10.2305 IUCN - UK.2022-1.RLTS.T12551A199563077.en

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™
ISSN 2307-8235 (online)

IUCN 2022: T12551A199563077
Scope(s): Global
Language: English
Macaca fascicularis, Long-tailed Macaque

Assessment by: Hansen, M.F. et al.
View on www.iucnredlist.org
Short citation: Hansen, M.F. et al. 2022. Macaca fascicularis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species 2022: e.T12551A199563077. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-
1.RLTS.T12551A199563077.en [see full citation at end]
Copyright: © 2022 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written
permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.
Reproduction of this publication for resale, reposting or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written
permission from the copyright holder. For further details see Terms of Use.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species Programme, the IUCN
Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership. The IUCN Red List Partners are: ABQ BioPark;
Arizona State University; BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens Conservation International; Conservation International;
Missouri Botanical Garden; NatureServe; Re:wild; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of Rome; Texas A&M
University; and Zoological Society of London.
If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown in this document, please provide us with
feedback so that we can correct or extend the information provided.
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

Taxonomy
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Cercopithecidae
Scientific Name: Macaca fascicularis (Raffles, 1821)
Synonym(s):
• Macaca irus Geoffroy ,1826
• Macacus carbonaria Cuvier, 1825
• Semnpithecus kra Lesson, 1830
• Simia aygula Linnaeus, 1758
• Simia cynomolgus Schreber, 1775
• Simia fascicularis Raffles, 1821
Infra-specific Taxa Assessed:

• Macaca fascicularis ssp. atriceps
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. aurea
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. condorensis
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. fascicularis (discarded)
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. fascicularis
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. fusca
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. karimondjawae
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. lasiae
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. philippensis (discarded)
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. tua
• Macaca fascicularis ssp. umbrosa
Common Name(s):
• English: Long-tailed Macaque, Crab-eating Macaque, Cynomolgus Macaque
• Bengali: kakravuk banor, lomba leji banor, parailla banor
• Burmese: မျောက်တံငါ myauk ta-nga
• Central Khmer: ស្វាក្ដាម sva kdam
• Chinese: 长尾猕猴 Cháng wěi míhóu
• Indonesian: kera, monyet ekor panjang
• Lao: Ling hang yao ລີງຫາງຍາວ
• Tagalog: matsing, unggoy
• Thai: ลิง หางยาว ling hăang yao, ลิง เเสม ling sà-mɛ̌ɛ
• Vietnamese: Khi đuôi dà
Taxonomic Notes:
Macaca fascicularis is a wide-ranging macaque with a patchy distribution in Southeast Asia (Eudey 2008,
Gumert, 2011). According to a variety of descriptions (Raffles 1821; Fooden 1995, 2006; Groves 2001),
as well as the assessors’, they are not distinguished by any distinct phenotypic features; however, they
are one of the smaller macaques, and are named for their long tail, which approximates the length of
their body and head combined. From a distance, the dorsal pelage is generally greyish or brown, with a
whitish underbelly, as well as distinct black and white highlights around the crown and face. For
example, their eyelids are often white, their crowns are bordered by white or black, and distinct white
spots often occur on the skin in front of their ears. Closer inspection of the pelage reveals a mottled or
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Macaca fascicularis – published in 2022. 1
https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T12551A199563077.en
speckled pattern, due to the individual hairs being of different colour. This hair patterning produces
variation in shading between individuals and across populations. Hair shading includes yellowish, golden
brown, reddish brown, brown, whitish, and blackened. Their skin colouration varies and includes white,
pink, black, and brown tones. Under harsh sunlight, their facial skin easily tans. Adults are usually
bearded on and around their face; however, around their snout and eyes, hair is short and sparse. Older
females typically exhibit the fullest bearding, while for males it is more whisker-like. They exhibit a
lateral cheek crest that usually runs vertically along the face, but among some subspecific variations the
crest runs horizontally, bisecting the middle of the cheek.
The species is highly variable. Groves (2001) and Fooden (1995) have divided Macaca fascicularis into
ten subspecies; however, as of recent, the most eastern subspecies, M. f. philippinensis has come under
dispute. (Smith et al. 2014). Consequently, it has been tentatively removed from Red List assessment
and is currently included with M. f. fascicularis. Along the northern part of their range, M. fascicularis
regularly hybridizes with the rhesus macaque, M. mulatta (Fooden 1964). They have also long been
known to hybridize with pig-tailed macaques, M. nemestrina (Bernstein 1966). Hybrids can occur across
subspecies too (Bunlungsup et al. 2016, Gumert et al. 2019).
In regards to synonyms*: Simia aygula Linnaus 1758, Simia cynomolgus Schreber 1775, Simia
fascicularis Raffles 1821, Macacus carbonaria Cuvier, 1825, Macaca irus Geoffroy 1826, Semnopithecus
kra Lesson 1830, and numerous others names have been ascribed using the above genera, as well as
genera assignments that have also included Macac, Pithecus and Cynomolgus.
*There are numerous historical synonyms and mistaken names for this species. Early uses are
highlighted here, but for a more complete historical listing and discussion please refer to Napier and
Groves (1983), Groves (2001), and Fooden (1995).
Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria: Endangered A3cd ver 3.1
Year Published: 2022
Date Assessed: March 7, 2022
Justification:
In 2008, an IUCN primate specialist proposed that Macaca fascicularis urgently needed to be considered
more vulnerable to decline due to its heavy demand in trading, coupled with the rapid development in
Southeast Asia (Eudey 2008). In this plea, M. fascicularis was likened to the passenger pigeon, Ectopistes
migratorius, a highly populous North American bird species that in the mid-1800s was decimated to
extinction in only 50 years during a cataclysmic surge of persecution and hunting (Weisman 2007).
Eudey (2008) had indicated this could occur to M. fascicularis, due to the high demand for the species in
the national and international trade, and the levels of hunting and persecution they were experiencing.
Sixteen years onwards, these threats have only increased.
Reports throughout Southeast Asia indicate a continued and even increased persecution of M.
fascicularis throughout large expanses of its current range. Hunting and trapping have been occurring
and are now happening at unprecedented levels, as persecution from human-macaque conflict (Eudey
1994, Gumert 2004, Sha et al. 2009, Feng 2015, PERHILITAN 2018, Boonkong and O’Connor 2019), for
subsistence food (San and Hamada 2011, Ngamkkam 2021), and, most ominously, to fuel both the
legitimate and illicit trade for research and other usages (Lee 2011, Hamada et al. 2011, Hansen et al.
2021). Both price and demand for M. fascicularis as a trade commodity has skyrocketed during the
Covid-19 pandemic, relative to the already regular and heavy pre-pandemic capture and trade (Hansen
et al. 2021, 2022). This alone is alarming given that primate species are well-documented to be sensitive
to heavy hunting pressures (Cowlishaw and Dunbar 2000).
Additional to the hunting and persecution that M. fascicularis face, we must also factor in the
significantly changing landscape of Southeast Asia that continues to be deforested, reshaped, and
degraded (Sodhi et al. 2004). Furthermore, we cannot ignore that very few habitat countries have
authoritative estimates of their entire M. fascicularis populations, yet, in many places, we are seeing an
indiscriminate removal of these monkeys with the assumption that they are impervious to decline.
There is a general lack of protection of this species across their range, although there are laws in place
to protect them in several habitat countries.
The collective mismeasurement of the vulnerability of M. fascicularis to population decline must be

