuous inductor current," presented at the Proc. at the California Institute of Technology,
2nd IFACSymp. of Control in Power Electronics and Electrical Pasadena, CA. His publications include
Drives, Dusseldorf, West Germany, Oct. 1977. numerous papers, a book on solid-state
[30] C. Verghese, M. E. Elbuluk, and J. G. Kassakian, "A general device theory, and another on differential
approach to sampled-data modeling for power electronic cir- amplifiers. His research interests, formerly
cuits," IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. PE-I, pp. 76-89, Apr. in solid-state device modeling, are now in
1986. circuits and systems, and particularly in
[31] A. K. Ohri, H. A. Owen, Jr., T. G. Wilson, and G. E. Rodrigues, power processing electronics, in which he is well known as author,
"Digital computer simulation of inductor-energy-storage lecturer, and consultant. He is especially interested in design-ori-
converters with closed-loop regulators," in Proc. Spacecraft ented circuit analysis and measurement techniques which he
PowerConditioning Electronics Seminar, (Frascati, Italy), May teaches at Caltech, and has conducted short courses on his meth-
1974; ESRO Pub. SP-103, pp. 245-261. ods in both Europe and the United States.Among his outside inter-
[32] H. A. Owen, A. Capel, and J. G. Ferrante, in Proc. IEEE Power ests is Formula race car driving.
Electronics Specialists Conf., pp. 45-55, 1976. Dr. Middlebrook i s the recipient of the 1982 IEEE William E. New-
[33] F. C. Y. Lee, R. P. Iwens, Y. Yu, and J. E. Triner, "Generalized ell Power Electronics Award for OutstandingAchievement in Power
computer-aided discrete-time modeling and analysis of dc-dc Electronics, and a 1982 Award for Excellence in Teaching, pre-
converters," IEEE Trans. lndust. Electron. Contr. Instrum., vol. sented by the Board of Directors of the Associated Students of Cal-
IECI-26, pp. 58-69, May 1979. tech.

354 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 76, NO. 4, APRIL 1988