Basic equations of elasticity

1.1 Introduction
F.E.M. is extensively used to solve problems in structural mechanics. Exact solutions for
problems in structural mechanics can be obtained if following three basic sets of equations
are satisfied
i. The differential equations of equilibrium in terms of stresses acting on a body
ii. Compatibility equations and strain/displacement equations
iii. Stress/strain relationship or Hooke’s law

1.2 Equilibrium of a body subjected to different types of Forces

When body is subjected to external forces it develops internal forces which are known as
reactive forces. External forces and reactive forces keep the system in equilibrium. Within
elastic limit, the internal forces are numerically equal to external forces. Once the elastic limit
is crossed, body undergoes deformation. External forces acting on a body are
i. Body force (F)
ii. Traction force (T)
iii. Point load (P)

1.2.1 Body force

It is equal to force per unit volume or force per unit mass
𝐹𝑥
𝑇
Body force{𝐹}𝐵 = 𝐹𝑦 𝑂𝑅 𝐹 𝐵 = 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧 𝐵
𝐹𝑧

Examples of body forces are gravitational force, electromagnetic force and inertia forces.

1.2.2 Traction force or Surface force (T)

It is equal to force per unit area. It acts on the on the surface of the body
𝑇𝑥
𝑇 𝑇
Traction force 𝑇 = 𝑦 𝑂𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑥 𝑇𝑦 𝑇𝑧
𝑇𝑧

Example of traction force is Frictional force.

1.2.3 Point Load (P)

It acts at any point on the body.
𝑃𝑥
𝑃 𝑇
Point load 𝑃 = 𝑦 𝑂𝑅 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑧
𝑃𝑧
1.3 Displacements
When the forces( body force, traction force etc.) act on the body, it undergoes deformation
along three directions, which results in displacements namely u,v,w along x,y,z directions
respectively
𝑢
𝑇
𝑈 = 𝑣 OR 𝑈 = 𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
𝑤
1.4 Stresses
When forces acts on the body, body develops normal and shear stresses. There are six
components of stresses given by,
𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑧
𝜎 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑇

𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝜏𝑧𝑥

𝜎𝑥 , σy and σz are known as the normal stresses and τxy, τyz and τzx are known as shear
stresses.
Stress tensor is given by,
𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜏
= 𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 Where, σ = Normal stress and τ – shear stress
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧

1.5 Equilibrium equation for 3 D element

Considering equilibrium of the elemental volume shown in figure. The forces on faces are
obtained by multiplying the stresses by the corresponding area. Now applying the condition
of equilibrium, we get the following equations of equilibrium.
𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑥
+ + + 𝐹𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

1.6 Strain components in 3D element:

Strain at a point can be represented by six independent components as
𝜖𝑥
𝜖𝑦
𝜖𝑧
𝜖 = 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜖𝑥 𝜖𝑦 𝜖𝑧 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑦𝑧 𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝑇

𝛾𝑦𝑧
𝛾𝑧𝑥
Where,
𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖 y and 𝜖 z are normal strains
𝛾xy, 𝛾yz and 𝛾zx are shear strains
If u,v and w are displacements in x, y and z directions then,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜖𝑥 = , 𝜖𝑦 = , 𝜖𝑧 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = + and 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = + ,
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

For 3D element, strain tensor is given by

𝜖𝑥 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑧
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝛾𝑦𝑥 𝜖𝑦 𝛾𝑦𝑧
𝛾𝑧𝑥 𝛾𝑧𝑦 𝜖𝑧
1.7 Strain components in 2D elements
For 2D elements we have,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜖𝑥 = , 𝜖𝑦 = and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

1.8 Stress-strain relationship

Stress-strain relationship is derived from Hooke’s law,

From Hooke’s law, we have strains in x, y and z direction is given by

𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑧
𝜖𝑥 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑧
𝜖𝑦 = − + −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜇𝜎 𝑥 𝜇𝜎 𝑦 𝜎𝑧
𝜖𝑧 = − − +
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

Where,
E- Young's modulus of the material and 𝜇 - Poisson's ratio
shear stress 𝜏 𝑥𝑦
Modulus of rigidity, G = =
shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦

and, 𝐸 = 2𝐺 1 + 𝜇 OR 𝐺 =𝐸 2 1+𝜇
𝜏𝑥𝑦 2(1 + 𝜇)𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝐺 = =
𝐸 2 1+𝜇 𝐸
Similarly,
2(1+𝜇 )𝜏 𝑦𝑧 2(1+𝜇 )𝜏 𝑧𝑥
𝛾𝑦𝑧 = and 𝛾𝑧𝑥 =
𝐸 𝐸
Putting this in matrix form, we get
𝜖𝑥 1 −𝜇 −𝜇 0 0 0 𝜎𝑥
𝜖𝑦 −𝜇 1 −𝜇 0 0 0 𝜎𝑦
𝜖𝑧 1 −𝜇 −𝜇 1 0 0 0 𝜎𝑧
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝐸 0 0 0 2(1 + 𝜇) 0 0
𝛾𝑦𝑧 0 0 0 0 2(1 + 𝜇) 0 𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝛾𝑧𝑥 0 0 0 0 0 2(1 + 𝜇) 𝜏𝑧𝑥