confronted before it is too late. As long-tailed macaques are being removed from the wild at these levels
without the necessary population science to understand what these losses mean (particularly during a
period of ongoing environmental degradation), the species may be face irreversible population loss.
Significant losses could be deterred with an urgent move towards better structured wildlife monitoring
and management programs that scientifically census, manage, and protect long-tailed macaques
throughout Southeast Asia. Without such a change, we infer there will be significant declines in the
species' population in the near future. For example, we are seeing a substantial decline, with anecdotal
reports confirming local extinctions across its range. We can confirm that the species experienced a
decline of 40% from mid 1980s until 2006 (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1987, Fooden 1995, 2006), and
with threats having only increased since then, the long-tailed macaque population is suspected to have
increased even further decline during the last three generations.
Finally, it is worth nothing that this species faces both national (within-country) and international
threats. For example, the demand for non-human primates in research is threatening the species. As
such, the research industry needs to become accountable for the effects of their actions on wild non-
human primate populations.
With the rationale above, we suspect the species has experienced a decline of at least 40% over the last
three generations (approximately 40 years). We also suspect that the rates of decline are increasing as
threats have increased and we suspect the species will experience at least a 50% decline in the coming
three generations. Therefore, we assess the species as Endangered A3cd.
Previously Published Red List Assessments

2021 – Vulnerable (VU)
2020 – Vulnerable (VU)

2008 – Least Concern (LC)
https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T12551A3355536.en
2000 – Lower Risk/near threatened (LR/NT)
1996 – Lower Risk/near threatened (LR/NT)
Geographic Range
Range Description:
Macaca fascicularis is widely distributed across South and Southeast Asia (Fooden 1995, Gumert 2011).
Throughout this large range, the species is patchy in occurrence and not continuously distributed (Eudey
2008). According to Fooden (1995, 2006), and much other work, the population is distributed across the
majority of mainland Southeast Asia. The species used to occur in South Asia in Bangladesh, though it is
now considered extinct there (pers. obs. Tanvir Ahmed, 2022), and only remains in the Nicobar Islands in
South Asia. In Southeast Asia, they occur in the northern coastal region of Rakhine, spreading south
through the coastal lowlands of Myanmar, and east through Thailand, most of Cambodia, the
southeastern tip of Laos, and southern Vietnam. M. fascicularis extends south through the Malaysian
peninsula, into the Indonesia islands, and throughout the islands of the Philippines. Long-tailed
macaques also occur on numerous islands throughout Southeast Asia.
The common subspecies, Macaca fascicularis fascicularis, occupies all of this range, except for the
western most fringe around Myanmar, which is inhabited by M. f. aurea, as well as seven small islands,
or small archipelagos, inhabited by the other subspecies, as listed below.
1. Macaca fascicularis atriceps occurs on Khram Yai Island, off the southeastern coast of Thailand
(Groves 2001).
2. Macaca fascicularis aurea occurs within mainland and insular Myanmar and some southern parts
of central Thailand and northwestern parts of southern Thailand (San and Hamada 2011, Gumert et al.
2014).
3. Macaca fascicularis condorensis occurs on Con Son and Hon Ba Islands, off the coast of southern
Viet Nam (Groves 2001).
4. Macaca fascicularis fusca occurs on Simeulue Island, off the northwestern coast of Sumatra,
Indonesia (Groves 2001).
5. Macaca fascicularis karimondjawae occurs on Karimunjawa and Kemujan Islands, Java Sea,
Indonesia (Groves 2001).
6. Macaca fascicularis lasiae occurs on Lasia Island, off the northwestern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia
(Groves 2001).
7. Macaca fascicularis tua occurs on Maratua Island, east of Borneo, Indonesia (Groves 2001).
8. Macaca fascicularis umbrosa occurs on Nicobar Islands of India, which include Little Nicobar, Great
Nicobar and Katchall Islands, (Umapathy et al. 2003).
There are also cases of enthnophoresy of macaques, where humans have moved this species beyond
their original range. The known cases are an island off of Sulawesi (Froehlich et al. 2003, West Papua
(Kemp and Burnett 2007), Mauritius, Hong Kong (Southwick and Southwick 1983), and Palau (Poirer and
Smith 1974). They are now extirpated from Hong Kong (pers. comm. Karthi Martelli 2022).
Although we are aware of several local extinctions, such as the recent extirpation in Bangladesh, we do
not have enough information yet to create an updated range map from the previous assessment.
Country Occurrence:
Native, Extant (resident): Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; India (Nicobar Is.); Indonesia; Malaysia;
Myanmar; Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; Timor-Leste; Viet Nam
Native, Extinct: Bangladesh
Native, Presence Uncertain: Lao People's Democratic Republic
Extant & Introduced (resident): Mauritius; Palau; Papua New Guinea
Distribution Map
Population
It is suspected that the population has undergone a decline of ca 40% in the last three generations (ca
42 years), and that the rate of population decline will rise to at least 50% in the next three generations.
The rationale for this is provided below and elsewhere in this profile.
Based on past population assessments of the entire species (Mackinnon 1986, Mackinnon and
Mackinnon 1987), Fooden (1995, p. 54) estimated the entire M. fascicularis population to have been
around 5 million in the 1980s. Fooden (2006, p. 5) later indirectly estimated the entire population to
have declined to about 3 million, by the early part of the current millennia. Although this was an indirect
estimate, it is based on measured estimates that Southwick and Siddiqi (1994) said were more likely to
overestimate the population than the converse. Consequently, they are likely erring on the cautious
side. If we accept them as is, historical figures indicate a 40% decline in the species over approximately a
20-year period, and within the last 40 years or three generations. Given removal and environmental
impacts have only increased, we have strong reason to suspect overall population decline has
continued, and that it is likely to increase to surpass 50% over the coming three generations. Some areas
with human provisioning experience high densities of long-tailed macaques, yet these are very small
areas, and often human influenced with many negative interactions between humans and macaques
leading to culling and capturing events. By contrast, in other areas there are reports of significant local
declines and even complete disappearances, such as Cambodia (Lee 2011), Lao PDR (pers. obs. Phaivanh
Phiapalath, 2021), and Bangladesh (pers. obs. Tanvir Ahmed, 2022). The actual population size in Lao
PDR is now down to 300–500 individuals for the entire country (CITES 2022). A decline of 90% if we go
by the mean published in 2011 by San and Hamada.
Furthermore, in an area that is regularly monitored in Cambodia, populations have declined by 50%
over the last ten years (Nuttal et al. 2021). In another area of Cambodia, the encounter rate of long-
tailed macaque detection by camera traps, also saw a reduction, and this from just 2013–2014 (Suzuki et
al. 2017).
Mean density reported by Fooden in 1995 was 55 ind/km² for non-provisioned long-tailed macaque
across habitats, except for primary and secondary forest, where densities were 1.3–9.8 times higher
with densities up to <400 ind/km². For provisioned groups, he mentioned the 1600 ind/km² observed by
Wheatley in Bali in 1989.
Mean densities today range from 0.833 ind/km² in Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary in Cambodia, which is a
decline of 50% in density since 2010 (Nuttall et al. 2021) to 41.4 ind/km2 in Baluran National Park, East
Java (Hansen et al. 2019) for non-provisioned groups to 520 ind/km2 in Pangandaran, West Java,
Indonesia, (pers. obs. Vincent Nijman, 2022) for provisioned groups. However, information is sparse. A
recent rapid survey of protected areas in Viet Nam revealed that the species is present in most national
parks, however, group sizes are low (10–40 ind) and groups few (pers. obs. Thu Huong Trinh, 2022).
The synanthropic nature of the species has resulted in a trend of overestimation of the population sizes
of the species (Kyes et al. 2011, Hansen et al. 2019). The fact that long-tailed macaques are visible in
anthropogenic landscapes makes them seem ubiquitous, even though they may only occur in a very
small area. Although the human-macaque interface has existed for millennia, habitat degradation forces
it to increase. In Malaysia alone, 493,823 individual long-tailed macaques were culled from 2011-2018,
because of reports deeming them conflict macaques (PERHILITAN 2018). Though there is some
uncertainty on the accuracy of these numbers, the constant culling is likely having an effect on the
population in the country, and possibly also on the demography and behaviour of the remaining groups.
Current Population Trend: Decreasing
Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)

