INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

Logic is the systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition
on the basis of a set of other propositions. More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments.

Logic is essential not only for mathematical reasoning but for everyday real-life thinking and decision-making.

In simple words, logic is “the study of correct reasoning, especially regarding making inferences.” Logic began as a
philosophical term and is now used in other disciplines like math and computer science.

Logic is a process for making a conclusion and a tool you can use.

➢ The foundation of a logical argument is its proposition, or statement.

➢ The proposition is either accurate (true) or not accurate (false).

➢ Premises are the propositions used to build the argument.

➢ The argument is then built on premises.

➢ Then an inference is made from the premises.

➢ Finally, a conclusion is drawn.

Propositional Logic

Proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not both. Propositional Logic is the area of logic that
deals with propositions.

A proposition is a statement that can be either true or false; it must be one or the other, and it cannot be both.

Examples of propositions

1. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.

2. Tomato is a vegetable.

3. 1 + 1 = 3

Examples that are not of propositions

1. When is your birthday?

2. Stand up!

3. 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑟

PROPOSITION / NOT A
STATEMENT PROPOSITION TRUTH VALUE

1. Park Seo Joon is a Korean Actor.

2. Decagon is an 8-sided polygon.
3. What is wrong with you?
4. 7 + 11 = 18
5. a + b = 20

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Logical Operators

A logical operator is a symbol or word used to connect two or more expressions such that the value of the compound
expression produced depends only on that of the original expressions and on the meaning of the operator.
Common logical operators include AND, OR, and NOT.

Truth Table displays the relationships between the truth values of propositions.
The truth value of a true proposition is T or True.
The truth value of a false proposition is F or False.

Negation
A negation is a refusal or denial of something.
A negation is a statement that cancels out or denies another statement or action.

𝑃: Tomato is a fruit. −𝑃: ____________________________

𝑃: Today is not my birthday. −𝑃: ____________________________

Conjunction

Consider the statement “𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞”, denoted 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞. To Row 1: the two statements could both be true. In this case, it
analyze this, we first have to think of all the combinations of would make sense that “𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞” is also a true statement.
truth values for both statements and then decide how those
combinations influence the “and” statement. In words: Row 2: 𝑝 could be false while q is true.
For “p and q” to be true, we would need BOTH statements to
Conjunction “ 𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒 " be true. Since one is false, “𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞” is false.

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒 Row 3: p could be true while q is false.

If this is the case, then by the same argument in row
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 2, “𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞” 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒.

𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 Row 4: the two statements could both be false.

𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 If both statements are false, then “𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞” is false.

𝑭 𝑭 𝑭

Disjunction
There are two types of “or”s. There is the inclusive or Row 1: the two statements could both be true.
where we allow for the fact that both statements might be Since we are working with the inclusive or, the statement
true, and there is the exclusive or, where we are strict that “𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞” will be true in this case.
only one statement or the other is true. In math, the “or”
that we work with is the inclusive or denoted p∨q. Row 2: 𝑝 could be false while 𝑞 is true.
This is the essence of or. We are saying “one or both of the
Disjunction “ 𝒑 𝒐𝒓 𝒒 " statements is true”. Therefore, “𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞” is true in this case.

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒 Row 3: 𝑝 could be true while 𝑞 is false.

𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 Same idea as the second row.

𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 Row 4: the two statements could both be false.

Considering the meaning of or, if both statements are false,
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 then it is not true that “p or q”, thus we list false for this
𝑭 𝑭 𝑭 statement.