{𝜖} = [𝐵]{𝜎} Where, [B] is material flexibility matrix

Similarly we can write,
1 −𝜇 𝜇 0 0 0
0 1−𝜇 𝜇 0 0 0
𝜎𝑥 𝜖𝑥
0 0 1−𝜇 0 0 0
𝜎𝑦 𝜖𝑦
1 − 2𝜇
𝜎𝑧 𝐸 0 0 0 0 0 𝜖𝑧
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
1 + 𝛾 (1 − 2𝜇) 1 − 2𝜇
𝜏𝑦𝑧 0 0 0 0 0 𝛾𝑦𝑧
𝜏𝑧𝑥 2 𝛾𝑧𝑥
1 − 2𝜇
0 0 0 0 0
2
𝜎 = 𝐷 𝜖 , Where, [D] is material stiffness matrix

Force Intensity Stress on negative face Stress on positive face

𝜕𝜎𝑥
σx 𝜎𝑥 + = 𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕τ𝑥𝑦
Fx τxy τ𝑥𝑦 + = τ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕τ𝑥𝑧
τ𝑥𝑧 τ𝑥𝑧 + = τ𝑥𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
 𝜕𝜎𝑦
σy 𝜎𝑦 + = 𝜎𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕τ𝑦𝑥
Fy τyx τ𝑦𝑥 + = τ𝑦𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕τ𝑦𝑧
τ𝑦𝑧 τ𝑦𝑧 + = τ𝑦𝑧 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜎𝑧
σz 𝜎𝑧 + = 𝜎𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
𝜕τ𝑧𝑥
Fz τzx τ𝑧𝑥 + = τ𝑧𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
𝜕τ𝑧𝑦
τ𝑧𝑦 τ𝑧𝑦 + = τ𝑧𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧

1.9 Plane stresses problem:

A thin plate subjected to forces in their plane only are known as plane stress problem or if a
body has dimensions along the normal direction (Z-axis or thickness) and if loading is
applied only in this direction then the problem is considered as plane stress problem.

No Force acts in Z direction,

Hence 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0
𝜖𝑥 𝜎𝑥
1 1 −𝜇 0
𝜖𝑦 = −𝜇 1 0 𝜎 𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝐸 0 0 𝜏
2(1 + 𝜇) 𝑥𝑦

1.10 Plane Strain Problem

If the dimension along longitudinal directions is very long and loading is applied
perpendicular to longitudinal axis then the problem is treated as plane strain problem.
Examples of such problems are thick cylinder subjected to internal fluid pressure, gravity
dams , tunnels, pipe carrying fluids etc.

For plane strain problems

𝜖𝑧 = 𝛾𝑥𝑧 = 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = 0 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0
𝜎𝑧 𝜇 (𝜎𝑥 +𝜎 𝑦 )
Since 𝜖𝑧 = 0, 𝜖𝑧 = − = 0 OR 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜇(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝐸 𝐸

Hence equation becomes

 1−𝜇 𝜇 0 𝜖𝑥
𝜎𝑥
𝐸 𝜇 1−𝜇 0
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜖𝑦
(1 + 𝜇)(1 − 2𝜇) 1 − 2𝜇 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑧 0 0
2
1.11 Axisymmetric Problem
Axisymmetric structure can be generated by rotating a line or curve about an axis as in the
case of a cylinder. If such structures are subjected to axis symmetric loading like internal or
external pressure, uniform self weight or live uniform load over the surface, there exist
symmetry about any axis. This will be useful in simplifying the analysis. For axisymmetric
problems, it is convenient to use cylindrical coordinates and stress components are
independent of angular (θ) coordinates. In axisymmetric problems all derivatives with respect
to θ vanishes. Hence
𝛾 = 𝛾𝑟𝜃 = 𝛾𝜃𝑧 = 𝜏𝑟𝜃 = 𝜏𝜃𝑧 = 0
There are four non-zero components and they are
𝜕𝑢 𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜖𝑟 = , 𝜖𝜃 = , 𝜖𝑧 = and 𝛾𝑟𝑧 = +
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟
Stress strain relation is given by
1−𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 0 𝜖𝑦
𝜎𝑟
0 1−𝜇 𝜇 0 𝜖𝑧
𝜎𝑧 𝐸
= 0 0 𝜇 0 𝜖𝜃
𝜎𝜃 (1 + 𝜇)(1 − 2𝜇)
𝜏𝑟𝑧 1 − 2𝜇 𝛾𝑦𝑧
0 0 0
2