The species is a generalist and opportunist and has adapted to living in a wide range of habitats,
including forests, coasts, hills, and mountains (Fooden 1995). They occur most commonly in mangroves
and swamp forests, particularly in riverine habitats; however, they are also commonly found in human-
altered habitats, which include temples, roadsides, agricultural areas, and rural/urban settlements
(Gumert 2011). It is possible that a significant portion of their population is synanthropic. They have
inhabited human environments for millennia. Consequently, anthropogenic ecologies are an important
aspect of their historical natural ecology (Gumert et al. 2011, Fuentes et al. 2005, Marty et al. 2020),
and should be considered as such when considering their habitat types.
Systems: Terrestrial
Use and Trade

The consumption of M. fascicularis occurs for both trade of specimens and subsistence food sources.
For example, M. fascicularis faces significant threats from subsistence hunting, such as in Myanmar (San
and Hamada 2011), which we should expect to be exacerbated by the current political instability there.
More threatening than hunting for food, is that long-tailed macaques are the most highly traded species
of primate and are heavily demanded for biomedical and toxicology research (Cowlishaw and Dunbar
2000, Eudey 2008, Foley and Shepherd 2011, Hansen et al. 2021, 2022). This demand has seriously
intensified over the Covid-19 pandemic (Hansen et al. 2022). For many years now, very large numbers of
long-tailed macaques have been exported from Indonesia, Philippines, Cambodia, and Viet Nam, among
others, which has been considered by trade monitors as “extremely unsustainable” (Foley and Shepherd
2011, Hansen et al. 2021, 2022). This puts a significant strain on M. fascicularis population levels, and
even more so given the current rises in trade. The trade issue is compounded by a deficiency in the
scrutiny by wildlife managers to ensure that such cropping from the wild population is managed
sustainably, or where not sustainable, that it is ceased. One significant problem arising around the M.
fascicularis trade is the capturing of wild caught macaques to bring into the so-called breeding facilities
found in the eastern nations of Southeast Asia – Cambodia, Laos and Viet Nam, (Lee 2011, Hamada et
al. 2011). These captured macaques are subsequently traded as captive born and bred, which masks the
true level of impact on the wild population (Foley and Shepherd 2011). These high levels of trade and
uncertainty on their population-level effects leaves M. fascicularis highly vulnerable to significant
declines in the near future. From 2010 to 2019, 450,000 live long-tailed macaques were traded legally
internationally. The illegal trade (trade without CITES export permits) and the trade within habitat-
countries is not included. A recent study on animal products entering the USA found that the illegal
trade adds an estimated 28% to legal imports (Tittensor et al. 2020), meaning that for every 100 animal
products imported legally another 28 are imported illegally, which could be the case for long-tailed
macaques too.
The international demand for long-tailed macaques is primarily coming from the USA, Japan, China and
the EU. While China banned all exports of wildlife at the onset of the pandemic (The Globe and Mail,
2020), and apparently had already stopped exporting monkeys by 2019 (Hansen et al. 2022), they did
not ban imports of wildlife and thereby continued to import long-tailed macaques (CITES Trade
Database 2022). The true number of long-tailed macaques traded during the pandemic is still not
apparent in the CITES Trade Database. However, it is clear that the export ban from China effectively
changed the patterns of the international trade in long-tailed macaques and further exerted pressure on
the species as habitat countries took over as suppliers (CITES Trade Database 2022, Hansen et al. 2021,
2022).
The species is also highly threatened by national trade for pets, entertainment, and now also abuse
videos (Hansen et al. 2021, SMACC 2021). The species used to be traded domestically in markets for
pets and entertainment, and while this is still the case, the trade now also occurs on social media, where
for example more than 4,700 individuals were offered for sale on Facebook in 2020 and 2021 in
Indonesia alone (unpublished results, anonymous source). As no breeding center claims to be selling
long-tailed macaques privately in Indonesia, we assume that all macaques offered for sale are wild-
caught.
A justification for both the international and national trade is the removal of so-called “problem
monkeys” from areas with a high degree of negative human-macaque interactions. This narrative,
framing long-tailed macaques as problems extends beyond governmental management initiatives and
into an illicit trade, where people justify treating individuals of the species in an abusive way. However,
this is only one of the justifications people will use to mistreat and extirpate the species, another one is
the large amount of money that can be made in the trade. The international trade in long-tailed
macaques is a multi-billion dollar industry (Hansen et al. 2022), and this has only increased during the
Covid-19 pandemic. The average price internationally has quadrupled from 2019 (Hansen et al. 2022) to
2022, which threatens its survival significantly.
Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