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Summary
To keep track of how these ideas work, you can remember the following:
Negation “ 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒑 “ Conjunction “ 𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒 “ Disjunction “ 𝒑 𝒐𝒓 𝒒 “

𝒑 −𝒑 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑⋁ 𝒒

𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻

𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻
𝑭 𝑻
𝑭 𝑭 𝑭 𝑭 𝑭 𝑭

𝒑 𝒒 −𝒑 −𝒒 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒 𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒
F F
F T
T F
T T

Implication
The statement “p implies q” means that if p is true, then q Definition: If p and q are arbitrary propositions, then
must also be true. The statement “p implies q” is also the conditional of p and q is written p ⇒ q and will be
written “if p then q” or sometimes “q if p.” Statement p is true iff either p is false, or q is true.
called the premise of the implication and q is called the
conclusion.
𝑰𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 " 𝒑 → 𝒒” The ⇒ operator is the hardest to understand of the
operators we have considered so far, and yet it is
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 extremely important.
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
If you find it difficult to understand, just remember that
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 the p ⇒ q means ‘if p is true, then q is true’.
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭
If p is false, then we don’t care about q, and by default,
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 make p ⇒ q evaluate to T in this case.

Bi-Conditional

𝐁𝐢 − 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒 Definition: If p and q are arbitrary

propositions, then the biconditional of p and q is written:
𝒑↔𝒒
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↔𝒒
and will be true iff either:
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
1. p and q are both true; or
𝑭 𝑻 𝑭

𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 2. p and q are both false.

𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 If p ⇔ q is true, then p and q are said to be logically

equivalent. They will be true under exactly the same
circumstances.

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Exclusive Or

𝐄𝐱𝐜𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐎𝐫 "𝒑 ⊕ 𝒒"

The exclusive or of p and q
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑⊕𝒒
denoted by p ⊕ q, is the
𝑻 𝑻 𝑭
proposition that is true when
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻

𝑻 𝑭 𝑻
exactly one of p and q is true and
𝑭 𝑭 𝑭 is false otherwise.

𝒑 𝒒 −𝒑 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒 𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒 𝒑 → 𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 𝒑 ↔𝒒 𝒑 ⊕ 𝒒
F F
F T
T F
T T

Let T = 1 and F = 0

𝑝 −𝑝 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑⋁ 𝒒

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏

𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↔𝒒

𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏

𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏

𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎

𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎

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The Six Logical Operators
STATEMENT “read as” Connective Symbolic Form
Negation 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒑 𝒏𝒐𝒕 −𝒑

Conjunction 𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒, 𝒑 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒒, 𝒑 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒒 𝒂𝒏𝒅, 𝒃𝒖𝒕, 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐

𝒑 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒒, 𝒑 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒒 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 , 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒
𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓
Disjunction 𝒑 𝒐𝒓 𝒒 𝒐𝒓 𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒
Implication 𝑰𝒇 𝒑 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒒, 𝒑 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒒, 𝒒 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒑 𝑰𝒇 − 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐬,
𝒑 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒒, 𝒒 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒑 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓, 𝒔𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕,
𝒑→𝒒
𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚
Bi-conditional 𝒑 𝒊𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒇 𝒒, 𝒑 𝒊𝒇𝒇 𝒒, 𝒒 𝒊𝒇𝒇 𝒑 𝒊𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒇 𝒑↔𝒒
𝒑 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒑 𝒊𝒇𝒇
Exclusive Or 𝒆𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒑 𝒐𝒓 𝒒 𝒆𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝒑 ⊕ 𝒒

Given the following statements below, write the following compound statements using the symbolic form.
𝒑: 𝑻𝒐𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒚. 𝒓: 𝑰𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒅𝒂𝒚.
𝒒: 𝑰 𝒂𝒎 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒉𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒉. 𝒔: 𝑰 𝒂𝒎 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍.
COMPOUND STATEMENT SYMBOLIC FORM
𝟏. 𝑻𝒐𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰 𝒂𝒎 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒉𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒉.
𝟐. 𝑰𝒇 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒂 𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒅𝒂𝒚 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑰 𝒂𝒎 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍.
𝟑. 𝑻𝒐𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒂 𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝟒. 𝑬𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝑰 𝒂𝒎 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒉𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒓 𝑰 𝒂𝒎 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍
𝟓. 𝑰 𝒂𝒎 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒐𝒓 𝑰 𝒂𝒎 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒉𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒉.
𝟔. 𝑰 𝒂𝒎 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒊𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒇 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒂 𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒅𝒂𝒚.
Given the following statements below, translate the following the symbolic form into compound statements.
𝒑: 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒃𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑴𝑶𝑨 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒂
𝒒: 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒂𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒆.
𝒓: 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒃𝒆 𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝑮𝑴𝑨.
𝒔: 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝑩𝑺.