The changing landscape of Southeast Asia is affecting long-tailed macaques by reducing available
undisturbed habitat and increasing contact between M. fascicularis and humans (Gumert et al. 2011).
Deforestation and habitat fragmentation are rampant (Sodhi et al. 2004), and this has real impacts on
the kinds of habitats available to M. fascicularis. Environmental shifts are driving even more of the M.
fascicularis population into an extensive overlap with anthropogenic habitats (Gumert 2011).
Furthermore, the synanthropic nature of the M. fascicularis relationship with humans goads a
widespread persecution towards the species, leading to formal and informal population control
measures, such as out-right killing, culling and sterilization (Eudey 1994, Gumert 2004, Sha et al. 2009,
Feng 2015, PERHILITAN 2018, Boonkong and O’Connor 2019, Beech 2020).
A more insidious, but real, threat is the opinion of some public and wildlife authorities that M.
fascicularis is unimportant, a maligned pest, over-abundant, and should be removed. Such sentiment
has given rise to the illusory perception that long-tailed macaques are continuously distributed and
overabundant everywhere throughout their range, exonerating the unsustainable removal of large
numbers of individuals from the population. Take for example the large numbers removed in Malaysia,
>400,000 individuals from 2011 to 2018 (Alpert 2013, Perhilitan 2018), and the current removal
activities in the Philippines and Malaysia (GMA News 2022, The Star 2022). This practice has contributed
to known localised declines and extinctions, and will likely contribute to many more in the future. These
perceptions and attitudes held by many also underlie the notable lack of legal protection and malaise of
enforcement for any laws that do apply to protecting long-tailed macaques. Given these challenges,
without properly planned wildlife management programs, M. fascicularis will continue to experience
significant and substantial population declines into the near future.
In Viet Nam, keeping the species as a pet is very common, although it is protected by law. Confiscated
long-tailed macaques are often released without proper procedure, contributing to negative human-
macaque interactions and possible disease and parasite introduction in the release area (Aldrich and
Neale 2021). Currently, Indonesian, Philippine, and Vietnamese organisations report capture for pets
and research as the main threat. Cambodia reports it to be deforestation.
Hunting for subsistence is also a threat for the species, mostly documented by anecdotal reports, but in,
for example, the Eastern Plains of Cambodia, hunting is monitored and well documented (see, for
example, Ibbett et al. in review).
Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)

In general, there are only a few sustainable efforts to maintain long-tailed macaque populations in
Southeast Asia. Most work on the species involves persecution and removal. There is only one national-
level program run by governmental wildlife agencies for censusing long-tailed macaques, and that is in
Singapore (Sha et al. 2009, Riley et al. 2013). Even here, there can be improvement in methods,
ecological focus, and increased regularity of assessment. Establishing wildlife management programs for
long-tailed macaques is critical, and urgent efforts are needed to establish regular censusing of M.
fascicularis, as well as designing and implementing evidence-based management and protection plans
throughout Southeast Asia.
It also important to create coexistence programs for humans and long-tailed macaques, where local
people receive the help they need to coexist with the species.
In terms of protection already conferred to M. fascicularis, the species is included in Appendix II of

CITES, and thus is monitored and requires permits for international trade of live specimens and its parts.
In Cambodia and the Philippines, it is a normally protected species. In Myanmar, it has recently be
assessed to be vulnerable, but legally is still a normally protected species. It is a protected species on
Appendix 2B on Decree 84/2021/ND-CP in Viet Nam. It is not listed as a protected species in Indonesia
(MOEF 2018), but is subject to a national wild capture quota system. In Thailand it is not specifically
listed on the Wild Animal Preservation and Protection Act, B.E. 2535 (1992), but it is given the normal
protection of wildlife, which restricts hunting and capture in all protected areas and forest lands. In
Singapore, all wildlife is restricted from being captured, held as pets, or traded without permission,
according to the Wild Animals & Bird act. In Malaysia, it is protected according to the Wildlife
Conservation Act of 2010. In India, it is listed on Schedule I, Part I, Indian Wildlife (Protection Act) of
1972, and is considered an endangered species due to it limited range.
The long-tailed macaque is the most traded primate species, the most culled primate species, the most
persecuted primate species and when looking at numbers of threats and population decline, possibly
one of the most endangered primate species currently. To be able to conserve it, we must recognise the
ecological and cultural roles it play and change our narrative regarding the species. We must
acknowledge its place in our ecosystems and initiate conservation activities.
Credits
Assessor(s): Hansen, M.F., Ang, A., Trinh, T., Sy, E., Paramasiwam, S., Ahmed, T., Dimalibot,
J., Jones-Engel, L., Ruppert, N., Griffioen, C., Lwin, N., Phiapalath, P., Gray, R.,
Kite, S., Doak, N., Nijman, V., Fuentes, A. & Gumert, M.D.
Reviewer(s): Reuter, K.E.
Contributor(s): Eudey, A., Kumar, A., Singh, M. & Boonratana, R.
Authority/Authorities: IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group
Bibliography
Abeyasinghe, R. 2016. Plasmodium knowlesi current status and the request for review by an Evidence
Review Group Malaria Policy Advisory Committee Geneva, Switzerland.
Aldrich BC and Neale D. 2021. Pet macaques in Vietnam: an NGO’s perspective. Animals 11(60).
Alpert E. 2013. Alarm among activists after Malaysia kills nearly 100,000 monkeys. Los Angeles Times.
Beech, H. 2020. These Monkeys Were Once Revered. Now They Are Taking Over. The New York Times.
Bernstein, I. S. 1966. Naturally occurring primate hybrid. Science 154: 1559-1560.
Boonkong, C. and O’Connor, P. 2019. 20 monkeys poisoned in Rayong with more reports of monkey
attacks on visitors as populations increase. Available at: https://www.thaiexaminer.com/thai-news-
foreigners/2019/01/18/thailand-monkeys-human-beings-monkey-bites-thai-police-food-attacked-local-
man/.
Bunlungsup S., Imai H., Hamada Y., Gumert M.D., San A. and Malaivijitnond, S. 2015. Morphological
characteristics and genetic diversity of Burmese long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea).
American Journal of Primatology 78: 441-455.
Bunlungsup S, Imai H, Hamada Y, Gumert MD, San AM, Malaivijitnond S. 2016. Morphological
characteristics and genetic diversity of Burmese long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea). Am J
Primatol 78(4): 441-455.
CITES. 2022. CITES Trade Database. Available at: https://trade.cites.org/#.
CITES. 2022. Review of Significant Trade in specimens of Appendix-II species. IMPLEMENTATION OF

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE ANIMALS AND PLANTS COMMITTEE. Seventy-Fourth Meeting of the
Standing Committee. Lyon, France.
Cowlishaw, G. and Dunbar, R. 2000. Primate conservation biology. The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, IL, USA.
Eudey, A. 1994. Temple and pet primates in Thailand. Revue D'Ecologie (Terre et la Vie) 49: 273-280.
Eudey, A. 2008. The crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis) widespread and rapidly declining.
Primate Conservation 23: 129-132.
Feng, Z. 2015. To cull or not to cull pesky monkeys. The Straits Times.
Foley K-E. and Shepherd, C. R. 2011. Trade in long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). In: Gumert
MD, Fuentes A & Jones-Engel L (ed.), Monkeys on the edge: Ecology and management of long-tailed
macaques and their interface with humans, pp. 20-23. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Fooden, J. 1964. Rhesus and crab-eating macaques: intergradation in Thailand. Science 143(3604): 363-
365.
Fooden, J. 1995. Systematic review of Southeast Asia long-tail macaques, Macaca fascicularis Raffles
(1821). Fieldiana Zoology 64: 1-44.
Fooden, J. 2006. Comparative review of fascicularis-group species of macaques (Primates: Macaca).