𝑺𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎 Compound Statement

𝟏. 𝒔⋁ 𝒓

𝟐. 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒

𝟑. 𝒓 ⊕ 𝒔

𝟒. − 𝒔 → 𝒒

𝟓. −𝒓 ⋀ − 𝒔

𝟔. 𝒒↔p

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NAME ________________________________________ SECTION ____________________ SET ____

EXERCISES

COMPLETE THE TABLE

A
PROPOSITION / NOT A
STATEMENT PROPOSITION TRUTH VALUE

Hexagon is a 7-sided polygon 1) 2)

6 + 9 = 15 3) 4)
How do you do? 5) 6)
m + n = 20 7) 8)
Tomato is a fruit. 9) 10)
B
PROPOSITION / NOT A
STATEMENT PROPOSITION TRUTH VALUE

1. 44 + 55 = 99 1) 2)
2. Nonagon is an 8-sided polygon 3) 4)
3. Tomato is a fruit 5) 6)
4. How are you? 7) 8)
5. p + q = 77 9) 10)

A. Complete the table.

𝒑 𝒒 -𝒑 𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒

𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 13) 17)

𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 14) 18)

𝑻 𝑭 11) 15) 19)

𝑭 𝑭 12) 16) 20)

B. Complete the table.

𝒑 𝒒 -𝒒 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒 𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒

𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 13) 17)

𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 14) 18)

𝑻 𝑭 11) 15) 19)

𝑭 𝑭 12) 16) 20)

6
NAME ________________________________________ SECTION ____________________ SET ____

Given the following statements below, write the following compound statements using the symbolic form.
𝑝: 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑑𝑎𝑦. 𝑟: 𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦.
𝑞 ∶ 𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦. 𝑠: 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙.
Set A
COMPOUND STATEMENT SYMBOLIC FORM
1. 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙.
2. 𝐼𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙.
3. 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦.
4. 𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙.
5. 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦

Set B
COMPOUND STATEMENT SYMBOLIC FORM
1. 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦.
2. 𝐼𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙.
3. 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙.

4. 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦

5. 𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙.

SET A
SYMBOLIC FORM COMPOUND STATEMENT
6. 𝒓⋁ 𝒔

7. 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒

8. 𝒔⊕𝒓

9. −𝒓→𝒔

10. 𝑞↔p

SET B
SYMBOLIC FORM COMPOUND STATEMENT
6. − 𝒓 ⋀ 𝒔

7. 𝒑 ⋀ 𝒒

8. 𝑞↔p

9. −𝒒→𝒔

10. 𝒔⊕𝒓
7
SET A
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑⋀ 𝒒 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒 𝒑 ⊕𝒒

𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 13) 17)

𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 14) 18)

𝑻 𝑭 11) 15) 19)

𝑭 𝑭 12) 16) 20)

SET B
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑 ⋁ 𝒒 𝒑 ⊕𝒒 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒

𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 13) 17)

𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 14) 18)

𝑻 𝑭 11) 15) 19)

𝑭 𝑭 12) 16) 20)

CHALLENGE!

𝑨 𝑩 ( 𝑨 ⊕ 𝑩 )⋁( 𝑨 ↔ 𝑩) −𝑨 ⋀ −( 𝑨 ⋁𝑩 ) (𝑨 ↔ 𝑩 ) → −𝑩

𝟏 𝟏

𝟎 𝟏

𝟏 𝟎

𝟎 𝟎