Fieldiana: Zoology, n.s. 107: 1-43.
Froehlich, J., Schillaci, M., Jones-Engel, L., Froehlich, D., Pullen, B. 2003. A Sulawesi beachead by longtail
monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) on Kabaena Island, Indonesia. Anthropologie 41: 74-76.
Fuentes, A., Southern, M. and Suaryana, K. G. 2005. Monkey forests and human landscapes: is extensive
sympatry sustainable for Homo sapiens and Macaca fascicularis on Bali? In: Paterson, J. D. and Wallis, J.
(eds), Commensalism and Conflict: The Human–Primate Interface, pp. 168–195. American Society of
Primatology Publications, San Diego.
GMA News. 2022. Mga unggoy sa Banton, Romblon, nagiging perwisyo na raw sa tao dahil sa sobrang
dami. GMA News.
Groves C.P. 2001. Primate Taxonomy. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, USA.
Gumert M.D. 2004. Spirits or Demons? Tempo 52: 27.
Gumert, M.D. 2011. The common monkey of Southeast Asia: Long-tailed macaque populations,
ethnophoresy, and their occurrence in human environments. In: Gumert MD, Fuentes A & Jones-Engel L
(ed.), Monkeys on the edge: Ecology and management of long-tailed macaques and their interface with
humans, pp. 3–44. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Gumert, M. D., Fuentes, A. and Jones-Engel, L. 2011. Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of
Long-tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gumert, M.D., Fuentes, A., Engel, G., Jones-Engel, L. 2011. Future directions of research and
conservation of long-tailed macaque populations. In: Gumert MD, Fuentes A & Jones-Engel L (ed.),
Monkeys on the edge: Ecology and management of long-tailed macaques and their interface with
humans, pp. 328-353. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Gumert, M.D., Tan A.W.Y., Luncz L.V., Chua C., Kulik L., Switzer A., Haslam M., Iriki A. and Malaivijitnond S.
2019. Prevalence of tool behavior is associated with pelage phenotype in intraspecific hybrid long-tailed
macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea x M. f. fascicularis). Behaviour 156: 1083-1125.
Gumert, M.D., Tan A.W-Y., Malaivijitnond S. 2014. Current knowledge on the distribution of long-tailed
macaque stone tool use. XXVth Congress of the International Primatological Society. Hanoi, Vietnam.
Hamada, Y., Hiroyuki, H., Goto, S., Morimitsu, Y., Malaivijitnond, S., Pathonton, S., Pathonton, B.,
Kingsada, P., Vongsombath, C., Samouth, F., and Praxaysombath, B. 2011. Distribution and present status
of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Laos and their ecological relationship with rhesus
macaques (Macaca mulatta). In: Gumert MD, Fuentes A & Jones-Engel L (ed.), Monkeys on the edge:
Ecology and management of long-tailed macaques and their interface with humans, pp. 72-98.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Hansen MF, Gill M, Briefer EF, Nielsen DRK and Nijman V. 2022. Monetary Value of Live Trade in a
Commonly Traded Primate, the Long-Tailed Macaque, Based on Global Trade Statistics. Front. Conserv.
Sci. 3(839131).
Hansen, M. F., Gill, M., Nawangsari, V. A., Sanchez, K. L., Cheyne, S. M., Nijman, V. and Fuentes, A. 2021.
Conservation of long-tailed macaques: implications of the updated IUCN status and the CoVID-19
pandemic. Primate Conservation 35.
Hansen, M. F., Nawangsari, V. A., van Beest, F. M., Schmidt, N. M., Fuentes, A., Traeholt, C., Stelvig, M.
and Dabelsteen, T. 2019. Estimating densities and spatial distribution of a commensal primate species,
the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis). Conservation Science and Practice 1(9): e88.
Ibbett, H., Keane, A., Dobson, A. D. M., Griffin, O., Travers, H., Milner-Gulland, E. J. In review. Estimating
hunting prevalence and wild meat reliance in Cambodia’s Eastern Plains.
IUCN. 2022. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2022-1. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org.
(Accessed: 21 July 2022).
Kemp, N.J. & Burnett, J.B. 2007. A non-native primate (Macaca fascicularis) in Papua: implications for
biodiversity. The Ecology of Papua: Part II, pp. 1348-1364. Periplus Editions Ltd., Singapore.
Kyes, R. C., Iskandar, E. and Pamungkas, J. 2011. Preliminary survey of the long-tailed macaques (Macaca
fascicularis) on Java, Indonesia: distribution and human-primate conflict. In: Gumert, M. D., Fuentes, A.
and Jones-Engel, L. (eds), Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-tailed Macaques and
their Interface with Humans, pp. 65-68. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lee, B. P. Y. H. 2011. A possible decline in population of the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) in
northeastern Cambodia. In: Gumert, M. D., Fuentes, A. and Jones-Engel, L. (eds), Monkeys on the Edge:
Ecology and Management of Long-tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans, pp. 83-88.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. 1987. Conservation and status of the primates of the Indo-Chinese
subregion. Primate Conservation 8: 187-195.
MacKinnon, M. 1986. The conservation status of nonhuman primates in Indonesia. In: K. Benirschke
(ed.), Primates. The road to self-sustaining populations, New York and Berlin.
Marty, P.R., Balasubramaniam, K.N., Kaburu, S.S.K. et al. 2020. Individuals in urban dwelling primate
species face unequal benefits associated with living in an anthropogenic environment. Primates 61: 249-
255.
Menteri Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan Republik (MOEF) Indonesia. 2018. Peraturan Menteri
Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan Republik Indonesia nomor P.20/MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.1/6/2018
Tentang jenis tumbuhan dan satwa yang dilindungi dengan rahmat tuhan yang maha esa.
Napier, P. and Groves, C.P. 1983. Simia fascicularis Raffles, 1821 (Mammalia, Primates): request for the
suppression under the Plenary Powers of Simia aygula Linnaeus, 1758, a senior synonym Z.N.(S.) 2399.
Bulletin of Zoological Nomencature 40(2): 117-118.
Ngamkkam, W. 2021. Houses searched as macaque trafficking bound for cooking to Cambodia
investigation widens. Khmer Times.
Nuttall, M.N., Griffin, O., Fewster, R. M., McGowan, F. J. K., Abernethy, K., O'Kelly, H., Nut, M., Sot, V.,
Bunnefeld. 2021. Long-term monitoring of wildlife populations for protected area management in
Southeast Asia. Conservation Science and Practice 4(2): e614.
Pacifici, M., Santini, L., Di Marco, M., Baisero, D., Francucci, L., Grottolo Marasini, G., Visconti, P. and
Rondinini, C. 2013. Generation length for mammals. Nature Conservation 5: 87–94.
PERHILITAN. 2018. Laporon Ketahunan (Annual Report) 2018. Department of Wildlife and National Parks
Peninsular Malaysia. Available at:
https://www.wildlife.gov.my/images/document/penerbitan/laporantahunan/LT2018.pdf.
Poirier, F. E. & Smith, E. O. 1974. The crab-eating macaques (Macaca fascicularis) of Angaur Island, Palau,
Micronesia. Folia Primatologica 22: 258-306.
Raffles, S.T. 1821. Descriptive catalogue of a zoological collection made in the island of Sumatra and its
vicinity. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London 13: 247.
Riley, C.M., Srikantan, L.J., and Gumert, M.D. 2013. Results of a nationwide census of the long-tailed
macaque (Macaca fascicularis) population of Singapore. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 63: 503-515.
San, A.M. and Hamada, Y. 2011. Distribution and current status of long-tailed macaques (Macaca
fascicularis aurea) in Myanmar. In: M.D. Gumert, A. Fuentes and L. Jones-Engel (eds), Monkeys on the
edge. Ecology and management of long-tailed macaques and their interface with human, pp. 45-64.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Sha JCM, Gumert MD, Lee BPY-H, Fuentes A, Rajathurai S, Chan S & Jones-Engel L. 2009. Status of the
long-tailed macaque Macaca fascicularis in Singapore and implications for management. Biodiversity
and Conservation 18: 2909-2926.
SMACC. 2021. Available at: https://www.asiaforanimals.com/smacc-report. (Accessed: 04 March 2022).
Smith, D. G., Ng, J., George, D., Trask, J. S., Houghton, P., Singh, B., Villano, J. and Kanthaswamy, S. 2014.
A genetic comparison of two alleged subspecies of Philippine cynomolgus macaques. American Journal
of Physical Anthropology 155: 136-148.
Sodhi, N.S., Koh, L.P., Brook, B.W. and Ng, P.K.L. 2004. Southeast Asian biodiversity: an impending
disaster. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19(12): 654-660.
Southwick, C. H. & Siddiqi, M. F. 1994. Population status of nonhuman primates in Asia, with emphasis
on rhesus macaques in India. American Journal of Primatology 34: 51-59.
Southwick, C. H. & Southwick, K. L. 1983. Polyspecific groups of macaques on the Kowloon Peninsula,
New Territories, Hong Kong. American Journal of Primatology 5: 17-24.
Suzuki, A., Thong, S., Tan, S. and Iwata, A. 2017. Camera trapping of large mammals in Chhep Wildlife
Sanctuary, northern Cambodia. Cambodian Journal of Natural History 1: 63-75.
The Globe and Mail. 2020. Chinese wildlife ban freezes export of test monkeys amid worldwide push for
COVID-19 vaccine. The Globe and Mail. Available at: https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-
chinese-wildlife-ban-freezes-export-of-test-monkeys-amid-worldwide/
The Star. 2022. Perhilitan culled over 14,000 monkeys, 1,000 wild boars last year, says Perak govt. The
Star. Avaiable at: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2022/03/30/perhilitan-culled-over-14000-
monkeys-1000-wild-boars-last-year-says-perak-govt
Tittensor, D.P., Harfoot, M., McLardy, C., Britten, G.L., Kecse-Nagy, K., Landry, B., Outhwaite, W., Price, B.,
Sinovas, P., Blanc, J., Burgess, N.D. and Malsch, K. 2020. Evaluating the relationships between the legal
and illegalinternational wildlife trades. Conservation Letters: 13:e12724. DOI: 10.1111/conl.12724.
Umapathy, G., Singh, M. and Mohnot, S. M. 2003. Status and distribution of Macaca fascicularis
umbrosa in the Nicobar Islands, India. International Journal of Primatology 24(2): 281-293.
Weisman A. 2007. The world without us. Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin’s Press, NY.
Yanuar, A., Bekti, D. and Saleh, C. 1993. The status of the Karimata primates Presbytis rubicunda
carimatae and Macaca fascicularis carimatensis in Karimata Island, Indonesia. Tropical Biodiversity 1(3):
157-162.
Citation
Hansen, M.F., Ang, A., Trinh, T., Sy, E., Paramasiwam, S., Ahmed, T., Dimalibot, J., Jones-Engel, L.,
Ruppert, N., Griffioen, C., Lwin, N., Phiapalath, P., Gray, R., Kite, S., Doak, N., Nijman, V., Fuentes, A. &
Gumert, M.D. 2022. Macaca fascicularis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022:
e.T12551A199563077. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T12551A199563077.en
Disclaimer
To make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.
External Resources
For Supplementary Material, and for Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the
Red List website.
Appendix
Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Major
Habitat Season Suitability
Importance?
1. Forest -> 1.5. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Dry - Suitable Yes
1. Forest -> 1.6. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland - Suitable Yes
1. Forest -> 1.7. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Mangrove Vegetation Above - Suitable Yes
High Tide Level
1. Forest -> 1.8. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Swamp - Suitable Yes
1. Forest -> 1.9. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane - Suitable Yes
2. Savanna -> 2.1. Savanna - Dry - Marginal -
2. Savanna -> 2.2. Savanna - Moist - Marginal -
3. Shrubland -> 3.5. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry - Marginal -
3. Shrubland -> 3.6. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Moist - Marginal -
3. Shrubland -> 3.7. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical High Altitude - Marginal -
4. Grassland -> 4.5. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry - Marginal -
4. Grassland -> 4.6. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Seasonally - Marginal -

Wet/Flooded
4. Grassland -> 4.7. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical High Altitude - Marginal -
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.1. Wetlands (inland) - Permanent - Suitable Yes

Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls)
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.2. Wetlands (inland) - - Marginal -

Seasonal/Intermittent/Irregular Rivers/Streams/Creeks
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.3. Wetlands (inland) - Shrub Dominated Wetlands - Marginal -
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.4. Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, - Suitable Yes
Fens, Peatlands
5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.9. Wetlands (inland) - Freshwater Springs and - Marginal -
Oases
7. Caves and Subterranean Habitats (non-aquatic) -> 7.1. Caves and - Marginal -
Subterranean Habitats (non-aquatic) - Caves
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.1. Marine Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline - Marginal -
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.2. Marine Intertidal - Sandy Shoreline and/or - Marginal -
Beaches, Sand Bars, Spits, Etc
Major
Habitat Season Suitability
Importance?
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.3. Marine Intertidal - Shingle and/or Pebble - Marginal -
Shoreline and/or Beaches
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.4. Marine Intertidal - Mud Flats and Salt Flats - Marginal -
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.7. Marine Intertidal - Mangrove Submerged - Suitable Yes
Roots
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.1. Artificial/Terrestrial - Arable Land - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.2. Artificial/Terrestrial - Pastureland - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.3. Artificial/Terrestrial - Plantations - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.4. Artificial/Terrestrial - Rural Gardens - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.5. Artificial/Terrestrial - Urban Areas - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.6. Artificial/Terrestrial - Subtropical/Tropical - Marginal -

Heavily Degraded Former Forest
Use and Trade

End Use Local National International
1. Food - human Yes No No
13. Pets/display animals, horticulture No Yes Yes
14. Research No Yes Yes
15. Sport hunting/specimen collecting No Yes No
16. Establishing ex-situ production * No Yes Yes
Threats
Threat Timing Scope Severity Impact Score
1. Residential & commercial development -> 1.1. Ongoing Majority (50- Slow, significant Medium
Housing & urban areas 90%) declines impact: 6
1. Residential & commercial development -> 1.2. Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
Commercial & industrial areas declines
1. Residential & commercial development -> 1.3. Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
Tourism & recreation areas declines
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual & Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.1. Shifting declines
agriculture
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.2. Small-holder declines
farming
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.3. Agro-industry declines
farming
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.2. Wood & pulp Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
plantations -> 2.2.1. Small-holder plantations declines
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.2. Wood & pulp Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
plantations -> 2.2.2. Agro-industry plantations declines
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.3. Livestock farming Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
& ranching -> 2.3.1. Nomadic grazing declines
& ranching -> 2.3.2. Small-holder grazing, ranching or declines
farming
& ranching -> 2.3.3. Agro-industry grazing, ranching declines
or farming
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.4. Marine & Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
freshwater aquaculture -> 2.4.1. declines
Subsistence/artisinal aquaculture
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.4. Marine & Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
freshwater aquaculture -> 2.4.2. Industrial declines
aquaculture
3. Energy production & mining -> 3.3. Renewable Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
energy declines
4. Transportation & service corridors -> 4.1. Roads & Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
railroads declines
5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trapping Ongoing Whole (>90%) Rapid declines High impact: 8
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.1. Intentional use (species is
the target)
Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trapping Ongoing Whole (>90%) Rapid declines High impact: 8
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.3. Persecution/control
6. Human intrusions & disturbance -> 6.1. Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
Recreational activities declines
10. Geological events -> 10.2. Earthquakes/tsunamis Ongoing Minority (50%) Causing/could Low impact: 5
cause fluctuations
11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.1. Habitat Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
shifting & alteration declines
11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.5. Other Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
impacts declines
Conservation Actions in Place
Conservation Action in Place

In-place research and monitoring
Action Recovery Plan: No
Systematic monitoring scheme: No
In-place land/water protection
Conservation sites identified: Yes, over entire range
Area based regional management plan: No
Occurs in at least one protected area: Yes
Invasive species control or prevention: Yes
In-place species management
Harvest management plan: Yes
Successfully reintroduced or introduced benignly: Yes
Subject to ex-situ conservation: No
In-place education
Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: No
Included in international legislation: Yes
Subject to any international management / trade controls: Yes
Conservation Actions Needed

Conservation Action Needed

1. Land/water protection -> 1.1. Site/area protection
1. Land/water protection -> 1.2. Resource & habitat protection
2. Land/water management -> 2.1. Site/area management
3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.1. Harvest management
3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.2. Trade management
3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.3. Limiting population growth
4. Education & awareness -> 4.1. Formal education
4. Education & awareness -> 4.2. Training
4. Education & awareness -> 4.3. Awareness & communications
Conservation Action Needed
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.1. International level
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.2. National level
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.3. Sub-national level
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.4. Scale unspecified
6. Livelihood, economic & other incentives -> 6.1. Linked enterprises & livelihood alternatives
6. Livelihood, economic & other incentives -> 6.2. Substitution
6. Livelihood, economic & other incentives -> 6.3. Market forces
Research Needed
Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.1. Taxonomy
1. Research -> 1.2. Population size, distribution & trends
1. Research -> 1.3. Life history & ecology
1. Research -> 1.4. Harvest, use & livelihoods
1. Research -> 1.5. Threats
1. Research -> 1.6. Actions
2. Conservation Planning -> 2.2. Area-based Management Plan
2. Conservation Planning -> 2.3. Harvest & Trade Management Plan
3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends
3. Monitoring -> 3.2. Harvest level trends
3. Monitoring -> 3.3. Trade trends
3. Monitoring -> 3.4. Habitat trends
Additional Data Fields

Distribution
Lower elevation limit (m): 0
Upper elevation limit (m): 2,250
Population
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes
Extreme fluctuations: Yes
Population
Population severely fragmented: Yes
Continuing decline in subpopulations: Yes
All individuals in one subpopulation: No
Habitats and Ecology

Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Yes
Generation Length (years): 13.9
Movement patterns: Not a Migrant
The IUCN Red List Partnership
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species
Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.
The IUCN Red List Partners are: ABQ BioPark; Arizona State University; BirdLife International; Botanic
Gardens Conservation International; Conservation International; Missouri Botanical Garden;
NatureServe; Re:wild; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of Rome; Texas A&M University;
and Zoological Society of London.
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

10.2305 IUCN - UK.2022-1.RLTS.T12551A199563077.en

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

10.2305 IUCN - UK.2022-1.RLTS.T12551A199563077.en

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

10.2305 IUCN - UK.2022-1.RLTS.T12551A199563077.en

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™

ISSN 2307-8235 (online)

Macaca fascicularis, Long-tailed Macaque

THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Cercopithecidae

Scientific Name: Macaca fascicularis (Raffles, 1821)

Infra-specific Taxa Assessed:

Year Published: 2022

Date Assessed: March 7, 2022

The collective mismeasurement of the vulnerability of M. fascicularis to population decline must be

Previously Published Red List Assessments

2020 – Vulnerable (VU)

2008 – Least Concern (LC)

2000 – Lower Risk/near threatened (LR/NT)

1996 – Lower Risk/near threatened (LR/NT)

Native, Extinct: Bangladesh

Native, Presence Uncertain: Lao People's Democratic Republic

Extant & Introduced (resident): Mauritius; Palau; Papua New Guinea

Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)

Use and Trade

Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)

In terms of protection already conferred to M. fascicularis, the species is included in Appendix II of

Reviewer(s): Reuter, K.E.

Contributor(s): Eudey, A., Kumar, A., Singh, M. & Boonratana, R.

Authority/Authorities: IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group

Bernstein, I. S. 1966. Naturally occurring primate hybrid. Science 154: 1559-1560.

CITES. 2022. CITES Trade Database. Available at: https://trade.cites.org/#.

CITES. 2022. Review of Significant Trade in specimens of Appendix-II species. IMPLEMENTATION OF

Fooden, J. 2006. Comparative review of fascicularis-group species of macaques (Primates: Macaca).

Gumert M.D. 2004. Spirits or Demons? Tempo 52: 27.

SMACC. 2021. Available at: https://www.asiaforanimals.com/smacc-report. (Accessed: 04 March 2022).

1. Forest -> 1.5. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Dry - Suitable Yes

1. Forest -> 1.6. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland - Suitable Yes

1. Forest -> 1.8. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Swamp - Suitable Yes

1. Forest -> 1.9. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane - Suitable Yes

2. Savanna -> 2.1. Savanna - Dry - Marginal -

2. Savanna -> 2.2. Savanna - Moist - Marginal -

3. Shrubland -> 3.5. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry - Marginal -

3. Shrubland -> 3.6. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Moist - Marginal -

3. Shrubland -> 3.7. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical High Altitude - Marginal -

4. Grassland -> 4.5. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry - Marginal -

4. Grassland -> 4.6. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Seasonally - Marginal -

4. Grassland -> 4.7. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical High Altitude - Marginal -

5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.1. Wetlands (inland) - Permanent - Suitable Yes

5. Wetlands (inland) -> 5.2. Wetlands (inland) - - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.1. Artificial/Terrestrial - Arable Land - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.2. Artificial/Terrestrial - Pastureland - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.3. Artificial/Terrestrial - Plantations - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.4. Artificial/Terrestrial - Rural Gardens - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.5. Artificial/Terrestrial - Urban Areas - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.6. Artificial/Terrestrial - Subtropical/Tropical - Marginal -

Use and Trade

End Use Local National International

1. Food - human Yes No No

13. Pets/display animals, horticulture No Yes Yes

14. Research No Yes Yes

15. Sport hunting/specimen collecting No Yes No

16. Establishing ex-situ production * No Yes Yes